MSN I:BT21 NOTES PRESENTS

IMMUNE FUNCTION

IMMUNE SYSTEM 2. Lymphoid Tissues - 2nd base of immune systems

➔ complex and intricate network of specialized cells, tissues and ○ Lymph nodes
organs ○ Lymphatic vessels
➔ activated by minor injuries or major injuries and systemic 3. Spleen - graveyard of WBCs
diseases. 4. Tonsils
➔ response may be specific or non-specific 5. Adenoids
◆ Non-specific - prevent or limit the entry of invaders into 6. Mucoid lymphatic tissues
the body 7. Thymus gland - primary base first base
● Inflammation - nonspecific response 8. Peyer’s Patches
◆ Specific - learned from the previous exposure to
pathogens
WBC - key operative of the system
Functions:
1. Defends and protects the body from infection IMMUNE RESPONSE
2. Removes or destroys damaged/ dead cells Primary lymphoid organ
3. Identifies and destroys malignant cells 1. Bone marrow - site of the production of WBC
○ Generated from the stem cell during the differentiation
2. Thymus - located mediastinal area
○ Production of lymphocytes from birth to puberty
○ Lymphoid type of tissue that undergo type of maturation
○ Training ground of immune cells prior to their release to
the system
○ Allow T cells to develop important attributes
■ Self tolerance
Secondary
1. Spleen - trap some organisms
○ HAVE TO AREAS:
■ Red pulp
● Graveyard
● Site where old RBC is destroyed
● If RBC is injured to to old
■ White pulp
● Contains a concentration of WBC
TONSILS
● Tonsillar ring composed of lymphoid and lymphocytes
ANATOMY OF THE IMMUNE SYSTEM
2. Lymph nodes - distribution is all throughout the body
1. Bone Marrow
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IMMUNE FUNCTION

○ Connected from one another from lymph channels and ● Forms crust → to
capillaries prevent microorganisms
○ Center of immune cells → galing kay thymus gland from entering the body
○ NOTE: Thymus should not be active forever, kasi dapat ● Phagocytosis and
later on yung mga mature cells na dapat nag ttrain sa Chemotaxis
new cells ● Bilobe
○ Ex. during sx lymph nodes are removed kasi doon ● Stained with red dye
nakakapag metastasize ang cancer cells ● Migrates in tissue spaces
○ Home of lymphocytes and macrophages ● Increases in eosinophils
■ First line of immunity baka may bulate ang
■ Engulfs foreign bodies bata (helminths or
○ TWO MAIN FUNCTIONS: Circulation, GIT, Resp. protozoa)
1. Phagocytic cells - filters cell debris and 2. Eosinophils
Tract ● Phagocytosis
pathogens ● Protection against
2. Antigen presented - presents antigen into the parasites
immune systems ● Involved in allergic
○ These phagocytic cells → “pictures” the response
antigen → goes back to nearest lymph ● Release of chemotactic
nodes → show blueprint of the antigenic substances
material → lymph nodes goes to a process ● Bilobe
of metamorphosis → will release ● Stained with blue
antibodies to attack the pathogen to ● Has receptor sites for
recognize antigens → become specific specific antigens (IgE)
lymphocytes → immune cells develops ● Creates vasoactive
memory so you acquired immunity 3. Basophils Circulation amines → goes to the
site of infection →
activates IgE → pupunta
CELLS AND TISSUES OF THE IMMUNE SYSTEM doon
● Release of chemotactic
Component Location Function substances
● Mediates non-specific or Circulation (monocytes) ● Trapping and
Leukocytes specific defense and body tissues, such as phagocytizing of foreign
● Ex. Inflammation 4. Monocytes
skin (histiocytes), liver substances and cellular
and
GRANULOCYTES (Kupffer cells), alveoli, debris
Macrophages
● 3-5 lobes spleen, tonsils, lymph ● Secretion of
1.Neutrophils Circulation nodes, bone marrow, brain Interleukin-1 to
● Nana kapag may sugat
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IMMUNE FUNCTION

stimulate lymphocyte ➔ Intricate network that has specific response to injury or infection
growth ➔ Activated by minor (bruises or laceration) or major injury (burn,
systemic disease, pneumonia, tuberculosis, covid-19)
➔ Response will be specific or nonspecific (inflammation)
Lymphocytes - Specific ◆ Nonspecific tries to localized the injury
- Won’t activate if it’s not specific ◆ “Hanggang dyan ka lang beh”
➔ initiated by exposure to an antigen
➔ changes occurs in the host
◆ Host preservation
● Activation of T and B
➔ rapid and specific response following subsequent exposures
cells
◆ ALL IMMUNITY PRECEDED AN INFECTION
● Control of viral
Circulation, lymph system, ➔ Identifies malignant cells and destroys them
infections and
tissues ➔ Removes dead cells
destruction of cancer
a. T-cells Moves from the bone ➔ GOOD IMMUNE SYSTEMS PREVENTS CANCER
cells
marrow to the thymus and ➔ In contrast to resistance immunity involves a specific defensive
● Involved in
matures into several cells response when the host is invaded by foreign organisms or other
hypersensitivity
foreign substances
reaction and graft tissue
rejection
PROPERTIES OF IMMUNE SYSTEM:
Circulation
● Production of antibodies 1. Self Recognition
b. B-Cells Matures in the bone
(Ig) to specific antigen ○ directed against materials recognized as foreign/material
marrow
outside from the body
● Cytotoxic, killing of 2. The immune response is specific.
c. Natural
Circulation tumor cells, fungi, viral ○ Directed into a specific antigen
Killer / Null
infected cells and 3. Immune response is systemic.
Cells (NK)
foreign tissue 4. Immunity is generalized.
Lymphoid Tissues ○ Not restricted to the entry of the pathogen/initial site of
infection
a. Primary/ 5. Immune response has a memory.
● Production of immune
Central Bone marrow and thymus ○ Body has faster response to repeated infection
cells, sites for cell
lymphoid gland
maturation
structures TYPES OF IMMUNITY
b. Secondary/ Lymph nodes, spleen, 1. NATURAL/INNATE IMMUNITY
● Sites for activation of
Peripheral tonsils, intestinal lymphoid ○ At birth
immune cells by antigen
structures tissues ○ Response due to heredity
○ All people are resistant to animal disease (distemper,
cholera)
IMMUNE RESPONSE
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IMMUNE FUNCTION

○ Resistance to measles varies from one person to person ● Ex. tetagam (tetanus immunoglobulin)
(commonly wala dapat) sabay with Tetanus Toxoid with multiple
○ Nonspecific response to foreign invaders → limit the wound
entries of invaders → limits the workload of the immune ● Ex. nakagat ng aso – TT - TG- Verorab - T
system ● Animal bite vaccine
○ Ability to distinguish friend and foe (self and nonself) a. Category I - walang visibility of
2. ACQUIRED IMMUNITY bleeding
○ Adaptive immunity ■ Active type of
immunization
TYPES OF ACQUIRED IMMUNITY: b. Category II - visibility of blood
1. Natural Acquired active ■ Active and passive if
○ Natural mo nakuha animal is unvaccinated
○ Two types: ■ Active only if animal is
■ Natural Active vaccinated
● Natural exposure to antigen c. Category III - multiple bite and
● Life long immunity unless your immune bite near the head and nerve
system is compromised (ex. HIV patients, ending
Leukemia) ■ Active (5 doses) and
■ Natural Passive passive
● Antibodies from mother to baby ■ Pt kg x .2
● Colostrum and placental circulation 1. Ex. 47 x .2 = 9.2 cc
● 6 mos - 1 yr max ■ optional: sa pwet kapag
2. Acquired artificial active wala na sa right and left
○ Natural active - vaccines (live attenuated vaccines – deltoid
cold chain) ■ Salitan every balik ng pt
■ Low in virulence factor para di nabugbog yung
■ Low in pathogenicity arm ni pt
■ Usually 2x or 3x binibigay to make sure
■ Ex. covid 19, tetanus toxoid, anti rabies vaccines COMPONENTS:
○ Artificial passive 1. PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL BARRIERS
■ Vaccine ● Skin, tears and such
● antibody from other human and animals 2. WBC
● From human → 0.03 allergic reaction → 3. INFLAMMATIONS
no need for skin test ○ Non specific
● Animal galing → needs skin test → equine ○ Cannot destroy pathogens but activates specific response
serum→ negative skin test is needed →
usually 15 mins waiting time only DEFENSE MECHANISMS OF THE BODY:
Host Defense
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IMMUNE FUNCTION

➔ Nonspecific: innate, natural, first line versus any pathogen

➔ Kahit ano aatakihin niya HUMORAL IMMUNITY
➔ Ex. ➔ Antibody-Mediated Immune Response
◆ normal flora/resident flora ◆ Characterized by production of antibodies by the
◆ Dry surface with the pH of 5-6 (intact dry surface of the B-lymphocytes in response to a specific antigen
skin with hyperosmotic sweat) ➔ B-Lymphocytes – The humoral response
◆ Lining of the mucus membrane ◆ Response for pathogens not entering our cells
● Eyes, nose and intestines ◆ Each B-lymphocytes recognized only one specific
● Provides washing effects preventing antigen/need T-helper cell to be activated
microorganisms to adhere ◆ maturation/B cells develop to give many different
◆ Lysozymes in tears variants/specific immune systems responds to any type
● Responsible for the invasion of the bacteria of pathogen entering the body
◆ Respiratory Tract ◆ Macrophages ingest Pathogens because it has display on
● No resident flora → being removed by the its surface that is recognized by the body (Antigenic
mucous and ciliary activity (one unitary motions) Presentation) → B – Cells combines with T – Helper cells
● Usually has alveolar macrophages and some (Membrane Receptor complementary with T – Cells) → T
lysosomes – Helper cells releases Cytokines → Activates Selected B –
● Lungs is sterile in nature Cells Lymphocytes ability → To Secretes Antibodies of
◆ GIT the same type to the blood → Divide and Multiple
● Gastric acid → protection in the stomach through Mitosis. (Cloning) → Cells grow and form Plasma
◆ GUT Cells → Produces masses of Pre-Antibodies.
● Male: no microbial flora ◆ constantly replaced by cell division and proliferation in
● Female: with microbial flora the bone marrow
◆ constitute 10-15% of circulating lymphocytes
Antigen - caused for the formation of antibody ◆ responsible for producing antibodies
Antibody - whatchu get ◆ However, T cells macrophages are also involved in
recognizing foreign substances
Acquired ◆ Constantly replaced in the bone marrow
➔ Tetanus toxoid - human ● If pangit bone marrow mo, edi gg ikaw :(
➔ ATS - animal
➔ Anatexal Berna PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
➔ Tetanus Immunoglobulin - A Antigen
➔ Verorab - A ↓
➔ Favirab - P Recognition by T-cells, macrophages
◆ Kg x .2 ↓
➔ Imogam Picks up antigenic message/ blueprint of the antigen
Passive ↓
Returns to nearest lymph node with the message
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IMMUNE FUNCTION

↓ ➔ Therefore, immune system may produce several antibodies to

B-cells activated recognize one antigen of a pathogen
↓
Proliferates and differentiates BASIC ANTIBODY STRUCTURE
➔ Bivalent - most humans have two binding site “Y” shaped, as
antigenic determinant
Antibody producing plasma cell memory cell ◆ Magkaiba binding site
↓ ↓ 1. Consists of four looping polypeptide chains linked together with
Produce thousands of antibody molecule/second Retain antibody disulfide bonds. Two identical heavy (H) chains and two identical
producing info. light (L) chains.
↓ 2. The four chains bound together using disulfide bonds to form…
Produces rapid response 3. Each chain has a variable (V) region at one end and a constant (C)
if antigen is encountered region at the other end.
again 4. The stem of the Antibody monomer and lower parts of the Y’s are
called constant (C) regions.
ANTIGEN 5. There are 5 major sequences found for C regions of H chains, and
➔ The immune system recognizes components of the body it protects there are 2 different sequences for L chains.
as "self" and foreign matter as "nonself or antigens. 6. Each H chain sequence determines a different class of
➔ The vast majority of antigens are proteins, or proteins with side Immunoglobulin.
chains. 7. The stem of the Y shaped antibody monomer is called the Fe
➔ These proteins are often components of invading microbes, capsules (Crystallizable fragment) region.
cells, flagella, pili, and toxins of bacteria. the coats of viruses, or on
the plasma membrane of other types of cells INACTIVATION OF ANTIGEN BY ANTIBODIES:
1. Promotes phagocytosis of the antigen by neutrophils
ANTIBODY 2. Precipitation
➔ Y shaped Immunoglobulin molecule with the ability to bind to and ○ Combine with soluble antigens to form insoluble complex
inactivate specific antigen to precipitate
◆ comprises the gamma globulin portion of the blood CHON’s 3. Neutralization
◆ Glycoprotein in nature about 3% ○ Combining of toxins to neutralize the effect
➔ Antiserum ○ Ex. Tetanus → manifestation of muscle stiffness → kapag
◆ Another term namamatay ang pathogens they release more toxins
◆ Antibody rich serum component 4. Lysis of the antigen
● Gamma Globulin ○ Combination of antibody and antigens
◆ These proteins can recognize, bind to and help cause the ○ Bind to the receptor to the pathogen and lyse the
destruction of antigens pathogen (pinapahina)
➔ Cannot recognize the whole pathogen, however they can recognize 5. Agglutination (clumping of antigen)
regions ○ Clamp to form noninvasive aggregation → to kill them
◆ Antigenic determinant - where antibodies bind eventually
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IMMUNE FUNCTION

6. Opsonization ➔ Bind to antigen carrying cells and destroy them and or activate
○ Coating of the pathogen along with the antigen → making the humoral responses
them more vulnerable to the phagocytic cells ◆ Recognize foreign antigen displayed on the surface of
normal body cells
CELLULAR IMMUNITY ◆ Primary response produces memory cells which remain
➔ Cell mediated Immune Response in the circulation
➔ Some antigen cannot stimulate the antibody mediated response ➔ Secondary response: New invasion by the same Antigen →
or are “hidden” Immediate Recognition and attack the foreign invaders directly.
◆ virus ➔ Virus enter the cell and more difficult to remove
➔ T-cells are primarily responsible for cellular immunity ➔ No antibodies involved/work directly on the infected cell by
➔ T-Cells move from Bone marrow into Thymus destroying it
◆ 70-80% circulating lymphocyte ➔ Special proteins called Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC)
◆ Life span measured in years are present on all human cells
◆ Antigen specific ➔ Non-self antigen interacts with MHC as human cell becomes
◆ Attack foreign invaders directly rather than by producing infected by pathogens
antibodies
CHARACTERISTICS OF T CELLS
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY 1. Specific T-lymphocyte
Antigen ○ cause d autoimmune disorders
↓ ○ The leave their toxins (natalo na ng immune systems) →
Binds to antigen receptor but immune cells are still active → still have a lot of no. of
(located on the surface of T-Cells) antibodies → they recognize the chemical marking left by
↓ toxins in the body → resulting to autoimmune disease
Picks up antigenic message/ blueprint of the antigen 2. Activated T-lymphocyte
↓ ○ Multiply by the process of mitosis → enter into the
Returns to nearest lymph node with the message circulation
↓ 3. Cells differentiate into different types of cell
Stimulates production of antigen-specific T-cells clones ○ They become specific T cells
4. Helper T cells
○ Stimulate activity of cytotoxic cells and certain no. of
T cells remain in the lymph nodes T cells migrate from lymph nodes B-lymphocytes
↓ ↓ ○ Release chemicals like cytokines and interleukins
Retain a memory of the antigen General circulatory system 5. Suppressor T cells
↓ ○ Switch off T-cells and B cells response once the infection
back into tissues has been cleared
6. Memory T cells
TYPES OF IMMUNE RESPONSE ○ Activates T-cells, remains in the circulation
Cellular Response - T lymphocytes
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IMMUNE FUNCTION

○ Our body response quickly when same pathogen infects ◆ If drug is administered, remember it’s a class of
the body cytokine
◆ Broad antiviral effect
OTHER CLASSES OF T-CELLS:
1. Effector Cells 2. Suppressor T cells
○ Responsible for recognizing and destroying the antigen ○ Provide negative feedback
○ Cytotoxic T Cells - attack directly onto the membrane ○ Keep the immune response at a level that is
causing the lysis of the foreign cells termed as compatible with our health to prevent
disintegration autoimmune disease
■ Release certain enzyme cytolytic enzyme or 3. Memory T-Cells
cytokines ■ Responsible to recognize specific antigen
● Vital to control the invasion of foreign ■ Except in RNA virus, same with mycobacterium
proteins and HIV because they are hidden in cells
○ Killer T cells - bind to the surface of the cells that are ■ Mycobacterium Tubercle vs Mycobacterium
infected leprosy (Ketong)
2. Regulator Cells
○ Key role in regulating immune response
TYPES:
1. Helper T-cells
■ Activated once recognition of antigen is present
■ Release enzyme to stimulate humoral immunity
■ Regulator
■ Amplifies the activity of killer T cells

Cytokines
➔ Hormone like polypeptide
➔ small proteins that are crucial in controlling the growth
and activity of other immune system cells and blood cells.
➔ Produced by monocytes
➔ Activate macrophages
➔ Act as a messenger of the immune system
◆ Facilitates communication between the cells and
nonspecific immune system
➔ Activate B-cells and Cytotoxic T cells to aide in
Follow up vaccine → recurrence of infection can happen
neutralizing the invasion
➔ Tetanus toxoid
➔ Interferon
➔ Females
◆ A class of cytokines
◆ TT1 → TT5
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IMMUNE FUNCTION

◆ TT5 → lifelong vaccination activity by preventing binding of virus to

cells of respiratory and GIT
ROLE OF HUMORAL AND CELLULAR RESPONSES ➔ Level decrease during stress
HUMORAL CELLULAR ➔ Prevents absorption of antigen from food
➔ Passess to neonate from breastmilk for
➔ Bacterial phagocytosis and
➔ Transplant rejection protection
lysis
◆ Importance of colostrum in newborn
➔ Anaphylaxis ➔ Delayed Hypersensitivity
➔ Found in Blood and lymph
➔ Asthma ➔ Graft vs Host Disease ➔ 1st antibody with primary immune
➔ Tumor surveillance or response
➔ Immune complex disease
destruction ◆ Present during incubation
➔ Bacterial and some viral ◆ Reduce in no. after 1 week
➔ Intracellular infections ➔ Mediates cytotoxic response and activates
infections IgM 5-10%
➔ Viral, fungal, parasitic complement
infections ➔ Predominant antibody involved in the
response to ABO blood group antigens
➔ Their large size prevent IgM from moving
IMMUNOGLOBULIN CHARACTERISTICS AND FUNCTIONS about as freely as IgG, therefore they remain
in the blood vessels
➔ Five classes according to the property of their heavy chains ➔ Found in blood, lymph, surfaces of B Cells
➔ Exact function unknown
% OF <1%
CLASS CHARACTERISTICS AND FUNCTIONS IgD ➔ Possibly influences B cell differentiation
TOTAL (0.2%)
➔ may be receptor binding antigens to B cell
➔ Most abundant surface
➔ known as Gamma Globulin ➔ Found on mast cells, basophils, serum
➔ Active against bacteria, viruses and ➔ Involved in release of chemical mediators
bacterial toxins responsible for immediate hypersensitivity
IgG 75% IgE 0.004%
➔ Enhances phagocytosis (allergic and anaphylactic) response
➔ Activates complement ➔ Responsible to the release of HISTAMINE
➔ Confers long term immunity ➔ Combats parasitic infections
➔ Can passed to neonate
➔ Appears in body fluids (saliva, tears,
bronchial, GIT, prostatic and vaginal Inflammation
IgA 10-15% secretions, breast milk), blood and lymph
➔ Provides protection on exposed mucous ➔ Series is physiological response due to injury, trauma or immune
membrane surface and potent antiviral response to a foreign object
➔ Could be local or nonspecific
◆ Not dependent on a specific cause
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IMMUNE FUNCTION

➔ Adaptive mechanism with the intention to neutralize or control ● Provoke the effect of bradykinin →
the invasion happening increasing recognition to pain
➔ Promotes tissue repair (?) ■ Leukotrienes
➔ Inflammation is not the same with infection (only one several ● Derived from metabolism of arachidonic
factor that trigger inflammatory response) acid (stroke and MI → cell damage)
➔ First major function of our innate/natural immune system ● Smooth muscle contraction
● Increased vascular permeability → fluid
nakakalabas
Purpose why inflammation happen: ■ Serotonin
● Responsible for the release of platelet
1. To localize tissue injury ● Also responsible for vasodilation
2. To protect tissue from injury ○ Cellular Exudation
3. To prepare tissue for repair or healing ■ CHON
■ Dilute bacterial toxin
STAGE OF INFLAMMATION:
■ To transport phagocytic cells
1. Vascular Response ■ Serous
○ Transitory vasoconstriction → to stop the bleeding ● Clear portion of the blood
○ Chemical mediators are released ● Water in appearance
■ Bradykinin ● Ex. blisters
● Produce during inflammation and ■ Sanguineous
produce pain ● With presence of blood
● Powerful vasodilator (pamumula) ● Indicated damage in the capillaries
● Increase capillary permeability ● Bright (fresh bleeding→ indicates
● Release in the site of injury causing hemorrhage) or dark serosanguinous
release of chemical inflammatory ■ Serosanguineous → hemorrhagic exudate
mediators ● Very red
● Responsible for chemotaxis (formation of ● Sudden increase after 72 hours preceded
nahaharangan ang sugat) by wound dehiscence
■ Histamine ■ Catarrhal
● Release every time there is ● Some are clear
damage/allergy/microorganism ● Usually seen in upper respiratory tract
● Stored in the mast cell ■ Purulent
● Stimulates basophils and platelets ● Thick compared to serous exudate
● Work together with bradykinin ● Presence of pus → presence of WBC →
■ Prostaglandine indicates cellular necrosis and infection
● Increase sensitivity to pain receptor ● Comes in diff. Colors depending on the
● Enhanced pain causative ages
■ Fibrous/Fibrinous exudate
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IMMUNE FUNCTION

● yellow/pinkish in color ○ Dolor/pain from the accumulation of fluid causing

● Walling off → nagsasara ng sugat irritation to the nerve ending
● Prevent infections ○ Tumor/swelling
■ Due to accumulation of fluid to the site
○ Loss of function
2. Cellular Response and Phagocytosis 2. Increase ESR
○ Increase blood flow ○ Mataas ang clotting factor
■ For fluid leak in the surrounding tissues
■ Dadala ng RBC, WBC and platelets
■ Facilitate the mobilization of the leukocyte to the
damage tissues
■ Neutrophils → unang pinapadala ng immune
system during local damage → Followed by
monocytes (contains phagocytic ability) →
lymphocytes (bigger takes time to arrive)

3. Stages of Healing
○ Also called reparative stage by means of regeneration
(almost identical of the damage cells) → however if
masayong malaki ang damage → syempre di na
mangyayari eon
○ Presence of scar formation → happens when
regeneration is not possible → Formation of scar tissue
○ Fibrous tissue formation (scar) → also termed as scar but
has the ability to proliferate → prominent and distinct
scar → ex. Vaccine scars → tertiary wound healing
■ May stages din… ex. Granulation state
■ Keloidal in nature (pangit yung healing)

MANIFESTATIONS OF INFLAMMATION
1. Local Signs
○ Rubor/erythema
○ Calor/heat/warm /hyperemia