MODULE 3

(CE 103 – Highway and Railroad Engineering)

GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF HIGHWAYS AND RAILWAYS

Engr. Leo M. Sauro, D.M.
(+63)-9451136579
leomsauro@gmail.com

OVERVIEW

In this module, we will describe the criteria, cross-section elements, roadway

alignment, sight distance, and other considerations used to design principal elements of
highways and railways.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of this module, you should be able to define and understand the concepts
associated with the design of highways and railways.

INTRODUCTION

Development of a comprehensive highway and railway design focuses on the

establishment of a travel lane configuration, alignment location and all dimensions related
to its cross section. A three-dimensional physical location is determined through calculation
of a horizontal and vertical alignment of the highway or railway centerline, based on a
variety of operational considerations. The results of these activities are referred to as the
geometric design and represent all visible features of a highway or a railway.

LESSON 1: DESIGNING THE HIGHWAY

The elements of design of highways are influenced by a wide variety of design

controls, engineering criteria, and project-specific objectives. Such factors include the
following:

 Functional classification
 Traffic safety considerations
 Projected traffic volume and composition
 Required design speed
 Multimodal needs of the surrounding community
 Topography of the surrounding land

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  Capital costs for construction
 Agency funding mechanisms
 Human sensory capacities of roadway users
 Vehicle size and performance characteristics
 Public involvement, review and comment
 Environmental considerations
 Right-of-way impacts and costs

These considerations are not, completely independent of one another. The first step in
the design process is to define the function that the facility is to serve. The two major
considerations in functionally classifying a roadway are access and mobility. Access and
mobility are inversely related - that is, as access is increased, mobility is decreased.
Roadways are functionally classified first as either urban or rural. The hierarchy of the
functional highway system within either the urban or rural area consists of the following:

 Principal arterial - main movement (high mobility, limited access)

 Minor arterial - interconnects principal arterials (moderate mobility, limited access)
 Collectors - connects local roads to arterials (moderate mobility, moderate access)
 Local roads and streets - permits access to abutting land (high access, limited
mobility)

The functional class of a proposed facility is largely determined by the volume and
composition of traffic to be served. It is also related to the type of service that a highway will
accommodate and the speed that a vehicle will travel while being driven along a highway.

For a given class of highway, the choice of design speed is governed primarily by the
surrounding topography, regional importance within the larger highway network, magnitude
of related construction impacts and capital costs. Once a design speed is chosen, many of
the elements of design (e.g. horizontal and vertical alignment, shoulder width, and side
slopes) may be established on the basis of fundamental human sensory capabilities,
vehicle performance, and other related operating characteristics. Of all the factors that are
considered in the design of a highway, the principal design criteria are traffic volume,
design speed, vehicle size, and vehicle mix.

Relationship of Traffic to Highway Design

The major traffic elements that influence highway design are:

 Average Daily Traffic (ADT) and Annual Average Daily traffic (AADT)
 Design Hour Volume (DHV)
 Directional Distribution (D)
 Percentage of Trucks (T)
 Design Speed (V)

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Annual Average Daily Traffic (AADT) is the number of vehicles that pass a particular point
on a roadway during a period of 24 consecutive hours averaged over a period of 365 days..

Average Daily Traffic. (ADT) represents the total traffic for a year divided by 365, or the
average traffic volume per day. Due to seasonal, weekly, daily, or hourly variations, ADT is
generally undesirable as a basis for design, particularly for high-volume facilities. ADT
should only be used as a design basis for low and moderate volume facilities, where more
than two lanes unquestionably are not justified.

Design Hourly Volume.(DHV) The design hourly volume is usually the 30th highest hourly
volume for the design year, commonly 20 years from the time of construction completion.
For situations involving high seasonal fluctuations in ADT, some adjustment of DHV may be
appropriate.

To the designer, the most significant measure of traffic volume is the design hour
volume, a two-way value which may be determined by multiplying the AADT by a
proportional representative of the amount of traffic occurring during the peak hour for an
average weekday. This proportional value, known as the K-factor, typically decreases as
AADT increases. The highest K-factor are common to recreational facilities. The value of K
decreases from rural to suburban to urban facilities, respectively. The value of K ranges
between 0.09 and 0.10 for many highways; however, highways with high peak periods and
relatively low volumes during off-peak may exhibit K-factor values greater than 0.10.

The Directional distribution (D) is the one-way volume in the predominant direction
of travel, expressed as a proportion of the volume in the two-way design hour volume. For
rural two-lane roads, D ranges from 0.50 to 0.70 ( or 50 to 70 percent of traffic in one
direction) and is typically assumed to be 0.60 ( or 60 percent).

Example: For an urban highway with an ADT of

20,000 vehicles per day, determine the design hour volume (DHV) for the
peak direction of travel assuming K = 0.10 and D = 0.60.

Solution: DVH = 20,000 x 0.10 x 0.60 = 1,200 veh/hr

Composition of traffic (T) is usually expressed as the percentage of trucks present

in the traffic flow during the design hour. That percentage typically varies from about 5 to 19
percent. In urban areas, the percentage of trucks travelling within the overall flow of traffic
during peak hours tends to be considerably less than percentages on a daily basis.

A major objective in highway design is to create a highway with dimensions and

alignment that can serve the design service flow rate, which should be at least as great as
the flow rate during the peak 15-minute period of the design hour, but not so great as to
represent an extravagance in the design.

Roadway Capacity

Traffic volumes that can be served at each level of service are referred to as “service
flow rate”. Once a level of service has been chosen for a particular project design, the
corresponding service volume logically becomes the design service volume. This implies

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that if the traffic volume using this facility exceeds that value, the operating conditions will
be inferior to the level of service for which the roadway was designed. The level of service
appropriate for the design of various types of highways located within representative
surrounding terrain conditions is shown in table below.

Table 3-1. Guide for Selection of Design Levels of Service

Type of area & appropriate Level of Service

Highway Type
Rural Rural Rural Urban &
Level Rolling Mountainous Suburban
Freeway B B C C
Arterial B B C C
Collector C C D D
Local D D D D
Level of Service = General operating condition
A = Free flow
B = Reasonably free flow
C = Stable flow
D = Approaching unstable flow
E = Unstable flow
F = Forced or breakdown flow

Source: From A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and streets 2001, copyright 2001. AASHTO /
Highway engineering by Paul Wright & Karen Dixon

The configuration and number of travel lanes to be provided for a highway design
have a significant impact on the level of service.

Design Speed

AASHTO defined Design Speed as: “the speed determined for design and
correlation of the physical feature of a highway that influence vehicles operation. It is the
maximum speed that can be maintained over a specified section of the highway when
weather and traffic conditions are so favorable that the design features of the highway
govern.”
The AASHTO practice is to classify first the highway as Rural or Urban, then as
Freeways, Arterials, Collectors and Local. Rural collectors and local facilities are classified
as flat, rolling, or mountainous. Although the design speed presently used is 80 km per
hour, highway designers projected design speed up to 120 km per hour to guarantee
against future obsolescence as well as the increased margin of operating safety. The high
speed road design must anticipate future generation high speed vehicles and advanced
transportation systems that may operate on many of these road alignments.
Although the design speed of most highways is governed by construction cost, the
concept of the relatively high speed design for freeways is regardless of cost. They are
planned for a nationwide high volume traffic and high speed network.

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Table 3-2. Minimum Recommended Design Speed

Design Speed
FACILITY Urban km/hr Rural km/hr
Freeway 80-95 preferred 110-95 mountainous
Arterial 64-95 but 48 in 80-110
built up areas
Collectors 48 km/hr See table 3-3
Local 32-48 km/hr See table 3-3
Source: Elements of Roads and Highways, Max B. Fajardo Jr. p. 29

Table 3-3. AASHTO Minimum Recommended Design Speed km./hr. for Rural
Collectors and Local Roads Based on Current ADT

Class Terrain Average Daily Traffic

0- 400- 750- 2000- Over
Collector 400 750 2000 4000 4000
Level 60 75 75 75 90
Rolling 45 60 60 75 75
Mountainous 30 45 45 60 60
0-50 50- 250- Over
Local 250 400 400
Level 45 45 60 75
Rolling 30 45 45 60
Mountainous 30 30 30 45
Source: Elements of Roads and Highways, Max B. Fajardo Jr. p. 29

Design Vehicle

The dimension of the motor vehicles that will utilize the proposed facility also
influence the design of a roadway project. The width of the vehicle naturally affects the
width of the traffic lane; the vehicle length has a bearing on the roadway capacity and
affects the turning radius; and the vehicle height affects the clearance of the various
structures. Vehicle weight, affects the structural design of the roadway.

Vehicle performance for the various motor vehicles also has a considerable impact
on the design of a highway facility. Acceleration and deceleration rates are important
parameters taken into account in the development of several numerical equations. One
obvious consideration of particular significance when designing a two-lane roadway is an
evaluation of truck slow-down speeds. It is highly desirable to limit the speed differential to
between trucks and passenger cars to a desirable maximum of 15 kph. Factors affecting
truck slow-downs are the steepness of a roadway upgrade And the total length of the
upgrade.

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CROSS SECTION OF TYPICAL HIGHWAY

The cross section of a typical highway has latitude of variables to consider such as:
1. The volume of traffic.
2. Character of the traffic.
3. Speed of the traffic.
4. Characteristics of motor vehicles and of the driver.

Highway design usually adopted cross section that is uniform in thickness from end
to end of the improvement. This is acceptable on high volume traffic road facilities. For a
low volume traffic facilities, modification of the features like the shoulders width in rough
areas are usually employed to reduce costs. A cross section design generally offers the
expected level of service for safety and a recent study showed that:
1. A 7.20 meters wide pavement has 18% less accident compared with
pavement narrower that 5.50 m. wide.
2. A 7.20 meters wide pavement has 4% fewer accidents than the 6.00 meters
wide roadway.
3. Accident records showed no difference between the 6.60 meters and the 7.20
meters wide pavement.
4. For the 6.00 m., 6.60 m. and 7.20 m. wide pavement with 2.70 to 3.00 m wide
shoulder, recorded accident decreases by 30% compared to 0 to 0.60 m. wide
shoulder. And 20% compared with a 0.90 t0 1.20 meters wide shoulder.

For Two Lane Rural Highways,
For Collector Roadway,
For Local Rural Roadway,
For Urban Roadway,
a 7.20 meters wide surface is required for safe clearance
between commercial vehicles and is recommended for
main highways.
6.00 meters wide surface is acceptable only for low
volume traffic including few trucks travelling thereon.
the minimum surface width is 4.80 meters for a 30 km./hr.
design speed.
the minimum design width is 3.60 meters although 3.00
meters is allowed where space is limited.

CROSS SECTION OF TYPICAL TWO LANES HIGHWAYS

Source: Elements of Roads and Highways, Max B. Fajardo Jr. p. 31

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MULTI-LANE HIGHWAYS AND FREEWAYS (HALF SECTION)
Source: Elements of Roads and Highways, Max B. Fajardo Jr. p. 31

ROAD SHOULDERS

Road shoulders or verge is defined as the portion of the roadway between the edge of the
traffic lane and the edge of the ditch, gutter, curb or side slope.
AASHTO requires that its usable pavement width shall be strong enough to support
vehicles.

Importance of Road Shoulder

1. Road shoulder serves as a place for vehicles to stop when disabled or for
some other purposes. Road shoulder considerable reduces road accidents.
2. The road capacity is decreased and accident opportunity increases if the
shoulder is too narrow or omitted in the design.
3. Shoulder should be continuous along the full length of the roadway. It also
adds structural strength to the road pavement.
4. Shoulder increases the horizontal sight distance on curves. It reduces
accident potential when vehicle stop during emergencies.

Policy on geometric design recommended that:

1. Outside shoulder should be paved for at least 3.00 or 3.60 meters wide if truck
volume is more than 250 in the design hour (ADT).
2. The recommended width of left (median) shoulder is 1.20 t0 2.40 meters with at least
1.20 meters paved.
3. If there are 6 or more lanes, the median shoulder should be 3.00 meters wide or 3.60
meters if truck volume in the design hour exceeds 250.
4. For arterials with ADT less than 400 the usable shoulder width is fixed at 1.20 meters
minimum, although 2.40 meters wide is much preferred.
5. When the design hour volume ADT exceeds 400, the usable minimum shoulder
width is 2.40 meters although 3.60 meters is recommended.
6. For Urban Arterial Road, similar shoulder without curb is suggested unless needed
for proposed drainage.
7. The width of median shoulder on four lanes divided arterials is fixed at 90 cm. as
minimum.
8. For six or more lanes, 2.40 m to 3.00 m shoulder width is recommended.
9. For Rural Collectors Roadway, 60 cm. wide graded shoulder is required for ADT’s
less than 400.
10. For ADT’s over 2000, 2.40 meters wide shoulder is recommended.

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Table 3-4 Width of Roadway For Undivided Highway

Total Shoulder Roadway Speed of Reference

Travelway Width Width
14.00 m. 3.25 20.50 100 - 80 - 60 - 40
12.00 m. 3.25 18.50 60 - 40
7.00 m. 2.75 12.50 100 - 80 - 60 - 40
7.00 m. 2.00 11.00 80 - 60 - 40
6.70 m. 2.75 12.20 100 - 80 - 60 - 40
6.70 m. 2.00 10.70 80 - 60 - 40
6.00 m. 2.75 11.50 80 - 60 - 40
6.00 m. 1.50 9.00 80 - 60 - 40
Source: Elements of Roads and Highways, Max B. Fajardo Jr. p. 35

The Cross Slope

The cross slope is provided in all tangent sections of the roadway. Slope usually falls
in both directions from the centerline of the two lane highway except where super elevation
of curves directs all water towards the inside.
For high type pavement, the crown or slope is often 1% to 2%. However, steeper
slopes are strongly recommended because rain water, flow away more rapidly reducing the
water thickness on the road pavement. A cross slope in one direction of multi lane
highways makes driving comfortable, but with heavy rainfall, the water depth increases on
the roadway.
The paved shoulder cross slope ranges from 3.5 to 6% although 4% is the most
common. For a gravel shoulder, 4% to 6% slope is satisfactory and 7% slope is effective
drainage for turf (grass) surfaces.

Cut or Fill Slope

Earth fill of normal height is safe on a slope of 1:2 ratios. Meaning, the first number
represents the horizontal distance while the second number is the vertical distance.
Slope of cuts through an ordinary undisturbed earth fill remain in place with a ratio of
1:1 slope. On the other hand, rock cuts should be as steep as 1:2 and sometimes 1:4
proven to be stable. Recently, slopes had been generally lowered for safer operations and
to facilitate plant growth. Plants reduced erosion and decrease maintenance costs.

Number of lanes

The number f lanes in a segment of a highway is determined from the estimated

traffic volume for the design year (AADT) and highway lane capacity at expected level of
service. There are some instances where a reversible lane is located at the center of
freeways with unbalanced heavy traffic flow.

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The Grade Line

Grade line is defined as the longitudinal profile of the highway as a measure how the
centerline of the highway rises and fall.

The grade line appears on a profile taken along the road centerline. It is a series of
straight lines connected by parabolic vertical curves to which straight grades are tangent.
In laying the grade line, the designer must consider the following:

1. Where earthwork is minimal and consistently meeting sight distances in relation to

grade line, economy is one main consideration.
2. In mountainous areas, the grade line must be considered balanced excavation
against embankments to get the minimum overall cost.
3. In flat area, the grade line is set almost parallel to the ground surface but sufficiently
above the ground for drainage purposes.
4. Undesirable native soil should be provided with sufficient covering.
5. Grade line elevations along the river or stream, is governed by the expected level of
water flood.

Table 3-5 Maximum Permissible Grades for Highways in %

Design ARTERIALS
Speed FREEWAYS RURAL URBAN Collectors RURAL Local RURAL
kph
Flat Rolli Mo Flat Rolli Mo Flat Rolli Hilly Flat Rolli Mou Flat Rolli Mou
ng unt ng unt ng ng nt ng nt
32 - - - - - - - - - 7 10 12 8 11 16
48 - - - - - - 8 9 11 7 9 10 7 10 14
64 - - - - - - 7 8 10 7 8 10 7 9 12
80 4 5 6 4 5 7 6 7 9 6 7 9 6 8 10
97 3 4 6 3 4 6 5 6 8 5 6 - 5 6 -
105 - - - 3 4 6 - - - - - - - - -
113 3 4 - 3 4 5 - - - - - - - - -
Source: Elements of Roads and Highways, Max B. Fajardo Jr. p. 54

Vertical Curves

All vertical curves should not be shorter than the established minimum over crests.
This is governed by the sight distance requirements but sometimes a case of riding, may
demand longer curves than the sight distance.
Some designers prefer no vertical curve to be shorter than 300 meters. AASHTO
suggested that the minimum curve length varies with the design speed in meters distance
equals to 8 times the velocity in kilometers per hour.

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Right of Way

Acquisition of land for the right of way is very costly. Based on experience from the
past, highway agency now consider it a good practice to acquire right of way wide enough
to sufficiently provide for the ultimate expected development.

Table 3-6 Minimum Right of Way Widths for Rural and Urban Freeways at Grade in
Meter

RURAL URBAN
Number of Width No Frontage Restricted No Normal with Normal no
Lanes Frontage Road Road Frontage Road Frontage Road Frontage
Road

2 60 45 - - -
4 68 53 41 - -
6 75 60 51 89 53
8 83 68 59 96 60
Source: Elements of Roads and Highways, Max B. Fajardo Jr. p. 56

Sight Distance

Sight distance is the length of highway visible to a driver. A safe sight distance is the
distance needed by a driver on an arterial, or a driver exiting a driveway or street, to verify
that the road is clear and avoid conflicts with other vehicles. Sight lines must be kept free of
objects which might interfere with the ability of drivers to see other vehicles. Features such
as hills, curves in the road, vegetation, other landscaping, signs, and buildings can reduce
sight distance.

Sight distance is critical to motorists in making decisions such as to stop, slow down, turn,
enter a traffic stream from a driveway or public road, or merge into traffic. Adequate sight distance
allows motorists the time they need to avoid crashes and conflicts. Adequate sight distance will help
keep roadways operating safely and smoothly.

Stopping Sight Distance

Sight distance is the length of roadway ahead that is visible to the driver. The
available sight distance on a roadway should be sufficiently long to enable a vehicle
traveling at or a near the design speed to stop before reaching a stationary object in its
path.

Stopping sight distance is the sum of two distances:

1. the distance traversed by the vehicle from the instant the driver sights an object
necessitating a stop to the instant the brakes are applied; and
2. the distance needed to stop the vehicle from the instant brake application begins.
These are referred to as brake reaction distance and braking distance, respectively.

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 In computing and measuring stopping sight distances, the height of the driver’s eye is
estimated to be 3.5 ft [1080mm] and the height of the object to be seen by the driver is 2.0
ft [600 mm], equivalent to the taillight height of the passenger car.

Stopping Sight Distance is the total distance traveled during three time intervals.
 The time for the driver to perceive the hazard.
 The time to react.
 The time to stop the vehicle after the brakes are applied.

Safe stopping distance:

S = stopping distance in meters

t = perception-reaction time in seconds
V = velocity of vehicle in meters per second
f = coefficient of friction between tires and pavement
g = 9.81 meters/sec2
G = Roadway grade

Example:
Compute the total stopping distance that a car moves during the accident based on
the following data:
Initial velocity = 60 kph
Final velocity when it stops = 0 kph
Coefficient of friction between tires and pavement = 0.15
Slope of roadway = -2%
Perception-reaction time = 0.75 sec.

16.67 /
,
Solution:
.
16.67 0.75 121.41 .
. . .

Passing Sight Distance

Passing sight distance is the length of highway required by a driver to make a

passing maneuver without cutting off the passed vehicle and before meeting an opposing
vehicle. Passing Sight Distance is a shortest distance sufficient for a vehicle to turn out of a
traffic lane, pass another vehicle, and then turn back to the same lane safety and
comfortably without interfering with the overtaken vehicle or an on incoming vehicle
traveling at the design speed should it come into view after the passing maneuver is
started.
The minimum passing sight distance for two-lane highways is determined as the sum of
the four distances:
 d1 – Distance traversed during perception and reaction time and during the initial
acceleration to the point of encroachment on the left lane.
 d2 – Distance traveled while the passing vehicle occupies the left lane.

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  d3 – Distance between the passing vehicle at the end of its maneuver and the
opposing vehicle.
 d4 – Distance traversed by the opposing vehicle for two-thirds of the time the
passing vehicle occupies the left lane, or 2/3 of d2 above.

Example: Compute the passing sight distance for the following data:
 Speed of the passing car = 96 kph
 Speed of the overtaken vehicle = 88 kph
 Time of initial maneuver = 4.3 sec.
 Average acceleration = 2.37 kph/sec.
 Time passing vehicle occupies the left lane = 10.4 sec.
 Distance between the passing vehicle at the end of its maneuver and the opposing
vehicle = 76 m.

Solution: 96 88 8
.
. . .
.
96 8
111.20 .
.
. .
277.33 .
76 .
277.33
184.89 .

Total passing sight distance

= d1 + d2 + d3 + d4
= 111.20 + 277.33 + 76 + 184.89
= 649.42 m.

Table 3-7 AASHTO Minimum Passing Sight Distance

for Design of Two-Lane Highways
Minimum Passing Sight Distance
Assumed Speed in m.
Design Passed Vehicle Overtaking
Speed, kph kph Vehicle kph Computed Rounded

35 35 48 243 240
50 42 58 327 320
65 55 70 444 440
80 65 82 552 550
95 75 91 642 640
100 80 96 693 690
110 86 102 747 740
120 90 105 780 780
135 95 110 822 820
Source: Elements of Roads and Highways, Max B. Fajardo Jr. p. 56

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Road Alignment

Road alignment should be consistent. An abrupt change from flat to sharp curve and
long tangents followed by sharp curve should be avoided because it will only create hazard
and invite accident. Similarly, designing circular curves of different radius from end to end
or compounded curve is not a good practice, unless suitable transitions between them are
provided.
To have a short tangent between two curves is also a poor practice. A long flat curve
is acceptable at all times. It is pleasing to look at, with less probability of future
obsolescence. Alignment should be provided with tangent because there are drivers who
hesitate to pass on curves. A long flat curve is preferred for small changes in direction.

Circular Curves

A vehicle traveling in curved road is subject to centrifugal force. This force is

balanced by equal and opposite forces developed through the super elevation and side
frictions. However, neither the side friction on the super elevation, could overcome nor
exceed the maximum control and limit on the sharpness of the curves with a prescribed
design speed. The sharpness of a curve is dependent on its radius. Sharpness is
expressed in terms of the curve degrees, and the degrees of curve is inversely proportional
with the radius.

Table 3-8 Sharpest Permissible Horizontal Curves for

Given Design Speed and Super Elevation

Maximum Permissible Degree of Curve D, or Minimum Radius

design speed
Km/ 35 50 65 80 97 113 127
hr
Coefficient of Side Friction
Super Condition for .17 .16 .15 .14 .13 .12 .11
Elev Use
0.04 Desirable for D 45 19 10 6 3.75
down arterials Rm 39 92 175 291 466 - -
0.10 Max for Rural
highway and D 58 25 13.25 8.25 5.25 3.5 2.25
Rm 30 70 132 198 333 499 776
suburban
freeway
Source: Elements of Roads and Highways, Max B. Fajardo Jr. p. 56

Super Elevation

Curved sections of roadways are usually super elevated. Provisions for gradual
changes from one point to the other should be considered. The centerline of each individual
roadway at profile grade is maintained while raising the outer edge and lowering the inner
edge to attain the desired super elevation. It is done by raising up the outside edge of the
pavement with relation to the centerline until the outer half of the cross section is flat. Then,
the outer edge is raised until the cross section is straight. Finally, the entire cross section is
rotated as a whole until full super elevation is reached.

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 Analysis of the forces acting on the vehicle as it moves around a curve of constant
radius indicates that the theoretical super elevation can be expressed in the following terms

0.01

Where: e = rate of roadway super elevation, %

f = side friction factor
V = vehicle velocity in km/h
g = gravitational constant (9.81 m/s2
R = curve radius in m

Widening of Curves

A provision for a wider roadway is necessary on sharp curve for two lanes pavement
under the following reasons:

1. To force the drivers to shy away from the pavement edge.

2. To increase the effective transverse vehicle width for non-tracking of front and rear
wheels.
3. To give additional width due to the slanted position of the front wheel to the roadway
centerline.
4. For a 7.20 meters wide roadway, an additional width of 30 centimeters is necessary
on an open curve highway.

STUDENT ASSESSMENT ACTIVITY 1:

1. Pick up the correct statement from the following:

a) For arterials with ADT less than 400 the minimum usable shoulder width is
1.20 meters.
b) When the design hour volume ADT exceeds 400, the usable minimum
shoulder width is 2.40 meters.
c) For ADT’s over 2000, 2.40 meters wide shoulder is recommended.
d) All of the above.
2. What super elevation value would you recommend for a roadway with a design
speed of 80 km/h and a radius of curvature of 500 m? Assume f=0.11.
3. A motorst traveling at 100 km/h on a highway needs to take the next exit, which has
a speed limit of 50 km/h. the section of the roadway before the ramp entry has a
downgrade of 3% and coefficient of friction (f) is 0.35. Compute the braking distance
(expressed in m) from the exit ramp, in order to enter the ramp at the maximum
allowable speed limit.

Note: (Pls indicate on your answer sheets your Name, Subject, Module #, Activity #, type of exam , etc.)

Use A4 size bond paper for your answer sheets. Submit your Student Activity/Assessment (hardcopy and
handwritten) to
* thru the UEP municipal link or university main link
* any mode that will be deemed safe for you and me, on or before Sept 27, 2021.

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LESSON 2 : GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF RAILWAYS

Geometric design of railways should be such as to provide

maximum efficiency in the traffic operation with maximum safety at reasonable cost.

Gradient
Any departure of track from level is known as grade or gradient.

Purpose of providing gradient:

• To provide uniform rate of rise or fall
• To reduce cost of earth work
• To reach different stations at different level

TYPES OF GRADIENT

• Ruling gradient. The steepest gradient allowed on the track section. It determines
the max load that the locomotive can haul that section. The steep gradient needs
more powerful locomotives, smaller train loads, lower speed, resulting in costly
hauling.

• Momentum Gradient.
The gradient on a section which are steeper than the ruling gradient acquire
sufficient momentum to negotiate them are known as momentum gradient.

• Pusher gradient.
As stated above a ruling gradient limits the maximum weight of a train which can be
hauled over the section by a locomotive. If the ruling gradient is so severe on a
section that it needs the help of extra engine to pull the same load than this gradient
is known as pusher of helper gradient.

• Gradient at stations. At stations gradient are provided sufficient low due to following
reason:
• To prevent movement of standing vehicle
• To prevent additional resistance due to grade.

RAILWAY TRACK DESIGN

The route upon which a train travels and the track is constructed is defined as an
alignment. An alignment is defined in two fashions.
First, the horizontal alignment defines physically where the route or track goes
(mathematically the XY plane).
The second component is a vertical alignment, which defines the elevation, rise and
fall (the Z component).
Alignment considerations weigh more heavily on railway design versus highway
design for several reasons.
First, unlike most other transportation modes, the operator of a train has no control
over horizontal movements (i.e. steering). The guidance mechanism for railway vehicles is
defined almost exclusively by track location and thus the track alignment. The operator only

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has direct control over longitudinal aspects of train movement over an alignment defined by
the track, such as speed and forward/reverse direction.
Secondly, the relative power available for locomotion relative to the mass to be
moved is significantly less than for other forms of transportation, such as air or highway
vehicles.
Finally, the physical dimension of the vehicular unit (the train) is extremely long and
thin, sometimes approaching two miles in length. This compares, for example, with a barge
tow, which may encompass 2-3 full trains, but may only be 1200 feet in length.
These factors result in much more limited constraints to the designer when
considering alignments of small terminal and yard facilities as well as new routes between
distant locations.

Alignment Design

In a perfect world, all railway alignments would be tangent and flat, thus providing for
the most economical operations and the least amount of maintenance. Though this is never
the set of circumstances from which the designer will work, it is that ideal that he/she must
be cognizant to optimize any design.
From the macro perspective, there has been for over 150 years, the classic railway
location problem where a route between two points must be constructed. One option is to
construct a shorter route with steep grades. The second option is to build a longer route
with greater curvature along gentle sloping topography. The challenge is for the designer to
choose the better route based upon overall construction, operational and maintenance
criteria.
Suffice it to say that in today’s environment, the designer must also add to the
decision model environmental concerns, politics, land use issues, economics, long-term
traffic levels and other economic criteria far beyond what has traditionally been considered.
These added considerations are well beyond what is normally the designer’s task of
alignment design, but they all affect it. The designer will have to work with these issues
occasionally, dependent upon the size and scope of the project.
On a more discrete level, the designer must take the basic components of
alignments, tangents, grades, horizontal and vertical curves, spirals and super elevation
and construct an alignment, which is cost effective to construct, easy to maintain, efficient
and safe to operate.

There have been a number of guidelines, which have been developed over the past
175 years, which take the foregoing into account. The application of these guidelines will
suffice for approximately 75% of most design situations. For the remaining situations, the
designer must take into account how the track is going to be used (train type, speed,
frequency, length, etc.) and drawing upon experience and judgment, must make an
educated decision. The decision must be in concurrence with that of the eventual owner or
operator of the track as to how to produce the alignment with the release of at least one of
the restraining guidelines.

Point and Crossing

Points and crossings are provided to facilitate the change of railway vehicles from one track
to another. The tracks may be parallel, diverging, or converging to each other. Points and

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crossings are necessary due to the inside flanges of wheels of railway vehicles and,
therefore require special arrangement to navigate their way on the rails. The points or
switches aid in diverting the vehicles and the crossings provide gaps in the rails so as to
help the flanged wheels to roll over them. A complete set of points and crossings, along
with lead rails, is called a turnout.

IMPORTANT TERMS
The following terms are often used in the design of points and crossings.

Turnout .
It is an arrangement of points and crossings with lead rails by means of which the
rolling stock may be diverted from one track to another. Figure (a) shows the various
constituents of a turnout.

Parts of a turnout

1. Set of switches – a pair of stock rails, a pair of tongue rails, a pair of heel blocks,
several slide chairs, two or more stretcher bars, and a gauge tie plate.
2. Crossing – a nose consisting of a point rail and splice rails, two wing rails, and two
check rails.
3. Lead rails – four set of lead rails.

Direction of a turnout.
A turnout is designated as a right-hand or a left-hand turnout depending on whether
it diverts the traffic to the right or to the left. In Fig. (a), the turnout is a right-hand turnout
because it diverts the traffic towards the right side. Figure (b) shows a left-hand turnout.
The direction of a point (or turnout) is known as the facing direction if a vehicle approaching
the turnout or a point has to first face the thin end of the switch. The direction is trailing
direction if the vehicle has to negotiate a switch in the trailing direction, that is, the vehicle
first negotiates the crossing and then finally traverses on the switch from its thick end to its
thin end. Therefore, when standing at the toe of a switch, if one looks in the direction of the
crossing, it is called the facing direction and the opposite direction is called the trailing
direction.

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Source: http://www.brainkart.com/article/Railway-Engineering--Points-and-Crossings---Important-Terms_4235/

Tongue rail
It is a tapered movable rail, made of high-carbon or -manganese steel to withstand
wear. At its thicker end, it is attached to a running rail. A tongue rail is also called a switch
rail.

Stock rail
It is the running rail against which a tongue rail operates.

Points or switch
A pair of tongue and stock rails with the necessary connections and fittings forms a
switch.

SWITCHES. A set of points or switches consists of the following main constituents (Fig.
below).

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Source: http://www.brainkart.com/article/Railway-Engineering--Points-and-Crossings---Important-Terms_4235/

(a) A pair of stock rails, AB and CD, made of medium-manganese steel.

(b) A pair of tongue rails, PQ and RS, also known as switch rails, made of medium-
manganese steel to withstand wear. The tongue rails are machined to a very thin
section to obtain a snug fit with the stock rail. The tapered end of the tongue rail is
called the toe and the thicker end is called the heel.
(c) A pair of heel blocks which hold the heel of the tongue rails is held at the standard
clearance or distance from the stock rails.
(d) A number of slide chairs to support the tongue rail and enable its movement towards
or away from the stock rail.
(e) Two or more stretcher bars connecting both the tongue rails close to the toe, for the
purpose of holding them at a fixed distance from each other. (f) A gauge tie plate to
fix gauges and ensure correct gauge at the points.

CROSSING
A crossing or frog is a device introduced at the point where two gauge faces across
each other to permit the flanges of a railway vehicle to pass from one tract to another (Fig.
below). To achieve this objective, a gap is provided from the throw to the nose of the
crossing, over which the flanged wheel glides or jumps. In order to ensure that this flanged
wheel negotiates the gap properly and does not strike the nose, the other wheel is guided
with the help of check rails. A crossing consists of the following components, shown in Fig.
below.

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STUDENT ASSESSMENT ACTIVITY 2:

From the macro perspective, there has been for over 150 years, the classic railway
location problem where a route between two points must be constructed. One option is to
construct a shorter route with steep grades. The second option is to build a longer route
with greater curvature along gentle sloping topography. Take on the challenge, if you are
the designer which option will you choose and why? (you may use situational examples or
sketches for your discussion).

Note: (Pls indicate on your answer sheets your Name, Subject, Module #, Activity #, type of exam , etc.)

Use A4 size bond paper for your answer sheets. Submit your Student Activity/Assessment (hardcopy and
handwritten) to
* thru the UEP municipal link or university main link
* any mode that will be deemed safe for you and me, on or before Sept 27, 2021.

FEEDBACK:

Geometric design for transportation facilities includes the design of geometric cross
sections, horizontal alignment, vertical alignment and various design details. These basic
elements are common to all linear facilities such a s roadways, railways, airport runways
and taxiways. Although the details of design standards vary with the mode and the class of
facility, most of the issues involved in geometric design are similar for all modes. In all
cases, the goals of geometric design are to maximize the comfort, safety and economy of
facilities while minimizing their environmental impacts.
Some topics are were already discussed in Engineering Surveying (e.g. horizontal
curves, vertical curves etc) hence their discussions were limited.

REFERENCES

Wright, Paul H., Dixon, Karen K. (2004). HIGHWAY ENGINEERING. John Wiley & Sons
(Asia) Pte. Ltd.

Garber, Nicholas J., Hoel, Lester A. (2012). TRAFFIC AND HIGHWAY ENGINEERING.
CENGAGE Learning (Asia) Pte. Ltd.

Fajardo, Max B. (2002). Elements of Roads and Highways. 5138 Merchandising

http://www.brainkart.com/article/Railway-Engineering--Points-and-Crossings---Important-
Terms_4235/

http://onlinemanuals.txdot.gov/txdotmanuals/rdw/traffic_characteristics.htm

https://mannancuet.files.wordpress.com/2017/11/attachment-j-railroad-design-criteria-
december.pdf

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