applied

sciences
Article
Chromaticity Analysis on Ethnic Minority Color Landscape
Culture in Tibetan Area: A Semantic Differential Approach
Liyun Zeng 1, * , Rita Yi Man Li 2 and Rongjia Li 1

1 Civil and Architectural Engineering Institute, Panzhihua University, Panzhihua 617000, China
2 Sustainable Real Estate Research Center, Hong Kong Shue Yan University, Hong Kong 999077, China;
ymli@hksyu.edu
* Correspondence: nonsar@foxmail.com; Tel.: +86-15600912550

Abstract: The color–area ratio in ethnic minority areas is one way to perceive cultural elements
visually. The openness of spaces, sense of rhythm, and richness of color affect people’s emotions
and induce different psychological perceptions. Despite many ethnic minority areas being more
colorful than the main traits of Han, there is no systematic quantitative study for the color elements
in ethnic minority areas’ landscapes, not to mention the research on the color–area ratio, main and
auxiliary colors and embellishments, and layouts. Therefore, this paper studies the color–area ratio of
Xiangcheng County in the Tibetan area of Ganzi Prefecture in Sichuan Province. Colors are extracted
and quantitatively analyzed from six different aspects using the semantic differential (SD) method
and color quantitative analysis method. In this way, low-scored (B group) and high-scored (A group)
color landscape samples were extracted from the landscape image library and quantitatively analyzed
by ColorImpact V4.1.2. The results show that the ethnic minority group’s color layout is characterized
by richer colors and stronger contrasts than the Han group. This paper contributes to academic
scholarship regarding color culture in ethnic minority areas. It also provides theoretical support for
preserving ethnic minority groups’ cultural heritage and practical insights into color planning for
urban and landscape designs.

Keywords: semantic differential; color quantification; colorimetry; chromaticity; color–area ratio;

public aesthetics; Tibetan areas
Citation: Zeng, L.; Li, R.Y.M.; Li, R.
Chromaticity Analysis on Ethnic
Minority Color Landscape Culture in
Tibetan Area: A Semantic Differential
1. Introduction
Approach. Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 4672.
1.1. The Cultural and Environmental Context of Colorscape
https://doi.org/10.3390/app14114672
Color is a significant component of urban landscapes. It contains vital information
Academic Editors: Giuliana Ramella
of their history, culture, and perception of aesthetics [1]. It plays an essential role in
and Isabella Torcicollo
visual landscapes and affects the emotional perceptions of the nation’s landscapes [2].
Received: 27 April 2024 National culture and social background influence people’s psychology, aesthetics, and
Revised: 16 May 2024 colour characteristics [3,4]. Satio (1996) suggested that cultural, regional, and environmental
Accepted: 17 May 2024 aspects might influence color preference and formation [5]. Thus, various color landscapes
Published: 29 May 2024 are observed in different ethnic regions with different political systems, cultures, and
customs [6]. The characteristics of a color landscape are also affected by the living or/and
the natural environment, which influences people’s aesthetic concepts in many ways, such
as in local folk customs, and living habits [4].
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. 1.2. The Dilemma of the Color Landscape Development
This article is an open access article
Today, urban color landscape design has become essential to differentiate or symbolize
distributed under the terms and
a city’s characteristics or atmosphere [7]. With the rapid development of urbanization
conditions of the Creative Commons
and large-scale urban construction activities, urban color landscapes face a series of prob-
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
lems [8]. First, the traditional color landscape in some cities has been strongly impacted by
4.0/).
natural geographic situation, climate, local building materials, ethnic culture and religious

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 4672. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14114672 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 4672 2 of 25

consciousness, social and economic development, and other humanistic environmental

factors [9]. Second, the problem of color pollution is prominent in cityscapes, adversely
affecting people physically and psychologically, through the use of, for example, bright,
solid-color buildings, billboards and lighting clusters [10]. Karim, Paymane, and Alireza
(2020) suggested a unifying cityscape in Tehran. Third, colors are similar between cities
and the cultural identity of many places is lost [10]. Many modern buildings have similar
colors [11], diluting a local culture’s characteristics.

1.3. Color Landscape of Ethnic Minority Area in China

Since the 20th century, China’s landscape design grounded in its local traditions, cul-
ture, and geographic conditions [12]. Traditional ethnic minority landscapes are the carriers
of the ancient civilization’s artistic style, technological level, and historical information in
China in different ethnic minority regions, due to three natural elements (i.e., geography,
environment and climate) and three artificial elements (i.e., economy, social culture and
customs) ethnic minority’s landscapes have distinguished color aesthetic concepts [13]. For
China’s ethnic minority areas, the color types are richer than other Han regions and have
rich cultural and regional connotations. The special color–area ratio in Tibetan areas is
reflected in costumes, architecture, and environments, expressing certain local conventions
and cultural characteristics. Therefore, the Tibetan color–area ratio is a vital factor in the
external space [14] and an important part of the characteristic landscape.

1.4. Research Purpose, Questions, Value, Innovation and Structure

1.4.1. Research Purpose
To preserve the culture and regional characteristics, these color landscapes need to
be analyzed in ethnic minority areas in China. The study researches the landscape of
Xiangcheng County in Tibetan areas and discusses the technical strategies of color planning
in ethnic minority areas. The sample selection, aesthetic evaluation, color quantification
processing, and landscape factor inspection are explored from different landscape views
using the Semantic Differential (SD) method and color quantitative analysis method. SD
allows non-specialists to evaluate the aesthetics of landscape [15]. Then it conducts the
quantitative analysis of the colors of the selected excellent and poor samples to obtain
the main and auxiliary colors, embellish color layout, and offer suggestions for the color
landscape design.

1.4.2. Research Questions

RQ1. What are the colour layout about ethnic minority color-area ratio features groups of the built
environment in the Tibetan area?
RQ2. What is the relative importance of color richness, brightness, attraction, sense of rhythm, and
spatial openness in the perception of color landscape aesthetics?

1.4.3. Theoretical and Practical Value

This study integrates theories from landscape design, psychology, cultural studies,
and more, offering a new perspective for interdisciplinary research. Employing a method-
ological approach to studying the color landscapes of minority areas, it provides theoretical
support for preserving and transmitting cultural heritage. A systematic color–area ra-
tio quantification model was constructed in this research. Through the model, objective
color perception can offer useful information for urban design. The color environment
shares historical and cultural information and showcases the city’s cultural and artistic
characteristics [16]. The research outcomes can be directly applied to urban culture and
art research.
The practical significance of the article is that it provides a theoretical to quantify color
in a way that translates the laymen’s perceptual color understanding into an actionable,
data-driven color landscape plan. It provides landscape designers and architects with
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 4672 3 of 25

the idea of new color–area ratio designs in the Tibetan region. As conservation of these
uniquely colored landscapes has the potential to attract more tourists, the results of this
research may be used to boost the region’s tourism and subsequent economic development.
Furthermore, it can increase public awareness of environmental stewardship by protecting
and highlighting the importance of ethnic minority groups’ special landscape colors.
By integrating theoretical with practical concerns, this research demonstrates rigor and
cutting-edge qualities in the academic field, as well as importance in practical applications.
Its outcomes not only offer useful insights to designers and planners but also provide a
significant theoretical and practical foundation for the protection of minority landscape
cultural heritage. Moreover, by involving public participation and quantifying emotional
cognition, this study pioneers a new direction in landscape design, creating new possibilities
for the display of urban culture and art, as well as for creating a healthy color environment
conducive to mental and physical well-being.

1.4.4. Innovation
The study focuses on the color landscapes of China’s minority regions, a relatively
rare focus in the field of landscape research. The innovative research method that combines
traditional color quantitative analysis methods with the semantic differential technique
provides a novel methodological approach to color landscape research. Moreover, this
research not only focuses on the quantitative analysis of color but also values qualitative
human perceptions and emotional responses, making the study more comprehensive.

1.4.5. Research Structure

The rest of this paper is structured as follows: Section 2 presents the conceptual back-
ground of color landscape; Section 3 describes the research areas and methods; Section 4
presents data collection and analysis, as well as color–area ratio factor analysis; Section 5
shows the quantitative process of color–area ratio; Section 6 is the discussion; Section 7 is
the conclusion; Section 8 presents future research directions.

2. Literature Review
2.1. Color Landscape
2.1.1. Definition of Color Landscape
Color landscape synthesizes artificial decoration, such as buildings, roads, squares,
and pavements, and natural colors like mountains, forests, plants, sky, and rivers [17–19].
The composition of a color landscape mainly includes distant and near views [6]. The color
landscape affects people’s emotions. Coupled with unique locality and nationality, the
color landscape is an important part of the local landscape [20]. Color design is the focus of
modern landscape design, and color can impact people’s vision and psychology [16,21].
Some researchers pointed out that the regional and personalized urban landscape can be
expressed through controlled color planning and design in the surroundings [22]. The
color number, ratio, and layout differences can form varied color–area ratios and convey
different emotional tones [14,15]. Human beings obtain 80% of their information through
vision, while color is the most sensitive and direct visual information symbol, affecting
people’s psychological perceptions [23]. Existing studies rarely quantify landscape colors
through image analysis [24]. Wang and Hu (2014) analyzed the components of community
landscape colors, the specialty of design, factors influencing community landscape color,
and the application of color in residential community landscape design [25]. Lengen (2015)
studied the effect of colors, shapes, and boundaries of landscapes on perceptions, emotions
based on space and place, and connected light aspects such as color hue, saturation, and
brightness, all of which play an essential role in the perception of therapeutic landscape [6].
Cuixia (2018) analyzed the main contents and principles of color design in the landscape,
providing a reference for landscape architecture designers [16].
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 4672 4 of 25

2.1.2. Elements of Color Landscape

(1) Hue (H), Saturation (S) and Brightness (B)
Using color quantitative index HSB data analysis of hue, saturation, and brightness for
analyzing landscape color environment has special research significance [4]. It is believed
that hue, brightness, saturation of color, and color–area ratio of constituent color can
influence color harmony and users’ perception of color design [14]. (1) Hue (H) is used to
distinguish different types of colors and determine the characteristics of a color landscape,
and is the most easily captured by people’s vision; (2) Saturation (S) is the freshness of the
color perception, reflecting the vividness of the city’s colors in the external space, and the
purity of a city’s color can fully demonstrate ambiguity and express emotion; (3) Brightness
(B) refers to the perceived degree of lightness and darkness of colors, and is key objective
in urban color visual design [4,26]. This article uses the HBS as an essential factor to extract
color information from photographs for the next step, analysis.
(2) Color–area ratio and layout
This study adopts the color–area ratio, a color design element in product color de-
sign [14], to study landscape color. The color ratio refers to the proportional relationship
between each part’s length and area in the color combination design [14]. It is produced
with the changes in form, position, and space, and plays a decisive role in the overall style
and beauty of the color design scheme [27]. Due to the different color ratios, it is possible
to create diverse landscape appearances despite using the same color. The proportion
of the area occupied by the color greatly influences the effect of color layout in the land-
scape. Man and Wei (2019) pointed out that a color layout form should match the users’
emotions for product design [15]. All in all, color layout is the spatial arrangement and
distribution of colors within a composition, focusing on how colors are positioned relative
to each other to achieve visual balance and harmony. In contrast, color ratio pertains to
the quantitative relationship between different colors in a composition, emphasizing the
proportion of one color to another to create desired visual effects or to convey specific
emotions and meanings.
(3) Main color, auxiliary color, and decorative color
The three constituent colors are main color, auxiliary color, and decorative color,
occupying about 70%, 25%, and 5% of the surface area of the product, respectively, which
is widely adopted in the color design of color–area ratios [14]. The dominant color features
determine landscapes’ presentation and visual experience [24]. Urban tones are the overall
effect constructed by the three colors and their combined relationships [28], as follows:
(1) the primary color is a color that best reflects its cultural and landscape characteristics,
which accounts for more than 70% of the ratio, and it has a certain degree of stability and
sense of inheritance; (2) the colors that account for more than 20% and less than 70% can
be summarized as the city’s auxiliary colors, which play a role in color transition and
coordination, and are determined by the color co-frequency rule in color design; and (3) the
colors that account for less than 5% can be summarized as urban decorative tones, playing
a role in highlighting themes.

2.1.3. Psychological Perception Elements of Color Landscape

Jonauskaite, Tremea and et al. (2020) made full use of the emotional characteristics of
color for color therapy and human psychology, and rationally arranging the surrounding
environment, which can effectively improve the impact of drug treatments [29]. In today’s
era of economic globalization, Man and Wei (2019) believed that when similar products’
functions, structure, and production technology have no significant gap, their design and
aesthetics must rely on the differentiation of form and color to differentiate them in the
market [15]. If a research product wants to gain a foothold in the international market, it is
necessary to understand the national culture of the country that the product is sold in and
 era of economic globalization, Man and Wei (2019) believed that when similar products’
functions, structure, and production technology have no significant gap, their design and
aesthetics must rely on the differentiation of form and color to differentiate them in the
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 4672 market [15]. If a research product wants to gain a foothold in the international market, it
5 of 25
is necessary to understand the national culture of the country that the product is sold in
and master its color psychology [30]. Color can express emotions intuitively, conveniently,
and canits
master directly affect people’s
color psychology [30].psychology and emotions.
Color can express emotions intuitively, conveniently, and
In addition
can directly affecttopeople’s
the importance
psychology of color to the urban landscape, color recognition is
and emotions.
also critical. Frank
In addition Mahnke,
to the importanceChairman of the
of color International
to the Association
urban landscape, of Color Consult-
color recognition is also
ants, pointed out that seeing colors is not a simple visual process
critical. Frank Mahnke, Chairman of the International Association of Color Consultants, but a complex experience
process [31].
pointed It canseeing
out that be expressed
colors is asnot
a physiological
a simple visual reaction, subconsciousness,
process but a complex association,
experience
cultural[31].
process influence,
It can befashion
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as a physiological reaction,(Figure 1). From theassociation,
subconsciousness, bottom to
the top of Figure 1, is the order in which color directly affects emotions
cultural influence, fashion influence, and self-experience (Figure 1). From the bottom and physical states
(a physiological reaction); subtly affects psychology (subconsciousness);
to the top of Figure 1, is the order in which color directly affects emotions and physical triggers specific
things (a
states orphysiological
emotional associations
reaction); (association).
subtly affectsDifferent
psychology cultures have different interpre-
(subconsciousness); triggers
tations of colors (cultural influence). These are affected
specific things or emotional associations (association). Different cultures by fashion trends have
(fashion influ-
different
ence), and reflect
interpretations personal
of colors preferences,
(cultural personality
influence). These are and identity
affected by (self-experience).
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the elementary
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color Regarding
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from physiology symbolizes
to psychology viapurity and sanctity
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is com-
Regarding the colors: (1) white often symbolizes purity and sanctity and is commonly offer
monly seen in religious buildings and ceremonies. Studying the use of white can seen
deeper
in insights
religious into Tibetan
buildings religious beliefs
and ceremonies. Studying and thecultural values;can
use of white (2)offer
Red deeper
brown,insights
a color
frequently
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associated andtheartistic
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Studying the
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Studying structures.
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environment throughtheir relationship
color, etc. [15,30].with the natural environment
through color, etc. [15,30].

Figure 1. The process of color experience.

2.1.4. Color Quantitative Analysis Method

The color landscape can be categorized in cities and blocks, down to the building
materials’ details, and there is rich color information. The recording and research of this
color information generally fall into qualitative and quantitative categories. Lengen (2015)
studied the effect of colors, shapes and boundaries of landscapes on emotion perception by
in-depth qualitative interviews [6]. The progressive development of contemporary digital
technology in software and hardware has assisted landscape research in transforming from
qualitative descriptions of color to quantitative instrumental data [4]. Tan (2021) proposed
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 4672 6 of 25

an automatic extraction method for color features from landscape images based on image
processing through experiments [24]. Shen, Yao and Li (2021) quantitatively evaluated the
color harmony and suitability degree of the plant community and external environment
according to the Moon–Spencer (M-S) color harmony theory [2]. Cheng and Tan (2018) used
the quantitative analysis of the color of the Ming Dynasty City Wall in Nanjing as a case
study [4]. The study of Zhu, Zhang, Lan and et al. (2020) used Xunpu Village in southern
Fujian as an example with which to conduct a quantitative analysis of color features and
a qualitative evaluation of public perception [20]. Zhang, Chen et al. (2020) assessed the
aesthetic quality of autumn landscape forest using scenic beauty estimation and analyzed
the effects of color characteristics on ornamental value of autumn landscape forests based on
color composition and color spatial pattern according to human visual characteristics [32].
There are many methods to describe color quantitatively and qualitatively, such as the hue,
value, and chroma (HVC) model of the Munsell color system; the red, green and blue (RGB)
model of the ratio of the 3-element color light; the hue, saturation, brightness (HSB) model
using human eyes as the detector; the cyan, magenta, yellow, key (CMYK) model based
on the mixture ratio of inks; and the Commission Internationale de l’Éclairage (CIE) color
system described by pure mathematical models, etc., [4].
How to reasonably quantify and create rich color landscapes to achieve the best visual
perception of the color landscape at different visual scales to meet the aesthetic needs of the
public better based on culture and regional context has become a challenging issue of the
landscape color design and application in ethnic minority areas. There are no studies on
color landscape/color–area ratios in an ethnic minority in China. Therefore, the aim of this
paper was analyze HSB, color area ratio, primary and secondary colors, and embellishment
color landscape modes in ethnic minority areas. The study focuses on the color landscapes
of minority regions in China, particularly the landscapes of Xiangcheng County in the
Tibetan region.

2.2. SD Method
Semantic differential (SD) analysis was used to evaluate the characteristics of land-
scape aesthetics [33]. The SD, also known as the feeling record method, was proposed to
measure psychological feelings in psychophysics [34]. The SD method uses the subject’s
psychological perception of language scale as the basis for evaluation and constructs quan-
titative data through the subject’s psychological and physical perception factors [35]. In
the SD method, it is necessary to design an evaluation that can objectively describe things
and expand pairs of adjectives and antonyms. Some researchers studied color design by
obtaining the user’s color image perception based on semantic difference (SD) analysis [15].
The evaluation of landscape aesthetic quality is a crucial step in managing color land-
scapes [32]. In China, color is essential to distinguished ethnic minority landscapes, such as
the Tibetan area of Ganzi Prefecture in Sichuan Province. Utilizing the semantic differential
(SD) method, this study incorporates public aesthetic judgment into academic research,
offering a new democratic path in landscape studies. Based on the color composition, color
space pattern, and the SD method, it assessed the aesthetic quality. It analyzed the impact
of color on the landscape values of ethnic minority areas.
The article uses the SD method to analyze the characteristics of landscape aesthetics in
public spaces. It then extracts the high-quality and low-quality samples to be quantified by
HSB, color ratio, and color layouts. The results of the high-quality groups can be used as
typical samples for color landscape.

3. Research Area and Methods

3.1. Research Location
Xiangcheng County is in the Ganzi Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture in the West of
Sichuan Province. It is located on the southwestern edge of the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau, in
the north-central section of the Hengduan Mountains, spanning the 99◦ 22′ ~100◦ 04′ east
longitude and 28◦ 34′ ~29◦ 39′ north latitude. It borders Daocheng to the east, Litang to the
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 4672 7 of 25

north, Batang and Derong counties to the west, and Shangri-La City, Yunnan to the south.
The name is derived from the local terrain. The Chinese translation of the Tibetan word
“Kashen” means the ‘Buddhist beads in hand’. Xiangcheng County has a history of more
than 2100 years. It is a national historical and cultural city and a famous tourist city. It is
rich in historical and cultural relics. The magnificent mountain scenery and the Liujiang
River form the most colorful urban landscape in Xiangcheng County [36].

3.2. Color Culture of the Study Areas

According to the people’s government of Xiangcheng (http://www.xcx.gov.cn, ac-
cessed on 5 May 2023), the local cultural context is related to the colors in Xiangcheng. The
“Three Wonders in Xiangcheng County” are the Fengzhuang, Baizangfang and Sangpiling
Temples. First, Fengzhuang is a traditional dress worn by Xiangcheng Tibetan women. The
rich color is its main feature, showing the unique ethnic culture of Xiangcheng, with colors
such as red, yellow, green, black, and gold on the left and right breasts, representing the
good life, land, prophets, livestock, and wealth. Second, as one of the significant architec-
tural landscapes, the Baizangfang is the most popular type of architecture in Xiangcheng.
It is characterized by white exterior walls, flat roofs, and wooden window frames, a design
that accommodates the unique climatic conditions of the high-altitude region. In terms of
color application, the primary use of white for the external walls contrasts with the blue and
red of window frames and decorations. This color scheme reflects the aesthetic preferences
inherent in Tibetan culture. The Baizangfang’s white color is prominent in the natural
environment. This vibrant hue has now become an integral part of the landscape, serving as
a vital decoration. Its sacred and pure colors harmoniously blend to create a unique Tibetan
scenery that is enriched with ethnic culture, adding depth and beauty to the surroundings.
Third, Sangpiling Temple is one of the largest Gelug temples in Eastern Tibet and has a
lofty status in Xiangcheng. The religious beliefs of the Tibetans affect the architectural
colors. Ascending in a majestic sequence, the colors adorning the main building facade
are arranged from top to bottom: golden, red, white, and black. Each hue symbolizes a
profound meaning, representing loftiness, holiness, and unwavering faith. These sacred
colors are held in utmost reverence by both monks and fervent believers, embodying their
deep respect and profound devotion. Diverging from the conventional composition of
residential buildings, the facade of this structure distinguishes itself with a trio of colors:
red, white, and black. These colors artfully combine to form a three-part facade, imbuing
the building with a unique visual appeal. Notably, the expansive white walls command
attention, drawing the eye with their prominence. The infusion of a warm brown-red
hue serves to invigorate the spirits of worshippers, fostering an atmosphere conducive to
reverence. The colors of the “Three Wonders in Xiangcheng County” mirror the distinctive
Tibetan landscape, convey profound national beliefs, and offer spiritual nourishment.

3.3. Sample Collection and Research Method

The research methods employed in this study center around the chromaticity mea-
surement of images [37]. These methods enable precise and calibrated assessment of the
visual attributes of samples. This research uses meticulous data analysis to extract the color
spectrum that aligns with the traditional hues found in landscapes associated with ethnic
minority groups. Researchers make field observations, photographs, and video recordings
of landscape elements such as buildings, mountains, water bodies, vegetation, etc., extract
image and image color information (removal of color deviations caused by weather, light,
cameras, and other related factors), establish a color database for observation points, and
analyze and summarize database information. Then, the current color database can be
summarized to objectively reflect Xiangcheng County.
The landscapes in the research were classified into landscape aerial view, residential
buildings, religious buildings, streets, farmland, and local materials [38–40]. Moreover, the
landscape was segmented into three categories according to the distance of sight: distant
view, middle view, and nearby view [41,42] The distant view type is mainly an aerial view;
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 4672 8 of 25

the middle view type includes residential and temple buildings, streets, and farmlands; and
the nearby view type mainly includes the local material details of landscape architecture
(Table 1).

Table 1. Sample classification and selection basis.

Landscape Color Landscape Basis and Key Points for Sample Selection in Sources
View Elements Xiangcheng
Distant view Aerial View Large-area color landscape data are selected from A bird’ s-eye view can provide a
commanding heights in the core area of Xiangcheng color layout of the main study area
by a bird’s-eye view to collect: S1 and S2. [43–45]. It can also observe the
overall harmony and contrast of
• The aerial view shows the terrain and natural
colors in natural and man-made
colors, such as the farmland’s green contrasting
environments—for example, the
with the Baizangfang’s white.
color boundaries between urban
• It can reflect the connection between Tibetan
and natural areas [46].
culture and the natural environment. From a
high altitude, one can see how buildings and
farmland blend harmoniously with the
natural landscape.

Middle view Architecture The local representative residential buildings and Architecture is an integral part of
temples are selected, almost designed and the urban/rural landscape, and
constructed by local people: S3, S4, S5. architectural color becomes the
protagonist of urban/rural color
• Baizangfang is a unique residential architectural
[47,48]. It sometimes even
form of the Garze Tibetan people. Its white
determines the color construction of
exterior walls and wooden frame reflect Tibetan
the entire city/countryside [49].
living habits and aesthetics.
• Religious buildings such as the Sangpiling
Temple use traditional red and golden colors.
Temples’ architectural style and decorative
details are important for studying Tibetan
cultural identity and religious beliefs.

Street This study selected streets with core landscape Streets are landscape corridors and
nodes: S6, S7, and S8. important activity spaces in cities,
and their color analysis helps to
• Bright colored shops and religious symbols, such
understand the vitality and
as prayer flags and colorful flags, are common on
functionality of cities and rural
streets in Xiangcheng, reflecting Tibetan religious
areas [50,51]. This analysis includes
and daily life.
pavement materials, street trees,
• The use of color on the street is an expression of
street buildings, and other
visual aesthetics and a reflection of community
elements [52].
cohesion and cultural heritage.

Farmland This study selected angles that can reflect the overall The changing colors of farmlands
farmland layout and detailed characteristics of the reflect the changing seasons and the
crop landscape: S9, S10, and S11. type of agricultural activity [53].
• Farmland color shows a harmonious integration
with the natural environment. For example, the
color of crops forms a visual coordination with
the surrounding sky, mountains and other
natural landscapes.
• Farmland layouts often follow traditional terrain
utilization, demonstrating the relationship
between topography and water sources.
  The use of
The
The use
of color on
use of color
on the street
color on the
street is an
the street is
an expression of
is an expression
of visual
expression of visual
visual
of cities and
of
of cities
and rural areas
cities and rural
areas
rural areas
aesthetics
aesthetics and a reflection of community cohesion and [50,51]. This analysis
analysis in-
aesthetics and
and aa reflection
reflection of
of community
community cohesion
cohesion and
and [50,51].
[50,51]. This
This analysis in- in-
cultural heritage.
cultural cludes pavement materi-
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 4672 cultural heritage.
heritage. cludes pavement
cludes pavement materi- materi-
9 of 25
als, street trees,
als, trees, street
als, street
street trees, street
street
buildings, and
buildings, and other
other ele-
ele-
buildings, and other ele-
ments
ments [52].
Table 1. Cont. ments [52].
[52].
Farmland
Farmland This study
This study selected
selected angles
angles that
that cancan reflect
reflect the
the overall
overall farm- The changing colors
farm- The colors of
Farmland This study selected angles that can reflect the overall farm- The changing changing colors of of
Landscape Color Landscape land land layout
Basislayout
and Key and detailed
Points
and for
detailed characteristics
Sample Selection
characteristics of
in
of the
the crop
crop land-
Sources
land- farmlands
farmlands reflect
reflect the
the
land layout and detailed characteristics of the crop land- farmlands reflect the
View Elements Xiangcheng
scape: S9, S10, and
and S11. changing seasons and and
scape:
scape: S9,S9, S10,
S10, and S11.
S11. changing
changing seasons
seasons and
Nearby view Local Materials
Farmland
Farmland color
such as
Farmland color
showsretaining
landscape
color shows
a harmonious
shows aa harmonious
walls, integration
harmonious integration
The
integration with
with
with the
the
naturalthe type
andtype of agricultural
processed
type ofof agricultural
colors of
agricultural
Materials the
building natural
walls,
the natural environment.
painted wooden
natural environment.
environment. For For example,
beams, and
For example, the
carved
example, the color
the color of of
materials
of (such as
activity stone,
[53].
activity [53].
wood,
doorthe
lintelsforms
crops are selected:
a visual
visualS12, S13, and
coordination S14.with the color metal, etc.)activity
surrounding
[53].
used in architecture and
crops forms a coordination with
crops forms a visual coordination with the surrounding the surrounding
landscape design directly affect the
sky,
• sky, mountains
The natural and used
materials otherinnatural
Tibetan landscapes.
sky, mountains
mountains and and other
other natural
natural landscapes.
landscapes. color effect of the overall
 architecturelayouts
Farmland
Farmland and landscapes,
layouts often
often such as
follow
follow stone, wood,
traditional
traditional terrain
terrain utili-
utili-
 Farmland
etc., their layouts
natural often
colors andfollow traditional
processed colors
landscape
terrain utili- [54,55].
zation, demonstrating
zation, demonstrating the the relationship between
between topog-
zation, demonstrating
demonstrate the relationship
Tibetan environmentalrelationship between topog-
adaptability topog-
raphy
raphy and water
and water sources.
water sources.
sources.
raphy and
and aesthetics.
Nearby view Local
Nearby Local Materials
• such
Thesesuch as landscape
materials maintain theirretaining
naturalwalls,
color building The natural and and pro-
Nearby view view Local Materials
Materials
and
such as
as landscape
landscape retaining
retaining walls,
walls, building
building The
The natural
texture.wooden beams, and carved door lintels are cessed colors of materi-
natural and pro- pro-
Materials
Materials walls,
walls, painted
Materials walls, painted
painted wooden
wooden beams,beams, and and carved
carved door
door lintels are cessed
lintels are cessed colors
colors ofof materi-
materi-
selected:
Note:selected: S12,
The aboveS12, S13,
sample and S14.
collection
S13, and S14.
basis and key points come from the People’sals als (such as
Government
(such as ofstone, wood,
Xiangcheng
stone, wood,
selected: S12, S13, and S14. April 2024). als (such as stone, wood,

(http://www.xcx.gov.cn,
The
The natural accessed
materialson 15used in Tibetan architecture and metal, etc.) used in archi-
 The natural
natural materials
materials usedused in in Tibetan
Tibetan architecture
architecture and and metal,
metal, etc.)
etc.) used
used inin archi-
archi-
landscapes,
landscapes, such as stone, wood, etc., their natural col- tecture andand landscape
landscape
landscapes, such such asas stone,
stone, wood,
wood, etc.,
etc., their
their natural
natural col-
col- tecture
tecture and landscape
Fromors
ors6 different landscape
and processed
and processed colors
colors perspectives,
demonstrateaTibetan
demonstrate total of environ-
Tibetan 14 color–area
environ- design ratio samples
directly were
affect the
ors and processed colors demonstrate Tibetan environ- design design directly
directly affect
affect the
the
selected frommental landscape research
adaptability
mental adaptability
adaptability and and area and
aesthetics.
and aesthetics.
aesthetics. numbered S1, S2, S3, S4, S5,
color S6,
effect S7,ofS8,
theS9, S10,
overall
color effect of
of the
the overall
S11, S12, mental
S13, and
These S14, respectively
materials maintain their (Table
their 2). The
natural colorselection colorwas
tex- process
and tex- effect conducted overall
by

 These
These materials
materials maintain
maintain their natural
natural color
color and
and tex- landscape
landscape [54,55].
[54,55].
interviewing landscape
ture.three landscape design specialists who research color landscape design and [54,55].
ture.
ture. protection. The sample comprised 58 pictures, among which 14 samples
cultural heritage
Note: The
Note: The above sample
sample collection basis
basis and key
key points come
come from the
the People’s Government
Government of
Note:
were The above
above sample collection
selected. collection basis and
and key points
points come from
from the People’s
People’s Government of
of
Xiangcheng
Xiangcheng (http://www.xcx.gov.cn, accessed on 15 April 2024).
Xiangcheng (http://www.xcx.gov.cn,
(http://www.xcx.gov.cn, accessed
accessed on
on 15
15 April
April 2024).
2024).
Xiangcheng (http://www.xcx.gov.cn, accessed on 15 April 2024).
Table 2. Selected samples.
Table 2.
Table 2. Selected
Selected samples.
samples.
Table 2. Selected samples.
Type
Type No.
No. Sample
SamplePhotographs
Photographs Type
Type No.
No. Sample
SamplePhotographs
Photographs
Type
Type No.
No. Sample Photographs
Sample Photographs Type
Type No.
No. Sample Photographs
Sample Photographs
Aerial
Aerial
Aerial View
View S1
S1 Street
Street S8
Aerial View
View S1
S1 Street
Street S8
S8

S2
S2
S2 Farmland
Farmland
Farmland S9
S9
S2
S2 Farmland S9

Residential
Residential
Residential
S3
S3
S3
S10
S10
Residential S3 S10
architecture
architecture
architecture
architecture
architecture
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 4672 10 of 25

Appl.
Appl. Sci.
Appl. Sci. 2024,
Sci. 2024, 14,
2024, 14, x
14, x FOR
FOR PEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW
Table 2. Cont. 10
10 of
of 25
25
Appl.
Appl.
Appl. Sci.
Sci. 2024,
2024, 14,
14, xxxx FOR
FOR
FOR
PEER
PEER
PEER
REVIEW
REVIEW
REVIEW
10
10
10
of
of
of
25
25
25
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW
Sci. 2024, 14, FOR PEER REVIEW 10
10 of
of 25
25
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 25
Type No. Sample Photographs Type No. Sample Photographs
Residential S4
S4 S11
S11
architecture S4
S4 S11
S11
S4 S11
S4 S11

Religious
Religious
Religious S5
S5
S5 Local
Local
Local S12
S12
S12
Religious
Religious S5
S5 Local
Local S12
S12
architecture
architecture
architecture
Religious S5 Materials
Materials
Materials
Local S12
architecture
architecture Materials
Materials
architecture Materials

Street
Street S6
S6 S13
S13
Street
Street
Street S6
S6
S6 S13
S13
Street
Street S6
S6 S13

S7
S7 S14
S14
S7
S7
S7 S14
S14
S14
S7 S14

Note:
Note: The
Note: The research
The research samples
research samples were
samples were collected
were collected via
collected via key
via key landscape
key landscape nodes
landscape nodes in
nodes in the
in the main
the main local
main local tourist
local tourist routes,
tourist routes,
routes,
Note:
Note: The
Note: The research
Theresearch samples
samples were
research were collected
samples collected via
were via key
key landscape
collected landscape nodes
via key nodes in
in the
the main
main local
local tourist
tourist routes,
routes,
and
Note:
and
Note:
the
Note:
andThe
the landscape
The
the research
landscape
research
landscape
The
samples
samples
research sampleswerewere
samples
samples
samples were
were collected
collected
collected
collected
were
were
based
via key
collected
collected via
based
via keyonlandscape
on
landscape
based keyon the
the basis
landscape
thenodes nodes
listed
basisin
basis
landscape nodes
listed
listed
nodes
in
in
in
the main
in
in
the
inTable
the
Tablemain
local
Table
the
1.
main local
local
1.tourist
1.
main local
tourist
tourist
routes, routes,
routes,
and
tourist the
routes,
and
and the landscape samples were collected based on the basis listed in Table 1.
and the
landscape landscape
thesamples weresamples
landscape collectedwere
samples basedcollected
were based
on the basis
collected listedon
based inthe
on basis
Table
the 1. listed
basis listed in
and the landscape samples were collected based on the basis listed in Table 1.in Table
Table 1.
1.
4. Color–Area
4. Color–Area
Color–Area Ratio Ratio Factor
Ratio Factor Analysis
Factor Analysis
Analysis
4. 4.
4.
4.1.Color–Area
Color–Area
SD Factor Ratio
Ratio Factor
Factor
Analysis Analysis
Analysis
4. Color–Area
4.1. SDSD Factor Ratio
Factor Analysis
Analysis Factor Analysis
4.1.
4.1.
4.1.SDSD Factor
FactorAnalysis
Analysis
4.1.1.
4.1.
4.1.1. SDSelection
Factor
Selection of SD
Analysis
of SD Evaluation
Evaluation Factors
Factors
4.1.1.
4.1.1.
4.1.1.Selection
Selection
Selection ofofSD
of SD
SDEvaluation
Evaluation
Evaluation Factors
Factors
Factors
4.1.1.Fourteen
Selection
Fourteen landscape
of SD
landscape samples
Evaluation
samples (S1
Factors
(S1 to S14)
to S14)
S14) used were
werefor used
used for
for the analysis.
the analysis.
analysis. Respondents
Respondents
Fourteen
Fourteen
Fourteen landscape
landscape
landscape samples
samples
samples (S1 to (S1
(S1 S14) to were
to S14) were
were the for
used
used analysis.
for the
theand Respondents
analysis. scored
Respondents
Respondents
scored
scored each
each
Fourteen of
of these
these from
from
landscape −2
−2 to
to
samples 2.
2. The
The
(S1 results
results
to S14) were
were
werethen
then tabulated
tabulated
used for the and calculated
calculated
analysis. to obtain
to their
obtain
Respondents
each of
scored
scored these
each from
of
each ofvalues.−
these 2 to
from
these from 2. The
−2 to results
−2average 2. The
to 2. Thevalues wereresults then
resultswere weretabulated
then
wereplotted and
tabulated
then tabulated calculated
and
and to obtain
calculated
calculated to
to obtain
obtain
their
their
scored average
average
each ofvalues.
these Those
Those
from −2 average
to 2. The values
results were
were plotted
then into
into
tabulated an
an SD
SD andgraphic
graphic and
and
calculated analyzed
analyzed
to obtain
average
their values.values.
average Those Those
average valuesvalues
average were plotted were into an
plotted intoSDan graphic and analyzed by
their
by average
factor values.
analysis. ThisThose
factoraverage
analysis values was were
used plotted
to reduce into an SD
SD graphic
landscape graphic and
and analyzed
characteristicanalyzed
varia-
by factor
their
factor
by factor analysis.
average
analysis. values.This
This factor
analysis. This factor
Those analysis
factor analysis
average was
analysis values was were
used
was used to reduce
to reduce
used to reduce
plotted into
landscapelandscape
an SD characteristic
graphic
characteristic
landscape and varia-
analyzed
variables.
characteristic varia-
by
bles.factor
This analysis.
analysis This factor
found six analysis
factor (X 1 towasX used to reduce landscape characteristic varia-
bles.
by
This
bles. This analysis.
factor
analysis
This analysis
found six
analysis found
Thisfactor
found six(Xfactor
factor
six factor
1 analysis
to X(X(X
6
to
wasX6666)))used
) 1111variables,
to X
variables,
variables, presented
presented
to reduce
presented
variables, inlandscape
presented Tablein
in Table
in3,Table
Table 3, including
3, including
including
characteristic
including
3, the set
the
the
varia-
of
the
bles.
set ofThis
coloranalysis
landscape found six factor
aesthetic (X11 to X66) variables,
characteristics 6
[56]. presented
This research inproject
Table 3, including
collected the
adjec-
set
bles.
color
set of color
This
landscape
of color landscape
analysis found
aesthetic
landscape aesthetic
six factor
characteristics
aesthetic characteristics
(X to
1[56].
characteristics X )
6This [56].
variables,This
research
[56]. This research
presented
project inproject
Table
collected collected
3, including
adjective adjec-
pairsthe
set
tive of color
pairs landscape
when designingaesthetic
the characteristics
evaluation scale and This research
[56].constructing
research the
project
project collected adjec-
collectedunder-
questionnaire, adjec-
tiveof
set
when
tive pairs
colorwhen
designing
pairs when designing
landscape
the evaluation
designing the evaluation
aesthetic
the evaluation
characteristics
scale scale and
and constructing
scale and constructing
[56].constructing
This research theproject
the questionnaire,
the questionnaire, under-
collectedunder-
understanding
questionnaire, adjec-
tive pairs the
standing whenSD designing
method’s the evaluation
specific meaning, scale and
and constructing
referring to the the
SD questionnaire,
method in under-
landscape
thestanding
tive pairs
SD method’s
standing the
when
the SD method’s
designing
specific specific
the
meaning, meaning,
evaluation
and referring scale and
and referring
constructingto
to the SDtomethod the SD
the method in
questionnaire,
in landscape landscape
under-
color,
standing
color, the SD
artistic SD method’s
method’s
color,
specific
specific
architecture,
meaning,
meaning,
and gardens.
and
and
The
referring
referring
word to the
pairs the
used
SD method
SDabove,
method in
in landscape
landscape
combined with
color,color,
standing
artistic
color, artistic
artistic color,
color, architecture,
thearchitecture,
SD method’s andspecific
architecture, gardens.and
and gardens.
meaning, The word
gardens. The
and
The word
referring
pairs
word pairs
used
pairs used
toabove,
the
used above,
SDcombined
method
above, combined
in with
landscape
with
combined SPSSwith
color,
SPSS artistic
for color,
principal architecture,
component and
analysis, gardens.
finally The word
adopted pairs
six used
groups above,
of combined
adjective pairs; with
that
SPSS
forSPSS
color, for
principal principal
component
artistic
for component
color,component
principal analysis,
architecture, analysis,
finally
and
analysis, finally
gardens.adopted
finally adopted
The six
word
adopted six
groups
pairs
six groups
of
used of adjective
adjective
above, pairs;pairs;
combined that
thatwith
is,
SPSS
is, six for principal
common component
factors from X 11analysis,
to X 66 were finally
screened adopted
out six groups
(Table groups
3).
of
of adjective
The adjective
six common
pairs;
pairs; that
that
factors
is,common
sixis,
SPSS six
six common
for factors
principal factors
from from
componentX toX 1X to X 6 were
were
analysis, screened
screened
finally out out
adopted (Table
(Tablesix 3). 3).
The
groups The
six
of six common
common
adjective factors
factors
pairs; that
six common factors from X
X1111 to
to X were
were screened out
out (Table 3).
3). The
The six
six common factors
1 6
is,
formed common
two factors
groups: (1)from
the physical X6666 perception screened of human (Table
vision—spatial common
openness, factors
sense
formed
formed
is, six two
formed two
common
two groups:
groups: factors
groups: (1)
(1)(1)
thethe
from
the physical
physical
physical 6 perception
X1 to Xperception
were screened
perception of
ofof human
human
human vision—spatial
vision—spatial
out (Table openness,
3). The sixopenness,
vision—spatial common
openness, sense
sense
factors
sense
formed
of rhythm, twocolor
groups: (1) theand
richness; physical(2) perception ofperception—attractiveness,
psychological human vision—spatial openness, shading sense
and
of
ofof rhythm,
rhythm,
formed
rhythm, two color
color
groups:
color richness;
richness;
(1)
richness; and
the and (2)
physical
and (2)
(2) psychological
psychological
perception
psychological perception—attractiveness,
perception—attractiveness,
of human vision—spatial
perception—attractiveness, shading
shading
openness,
shading andand
sense
and
of rhythm,
aesthetic
aesthetic color
degree.
degree. richness; and (2) psychological perception—attractiveness, shading and
aesthetic degree.
of rhythm, color richness; and (2) psychological perception—attractiveness, shading and
aesthetic
aesthetic degree.
degree.
aesthetic degree.
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 4672 11 of 25

Table 3. SD factor adjective pairs.

No. SD Evaluation Factor SD Evaluation Adjective Pair

X1 Spatial openness Open--------Closed
X2 Sense of rhythm Strong--------Weak
X3 Color richness Colorful--------Monotonous
X4 Attraction Attractive--------Unattractive
X5 Color brightness Bright--------Dark
X6 Aesthetic degree Aesthetic--------Not aesthetic

Xiangcheng’s landscape and urban color–area ratio samples in the original state
decide the SD evaluation factors. These factors comprise spatial openness (X1 ), sense of
rhythm (X2 ), and color richness (X3 ); psychological perception includes attraction (X4 ),
color brightness (X5 ), and aesthetic degree (X6 ). A total of six pairs of adjectives were
constructed according to the Tibetan characteristics of Xiangcheng’s landscapes, (1) “Open”
and “Closed” were used to describe spatial openness (X1 ); (2) “Strong” and “Weak” were
used to describe the sense of rhythm (X2 ); (3) “Colorful” and “Monotonous” were used
to describe color richness (X3 ); (4) “Attractive” and “Unattractive” were used to describe
psychological perceptions, including attraction (X4 ); (5) “Bright” and “Dark” were used
to describe color brightness (X5 ); (6) and “Aesthetic” and “Not aesthetic” were used to
describe aesthetic degree (X6 ). (Table 3).

4.1.2. Evaluation Scale and Questionnaire Design

The evaluation scale was based on the “bi-polar” principle to facilitate quantitative sta-
tistical analysis. Generally, the evaluation scale of adjective pairs is divided into 5–7 levels
to conduct quantitative statistics [57,58]. To increase the accuracy and convenience of the
evaluation, this paper set the evaluation scale at five levels to carry out the questionnaire
design and quantitative statistics [14]. The 5-level evaluation scale was set to symmetrical:
2, 1, 0, −1, −2, as shown in Table 4. Among all 18 questions, 14 used the five-level scale to
score 14 figure samples from S1 to S14, as shown in Tables 2 and 4.

Table 4. Evaluation scale and questionnaire design.

Very Poor Poor Average Good Very Good

No. Right Adjective Pair −2 −1 0 1 2 Left Adjective Pair
1 Open Closed
2 Strong Weak
3 Colorful Monotonous
4 Attractive Unattractive
5 Bright Dark
6 Aesthetic Not aesthetic

4.1.3. Subject Selection and Questionnaire Survey

To improve the accuracy of the research results, this research conducted questionnaire
surveys on gender, occupation, age, scope, and number of subjects. Using purposeful
sampling methods, this survey study included 274 professionals in the landscape design
industry and non-professionals in the non-landscape sector, accounting for 30% and 70% of
the total subjects, respectively. Table 5 reveals that there were more women than men and
most were between 18 and 29 years old (73.36%). The survey sample mainly were from
students major in landscape and related subjects (23.72%) and students of other majors
(35.04%) with Bachelor’s degrees (72.63%).
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 4672 12 of 25

Table 5. Data analysis of Samples.

Item Classification Number of People Percentage

Male 97 35.40%
Gender
Female 177 64.60%
12–17 Years Old 4 1.46%
18–29 Years Old 201 73.36%
Age 30–45 Years Old 40 14.60%
45–59 Years Old 25 9.12%
Over 60 Years Old 4 1.46%
Primary School 1 0.36%
Junior Middle School 7 2.55%
Junior High School 16 5.84%
Degree
Bachelor 199 72.63%
Master 45 16.42%
Ph.D. 6 2.19%
Landscape And Related Fields Work 29 10.58%
Other Areas Of Work 44 16.06%
Students Majoring In Landscape And
65 23.72%
Related Majors
Work Students Of Other Majors 96 35.04%
Unemployment 4 1.46%
Retiree 6 2.19%
Others 30 10.95%

4.1.4. Average Analysis

The questionnaire was analyzed, and the scale evaluation data of each sample from S1
to S4 were extracted using the SPSS 22.0 software. The data of the six evaluation factors
of spatial openness (X1 ), sense of rhythm (X2 ), color richness (X3 ), attraction (X4 ), color
brightness (X5 ), and aesthetic degree (X6 ) were averaged and weighted via SPSS 22.0 to
obtain a sample statistics table (Table 6). The sample of S5 (weighted value 1.098) represents
the characteristic religious buildings in rural areas, and the sample of S13 (weighted
value 0.425) represents the details of landscape materials. Among the various evaluation
indicators, spatial openness (X1) is the highest (S10, 1.29); the lowest is (S14, 0.09); the sense
of rhythm (X2) is the highest (S4, 1.13), the lowest is (S1, 0.20); the highest color richness
value is S5 (1.21), the lowest is (S1, 0.02); the most attractive is (S14, 1.1.0), the lowest is
(S1, 0.22); the color brightness (X5) is the highest is (S14, 1.17), the lowest is (S10, 0.54); the
highest aesthetic is (S13, 1.17), and the lowest is (S8, 0.33). It can be concluded that: among
all the samples, S10 makes the public feel the most open and spatial; S4 gives the most
comfortable rhythm of landscape; S5 consists of the most kinds of colors; S14 is the most
attractive among them; S14 makes the public experience brightest landscape; and S13 is the
most aesthetic landscape. The final comparison of the weighted scores from high to low
is: S5 > S3 > S14 > S6 > S9 > S12 > S4 > S7 > S11 > S10 > S2 > S8 > S1 > S13. Therefore, the
results show that the evaluator’s sense of identity with the landscape samples gradually
weakens from S5 to S13.

Table 6. SD method analysis results of Xiangcheng’s color–area ratio.

X1 X2 X3 X4 X5 X6
Weighted
Spatial Sense of Color Color Aesthetic Value
Attraction
Openness Rhythm Richness Brightness Degree
S1 1.13 0.20 0.02 0.22 0.68 0.39 0.449
S2 1.09 0.30 0.12 0.27 0.70 0.39 0.490
Sample S3 0.85 0.95 1.20 1.08 1.21 1.17 1.092
Statistics S4 0.87 1.13 0.66 0.44 0.85 0.67 0.766
S5 1.04 1.06 1.21 1.05 1.07 1.02 1.098
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 4672 13 of 25

Table 6. Cont.

X1 X2 X3 X4 X5 X6
Weighted
Spatial Sense of Color Color Aesthetic Value
Attraction
Openness Rhythm Richness Brightness Degree
S6 0.66 0.75 1.32 0.92 0.98 0.94 0.985
S7 0.83 0.49 0.74 0.72 0.87 0.78 0.761
S8 0.70 0.45 0.23 0.35 0.76 0.33 0.474
S9 1.27 0.76 0.66 0.73 1.02 0.76 0.881
Sample S10 1.29 0.42 0.32 0.57 0.54 0.65 0.626
Statistics S11 0.94 0.64 0.57 0.52 0.78 0.58 0.689
S12 0.78 0.62 0.72 0.67 1.00 0.75 0.776
S13 0.55 0.37 0.25 0.29 0.65 0.44 0.425
S14 0.09 1.01 1.43 1.10 1.17 1.13 1.005
Average 0.86 0.65 0.68 0.64 0.88 0.71 0.715

4.2. Data and Analysis

4.2.1. Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin (KMO) and Bartlett’s Test
Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin (KMO), Bartlett’s sphericity test, and factor analysis for dimen-
sionality reduction ensures that the evaluation factors have high correlation and low
overlap [15]. The questionnaire data were imported into the SPSS22.0 to perform KMO and
Bartlett sphere detection using factor analysis (Table 7). The KMO value was 0.781 > 0.5,
and the significance of Bartlett’s sphericity test (Sig) was 0.000 < 0.05, indicating good
validity of the questionnaire setting and strong SD factor correlation. Therefore, factor
analysis for dimensionality reduction could be performed to analyze data.

Table 7. KMO and Bartlett’s test.

KMO Sampling Suitability Quantity 0.781

Approximate chi-square 228.289
Bartlett Sphericity Test Degree of freedom (DF) 15
Significance (sig) 0.000

4.2.2. SD Factor Analysis

The total variance explanation was obtained by the factor analysis for dimensionality
reduction using SPSS 22.0 software, showing that just one factor can be chosen as the
common factor, and the common factor can evaluate 76.9% of the internal relationship of
color–area ratio quantification (Table 8). Therefore, when the number of landscape factors is
small, and the independence of a few factors is high, these factors can also reflect the validity
of quantification of the original data of color–area ratio factors in ethnic minority areas.

Table 8. Total variance explanation.

Initial Eigenvalue Extract the Sum of Squares of the Load

Total Variance% Total % Total Variance% Total %
1 4.616 76.934 76.934 4.616 76.934 76.934
2 0.847 14.122 91.056
3 0.318 5.304 96.359
4 0.170 2.830 99.189
5 0.031 0.521 99.710
6 0.017 0.290 100.000
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 4672 14 of 25

The correlation matrix of color–area ratio evaluation factors (Table 9) can intuitively
reflect the correlation between various color–area ratio factors and show that human
vision and landscape interaction will change psychological perception. Therefore, colors
are related to a person’s psychological feelings. While color gives people a sense of
beauty, it also affects people’s psychological activities in many ways. Color psychological
feelings can be generated from direct visual stimuli or obtained through simple associations
and symbols. In short, it unconsciously influences people’s emotions, thoughts, and
behaviors [6]. The X1 in the SD factor is low, with a low load. Therefore, X1 has a relatively
weak relationship with X2 , X3 , X4 , X5 , and X6 , showing that the effect of spatial openness
on the evaluation of color visual perception and psychological perception is weak.

Table 9. Factor correlation matrix.

Spatial Openness Sense of Rhythm Color Richness Attraction Color Brightness Aesthetic Degree
X1 1.000 −0.289 −0.472 −0.312 −0.390 −0.316
X2 −0.289 1.000 0.815 0.736 0.772 0.779
X3 −0.472 0.815 1.000 0.953 0.873 0.951
X4 −0.312 0.736 0.953 1.000 0.863 0.976
X5 −0.390 0.772 0.873 0.863 1.000 0.863
X6 −0.316 0.779 0.951 0.976 0.863 1.000

4.2.3. Establishment of Evaluation Model

According to the above analysis, a common factor was extracted from the cumulative
contribution rate of the variance of each color–area ratio evaluation factor, and the propor-
tion of the total variance contribution rate of the common factor was used as the weight for
a weighted summary:
p
(1) Standardized value of landscape evaluation factor: F1 = | Xi ∗ 76.934|
(2) Comprehensive landscape evaluation factor F = 76.934 × F1/76.934
Table 10 shows that the SD evaluation factors, including space openness, sense of
rhythm, color richness, attraction, color brightness, and aesthetic degree, can significantly
impact the color–area ratio evaluation in Xiangcheng. Among the six SD factors, color
richness has the highest score and has the most significant impact on color evaluation.
Secondly, spatial openness has the lowest impact factor on color evaluation. These factors
reflect a unique Tibetan cultural style and the unique colour artistic value of the colour–area
ratio in Xiangcheng. Compared with the sense of rhythm, color richness, attractiveness,
brightness, and aesthetics, the evaluation score of spatial openness is low, and the gap
is large. The results show that spatial openness did not receive much attention when
evaluating the landscape. In addition, the evaluators are more concerned about color
richness than spatial openness. Thus, color plays a vital role in landscape design; color
richness is the most important influencing factor to impact color landscape based on
public aesthetics evaluation. According to the results, it is necessary to analyze the color
characteristics quantitatively.

Table 10. Factor score coefficient and ranking.

Xi X (Factor Score) F (Overall Score) Ranking

(X1 ) 0.100 0.2300 6
(X2 ) 0.186 0.596 5
(X3 ) 0.213 0.713 1
(X4 ) 0.207 0.607 3
(X5 ) 0.209 0.609 2
(X6 ) 0.201 0.601 4
 (X
(X(X
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Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 4672 (X (X
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0.601
0.601 4444

Color
5.5.5.
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5.1. Color–Area Ratio
5.1.
5.1.
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Ratio
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Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 4672 16 of 25

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Type No. Samples Type No. Samples

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 Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 4672 17 of 25

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Table Color
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Table
Table 12.
12. Color
Color quantitative
quantitative analysis
analysis of of
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No.
No.
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No.
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Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 4672 18 of 25

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S99S9 NoNo
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Table
Table13.13.
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13. Color
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No.No. Samples
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S10S10 NoNo
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S10
S10S 10 S 10
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S10S 10 S 10
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S2S2 NoNo
SS22 2S
S S22 NoNo
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S22 S
S2 S S222 NoNoNo
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S2 S2 S NoNo

S8S8
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S8 S S888
S8 S8 S

S1S1 NoNo
S11 S
S S11 NoNo
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S111 NoNo
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S1 S1 S No No

S13S13
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13

5.3. Color
5.3. Color Layout
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 Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 4672 19 of 25

group B is uniform, the color richness is weak and cannot reflect the characteristics of
Appl.
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Table 14. Group A color layout.

Table
Table
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Table 14.
14.
Table
14.
Table
Table 14.
14. Group
Group
Group
14.
Group
14.Group
14.GroupAA
A
Group
GroupAAcolor
A color
color
color
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color layout.
layout.
layout.
color layout.
layout.
color layout.
layout.
layout.
Table
Table
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14.
14. Group
14.
14. Group
Group
Group
Group A
A
A color
A
A color
color
color
color layout.
layout.
layout.
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No.No. SSS SS S14SS S 9S
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Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 4672 20 of 25

6. Discussion
6.1. Colorscape’s Quantitative Model Should Be Coordinated and Unified with the Environment
The quantitative expression of Xiangcheng’s landscape color is a research process
based on a comprehensive interpretation of the objective laws of the color characteristics
of static viewing environments. The use of analysis software to objectively and rationally
analyze the HSB measurement thresholds of the color effects of spatial elements. It is
different from the subjective judgment of color that relies on human eye function and
perceptual cognition. The color average quantitative data obtained in the study are typical
representative data extracted after classifying and filtering the data. From the qualitative
and quantitative research process and methods of the color effects of Ming city walls [4], it
can be seen that the selection of sample sheets and quadrats in this study can fully represent
the color composition characteristics of Xiangcheng and the presentation of color visual
effects under ideal outdoor viewing conditions. Xiangcheng’s color data, obtained through
quantitative data analysis of hue, saturation, and brightness (HSB), can be used as the basis
for color planning and in the design of rural and urban landscapes.
Furthermore, the results of the study indicated that colors should be coordinated and
unified with the environment. Local materials and plants should be fully utilized as much
as possible to coordinate the landscape and the original environment of the area. The
interrelationship between color–area ratios also determines the effect of the color–area ratio.
Using and processing the law of unity and change between colors correctly can create a
rich color change effect in a significant positive relationship.

6.2. The Quantitative Influences of Landscape Color Evaluation Factors

The quantitative influences of various landscape color evaluation factors on the land-
scape color in Tibetan areas are as follows: color richness (X3) > color brightness (X5)
> attraction (X4) > aesthetic degree (X6) > sense of rhythm (X2) > spatial openness (X1).
Among these factors, color richness and color brightness, which rank as the top two, are
more intuitive for color expression and stimulate vision more easily. Therefore, the more
attention paid to the color richness and color brightness by people, the more popular the
landscape, indicating that the richness and brightness of colors are vital in color–area ratio
design. The factors of color brightness, attraction, and aesthetic degree, which are partial to
the psychological perception of landscape color descriptions, have received less attention
than color richness. However, these factors are also important for design expressions in
landscape color moods. The sense of rhythm ranks fifth among these six factors. Color
spatial openness has received the lowest attention, indicating no absolute relationship
between the color–area ratio design and spatial openness. Therefore, the intuitive visual
expression of color, psychological emotion, and artistic conception is indispensable in
color–area ratio planning and design.

6.3. The Different Color Landscapes with Specific Color Layouts

The component characteristics of the color landscape are rich in color without affecting
the expression of the overall tone in Xiangcheng. At the same time, the color landscape
design in Xiangcheng is mainly composed of white, reddish brown, yellow, black, and
natural colors, such as mountain green and sky blue, as the main and auxiliary colors with
yellow, red, green, black, and blue in the same color tones as embellishments. Most of the
embellishments are colors with cultural contexts in Xiangcheng. The color landscape in
the color layout should have rich colors, strong contrast, and a coordinated color ratio that
can reflect the color characteristics of Xiangcheng’s landscape. The results from Section 5.3,
Tables 14 and 15, show different color landscapes with specific quantitative color layouts.
(1) For religious architecture design, 48% Gray, 10% white, and 22% green occupy
a balanced proportion, and the color landscape is coordinated. At the same time, the
18% reddish brown and 2% yellow of the building reflect the characteristics of ethnic
temples. From the perspective of the relationship between cultural heritage and color,
these buildings serve as centers of cultural and religious activities. Their colors retain rich
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 4672 21 of 25

traditional arts and craftsmanship contexts, demonstrating the Tibetan people’s spiritual
pursuits and cultural values. Analyzing architectural color can provide insight for designers
to enhance the beauty of a building and its relationship to its surroundings. Attention
is paid to of conserving and restoring buildings to maintain their historical and cultural
value. Nonetheless, the application of traditional colors in modern architecture can be
further studied;
(2) For residential architecture design, 34% blue and 18% white are needed, and the
facade of the building is decorated in many colors, reflecting the ethnic culture. The layout
and proportion of the colors of the surrounding environment, such as the Baizangfang
and the sky, align with the aesthetic values of nature. It can also reflect the structure and
cultural identity of Tibetan society, such as the social status of the family (such as the color
and area of Baizangfang, the number of building floors, the form of painting, etc.) and the
climatic conditions of the region environment (such as the blue sky, clean and pollution-free
surroundings, etc.);
(3) For materials design and applications, the colors are rich, reflecting the ethnic
characteristics of rural areas. The richness of colors of the materials not only reflects
the characteristics of the natural environment but also embodies the Tibetan culture’s
emphasis on the harmonious symbiosis of nature. Therefore, the relationship between
culture and materials is very important. The color selection and processing (such as painting
and carving) techniques of traditional materials reflect Tibetan environmental protection
concepts and commitment to sustainable development. The natural colors of wood and
stone are often used to construct residences and temples. Analyzing the colors of these
materials can help designers use different materials to reveal their unique color properties
under the influence of natural light, making them harmonious with their surroundings;
(4) For street design, the color of the prayer flags has the most direct embodiment of
ethnic colors, and the picture is coordinated. In addition, street elements also include pave-
ment materials, street trees, street buildings and other components. The color combination
of these elements can affect people’s emotions and behavioral patterns. For example, bright
and colorful streets may attract more tourists and shoppers. Combined with the application
of color psychology, street color can enhance the spiritual outlook of the community and
happiness of residents, and enhance the cultural confidence and identity of the region.
However, a comparative analysis showed that, in one of the streetscape samples appearing
in Group B, white takes up a large proportion of the sample; the color is monotonous,
and the results show a relatively negative result. The streetscape in this area may be too
monochromatic due to the monotony of landscape elements. Future color planning can be
optimized concerning the proportion and type of architectural colors;
(5) For farmland design, the colors of the fields, paths, mountains, and buildings are
in strong contrast. This reflects the characteristics of strong local color contrast but overall
coordination between farmland and the surrounding natural and cultural environments.
Additionally, by analyzing the color of farmlands, crop maturity, planting patterns, and
their integration with the natural landscape can be observed. From the perspective of color
and environmental sustainability, color management on farmlands emphasises ecological
sustainability, such as using multiple crop rotations to increase biodiversity. Future research
can collect farmland samples in different seasons for analysis. Seasonal changes in farmland
color not only improve the beauty of farmlands and promote ecological balance.
(6) On the contrary, from an aerial view, the white color of traditional Tibetan roofs
and walls stands out against the green, natural background. White has special significance
in Xiangcheng Tibetan culture. There is a special local festival, “White Filling Ceremony”.
It is an ancient custom in which Tibetans use a local white clay diluted with water and
then pour a layer of white clay on the outer walls and courtyard walls of Tibetan houses.
However, the green in the sample’s foreground blocks the building’s white, resulting in
fragmented space and monotonous colors. Although the color richness is weak and cannot
reflect the characteristics of Xiangcheng’s color–area ratio, it can reflect whether the whole
color landscape is uniform. Thus, the color layout of the bird’s-eye-view sample provides a
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 4672 22 of 25

unique perspective. It can help analyze the color transition between different areas and be
used to study the spatial layout and color application of Tibetan areas to reflect their social
structure and cultural values.

6.4. Research Limitations

Studying Tibetan color landscapes is not merely an investigation of colors themselves,
but a deep exploration of Tibetan culture, religion, social structure, and interactions with the
natural environment. This research provides a comprehensive perspective to understand
and appreciate the rich and colorful cultural heritage of Tibetan area. However, this
research has certain limitations, as follows: (1) The complex terrain of Tibetan area and the
inaccessibility of many areas may limit field investigations and data collection in certain
regions [60,61]; (2) Due to language and cultural differences, non-Tibetan researchers may
face challenges in fully comprehending the deep meanings of colors in Tibetan culture;
(3) Current color analysis technologies and methodologies might not adequately capture
and interpret the complex cultural and environmental factors influencing color landscapes;
and (4) The selection of a limited sample of investigation, 14 images, and only with
6 factors to do factor analysis and one common factor could be a limitation of this study.
When estimating factor loadings, a problem we may face is specifying too few factors
(under-decomposition) or too many (over-decomposition), although the latter results in
less error [62]. However, specifying too many factors can lead to the creation of constructs
that have little theoretical value [62]. One of the fundamental questions for multivariate
observations is the true actual number of principal components or factors in the underlying
data-generating model. Determining this number of factors is a complicated and long
standing problem [63]. Furthermore, the difference in whether conditions were detected by
pictures could represent a bias in the study.

7. Conclusions
With the updating of digital technology, color physical properties and visual and
psychological perception are described using quantitative and qualitative methods in color
landscape in forests, urban and rural areas, etc. [4]. However, the lack of a common and
good cognition standard for colorscapes in ethnic minority areas has led to a separation of
planning from the local public and cultural environments and to a lack of identity. Quanti-
tatively selecting and using traditional ethnic minority color elements in landscape design
in Tibetan areas is a research gap in current landscape research. Therefore, the evaluation
and analysis of the color–area ratio, the color quantification process, and the construction
of quantification standards are all problems faced by color–area ratio quantitative research
in Tibetan areas. This study combined the SD method and the color quantitative analysis
method to systematically analyze color–area ratio quantitative research in Tibetan areas.
Based on the SD method evaluation, the factor analysis for dimensionality reduction was
carried out to test whether the correlation and overlap of the SD evaluation factors were rea-
sonable. The common factors of color–area ratio design were extracted based on qualified
inspection, making the quantitative study of the color–area ratio in minority areas objective
and reasonable, enhancing the operability of the design. In the survey process, it is also
necessary to strengthen collaboration with local researchers and communities, leveraging
their deep understanding of local culture to overcome barriers to cultural comprehension.

8. Further Research Directions

(1) Develop advanced color analysis tools and methods to more accurately capture
and analyze the subtle variations in Tibetan color landscapes, encourage interdisciplinary
team collaborations, integrate perspectives from anthropology, cultural studies, psychology,
and more, for a comprehensive understanding of Tibetan color landscapes;
(2) Conduct long-term studies to explore the changes in Tibetan color landscapes
over time and the socio-cultural and environmental factors these changes reflect. For
example, the samples about distinguished color landscapes may be comparatively studied
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 4672 23 of 25

in different seasons; or studied in different periods during the day and night to compare
colorscapes under natural light and artificial light;
(3) Comparing the color landscapes of Xiangcheng County with other Tibetan regions
can reveal cultural and environmental differences among regions. Comparing Tibetan color
landscape research with similar studies in other regions or cultures can be used to explore
the commonalities and differences in color usage across different cultures. Using the same
methodology to study other urban/rural areas outside Tibetan areas could be a future
research direction and make the results generalizable for other urban/rural areas.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, L.Z. and R.L.; methodology, L.Z. and R.Y.M.L.; software,
R.L. and L.Z.; validation, L.Z. and R.Y.M.L.; formal analysis, L.Z. and R.Y.M.L.; investigation, L.Z. and
R.L.; resources, L.Z., R.L. and R.Y.M.L.; data curation, L.Z.; writing—original draft preparation, L.Z.
and R.L.; writing—review and editing, L.Z. and R.Y.M.L.; visualization, L.Z. and R.L.; supervision,
R.Y.M.L.; project administration, L.Z. and R.Y.M.L.; funding acquisition, L.Z. All authors have read
and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by (1) Panzhihua City’s Municipal Guiding Science and Tech-
nology Program Project in 2023: Research on evaluation of green building environment and energy-
saving design in resource-based industrial cities [Grant No. 2023ZD-S-46]. (2) Panzhihua University
Scientific Research Project (Economic Environmental Impact Assessment of Rural Ecotourism [Grant
No. 035001411]; (3) Panzhihua University Science and Technology Park Development Co., Ltd. Seed
Fund Innovation and Entrepreneurship Project [Grant No. CJY 2020-2].
Institutional Review Board Statement: The study was approved by the Human Research Ethics Com-
mittee of School of Civil and Architectural Engineering, Panzhihua University (Approval number:
HRECA002) and date of approval is 20 December 2022.
Informed Consent Statement: Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.
Data Availability Statement: The data used to support the findings of this study is available from
the corresponding author upon request.
Acknowledgments: We would like to thank the anonymous reviewers for their helpful remarks.
We thank the editors for their useful feedback that improved this paper. We deeply appreciate
their contributions.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest regarding the publica-
tion of this paper.

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