EXCRETORY

PRODUCTS & THEIR

ELIMINATION

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Excretory Products and their
Elimination

 Elimination of metabolic waste esp.

nitrogenous waste out of body

 Main function–
 Osmoregulation (water & salt balance)
& Excretion
 Major nitrogenous waste –
 Ammonia, urea, uric acid

Ammonia is converted into urea in

liver and released into blood,
filtered and excreted by kidneys

(Urea/Ornithine/Kreb-Henseleit cycle):
2NH3 , 1CO2 , 3ATP are consumed
 EXCRETORY ORGANS IN ANIMALS

Excretory Protonephridia Nephridia Malpighian Green Kidney

organs (Flame cells) tubules glands or
Osmoregulatio Antennal
glands
Examples -Platyhelminthes Annelids Most of the Crustaceans All
- Rotifers (Earthworms) insects (Prawn) vertebrate
-Cephalochordate (Cockroach)
(Amphioxus)
- Some annelids
 Characters Type of Animals

Ammonotelic Ureotelic Uricotelic

1 Excretory Ammonia Urea Uric acid
matter

2 Requirement Very large Less than ammonia Least

of water

3 Mechanism of By diffusion across Ammonia produced by Paste or pellet

excretion body surfaces or metabolism is converted
through gill surfaces into urea in the liver and
(in fish) as ammonium released into the blood
ion. which is filtered and
excreted out by the kidneys.

4 Toxicity Highest Less than ammonia Least

5 Example aquatic invertebrates, Mammals, Birds,land
Teleost (many bony Marine(cartilagenous) Insects, Land
fish) Aquatic insects, fishes, land Amphibia snails, many
Aquatic amphibia (Frog , toads) reptiles
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Ammonia Bony fishes Insects Amphibians Aquatic

(fresh) (aquatic) aquatic Invertebrate
(Tadpole
Salamander)
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Urea Mammals Amphibian Cartilagenous

frog fishes
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Uric acid Reptiles Snails Insects Birds

(Land-lizard (Land) (Cockroach)
& snakes)
Note:

Ureotelism and uricotelism are

adaptations for water conservation
Other Excretory Products:
1. Amino acids- aminotelic (unio , pila)

2. Guanine- guanotelic (spider,penguin)

3. Xanthine- spider,penguin

4. TMAO (TriMethyl Amine Oxide)- marine

bony fishes

5. Creatine-new born,preg.,lactating
6.Creatinine-in human , formed by creatine
phosphate in muscle

7.Ornithuric acid-in birds

( benzoic acid + ornithine aa)

8.Hipuric acid-in human(mammals)

( benzoic acid+ glycine aa)

9. Allantonin- embryo of amniotes

Dual excretion:
1.Earthworm –
a) urea (water insufficient)
b) ammonia(water excess/monsoon)

2. Frog-
a) urea (adult frog)
b) ammonia (tadpole)
3. Human- urea (main) , uric acid ,
hippuric acid , creatine , creatinine

4. Lung fishes & Xenopus of toad-

ammonia (when live in water) ,
urea (during summer in mud)
Human excretory system-

1) One pair kidneys

2) one pair Ureter
3) one Urinary bladder
4) one Urethra
 Kidneys:
 Main excretory organ ( urine formation)
 color-Reddish brown
 shape-bean shaped
 Length - 10 - 12 cm, width – 5-7cm,
thickness 2 - 3 cm
 Weight- 120 - 170 gm

 Situation – T12 – L3 vertebra, close to dorsal

inner wall of abdominal cavity ,on either side
of V.C
 Retroperitoneal (peritoneum only on
ventral surface)

 Right kidney lower due to liver

 Left kidney nearer to body mid line

 Protected by 11th and 12th pair of

ribs
 Hilum –
 longitudinal notch in centre of inner concave
surface
 Through which Renal artery and Nerves
enter
 Renal vein and Ureters exit

 Renal pelvis – broad funnel shaped, inner to

hilum(transititional epithelium)

 Outer cortex and inner medulla

 Renal/medullary pyramids (8-12),
apex/tip known as Renal papillae

 Calyces – projections of renal pelvis into

renal papillae (12-15 minOr and 2-3
major)

 Renal columns of Bertini – projection

of renal cortex in between medullary
pyramid
 Ureter: 1 pair

 Muscular tubes 25-30cm long, paired,

carry urine from kidney to bladder
(open with oblique opening-prevent
urinary backflow)

 3 layers-
1. outer Adventitia(WFCT)
2. middle (smooth muscle)
3. inner lined by transitional epithelium
 Urinary bladder :
 Pyriform Single bag like, stores urine
 Ovoid when fully distended
 Storage capacity 500-700 ml

 Detrussor muscle (involuntary smooth),

lined by transitional epithelium, stretch
receptors on wall
 External voluntary and internal
involuntary sphincters
 During‘Micturition’
(Voluntary urination)

 Bladder half filled  stretch

receptors on wall  send signal to
CNS  motor signal from CNS 
Bladder ms contract and sphincter
ms relax  MICTURITION
Urethra: muscular tube
(only in mammals)

 Excretes urine outside body

 Short 4cm in female ,carries only urine
 Long 20 cm in males, carries both
urine and semen
(k/a urinogenital duct)
1. Which of the following is most toxic

1. Ammonia
2. Urea
3. Uric acid
4. Fatty acid
2. Which one of the following needs the least amount
of water for excretion

1. Ammonia
2. Urea
3. Uric acid
4. Both 1 and 3
3. Which of the following excrete nitrogenous wastes
as uric acid in the form of pellet or paste

1. Reptiles
2. Birds
3. Land snails and insects
4. All of the above
4. Malpighian tubules are excretory structures of

1. Insects
2. Mammals
3. Birds
4. Reptiles
5. Find out the incorrect statement

1. Antennal glands - Prawns

2. Protonephridia - Amphioxus
3. Nephridia - Earthworm
4. Malpighian tubule - Spider
6. Main excretory organ in human is

1. Skin
2. Lung
3. Kidney
4. Spleen
7. Find out the correct statement

1. Kidneys are reddish brown and bean shaped

2. Kidneys are situated between last thoracic and

third lumbar vertebra close to dorsal inner wall of
abdominal cavity

3. Kidney measure 10-12cm in length, 5-7cm in

width , 2-3cm in thickness

4. All of these
8. Part of kidney through which ureter ,blood vessels
and nerves enters into it is

1. Renal cortex
2. Renal medulla
3.Hilum
4. Pelvis
9. Inner to hilum of kidney , the broad funnel shaped
space is called

1. Renal cortex
2. Renal medulla
3. Renal pelvis
4. Urethra
10. Renal medulla is divided into a few conical
masses projecting into calyces –

1. Medullary pyramids
2. Renal pelvis
3. Renal Cortex
4.Coloumns of Bertini
11. Renal cortex extends in between medullary
pyramids as

1. Calyces
2. Nephron
3. Columns of Bertini
4. Pelvis
12. Find out the name of the following :
a. A chordate animal having flame cells as excretory
structures
b. Cortical portions projecting between the
medullary pyramids in the human kidney
c. A loop of capillary running parallel to the Henle’s
loop
(a) (a)-Planaria, (b)-duct of Bellini, (c)-Peritubular
capillary
(b) (a)-Amphioxus, (b)-collecting duct, (c)-vasa recta
(c) (a)-Lancelet, (b)-columns of Bertini, (c)-vasa
recta
(d) (a)-Amphioxus, (b)-columns of Bertini, (c)-
peritubular capillary
13.Which one of the following statements is incorrect?

(a) Birds and land snails are uricotelic animals

(b) Mammals and frogs are ureotelic animals
(c) Aquatic amphibians and aquatic insects are
ammonotelic animals
(d) Birds and reptiles are ureotelic
14. Urine is always fluid except in
(a) Reptiles and amphibians
(b) Birds and mammals
(c) Birds and reptiles
(d) Reptiles and mammals
15. A man has taken large amount of proteins in
his diet. He will excrete more of
(a) Urea
(b) Uric acid
(c) Sugar
(d) Salts and water
 Nephron / uriniferous tubules :

 Structural and functional unit (urine

formation)

 One million or 10 lac in each

kidney,3 cm long

 Location-partly in cortex , partly in

medulla
Two parts –
1.Glomerulus –lie in cortex

2.Renal tubule-partly in cortex/medulla

A)Bowmann’s capsule
B)ProximalConvulated Tubule(PCT)
C)Distal Convulated Tubule(DCT)
D)Loop of Henle (hairpin shaped)
E)Collecting duct
Malpighian body/renal corpuscle
= Glomerulus + Bowmann’s capsule
1. Glomerulus –

 Tuft of capillaries formed by

afferent arteriole (a fine branch of
renal artery).

 Blood from glomerulus is carried

away by efferent arteriole
2.Renal tubule-
a)Bowmann’s capsule-Anterior double
walled , cup shaped , encloses
glomerulus)

 Outer parietal layer

(simple squamous epithelium)

 Inner visceral layer

(podocytes with filtration slits/ slit
pores 0.1 µ)
b)PCT- highly coiled , surrounded
by PTCN , simple cuboidal brush
border epithelium (microvilli-
increased absorptive surface) , lot
of mitochondria

c) Loop of henle (hairpin shaped) -

2 limbs (descending & ascending)
c) DCT- simple cuboidal epithelium
- lies close to Malpighian body
- highly coiled tubular structure
 Collecting duct – straight tube into
which DCT of many nephrons open
(columnar epithelium)

 Many collecting ducts converge and

open into renal pelvis through
medullary pyramid in the calyces
(Duct of Bellini or Papillary duct)
 Peritubular capillary network –
formed by efferent arteriole around
renal tubule , Joins to form venules

Vasa recta – a minute vessel of above

network, runs parallel to Henle’s loop,
‘U’ shaped, absent in cortical nephrons
Passage of urine :

Nephron  collecting duct  Duct of

Bellini  Renal papilla  renal calyx
 renal pelvis  ureter  urinary
bladder  urethra
Cortical nephron Juxta-medullary
nephron (JMN)
1.Lie close to kidney surface 1.Lie at junction of cortex &
medulla

2.80-85% 2. 15-20%

3.Short loop of Henle , 3.Long loop of Henle , dips

mainly lie in cortex deep into medulla

4.PTCN Present but Vasa 4.PTCN & Vasa recta both

recta absent present
 Urine formation- three steps :-
1. Glomerular ultrafiltration
 Filtration membrane- three barriers:

1)Endothelium of glomerular
capillary(fenestrated)

2)Basement membrane

3)Visceral epithelium of bowmann capsule

(podocyte with filtration slits)
1.Glomerular hydrostatic pressure (GHP)
= 60-70mmHg (afferent arteriole is thicker than
efferent),promotesfiltration (Glomerulus=high
pressure capillary bed)

2.Blood Colloid Osmotic Pressure (BCOP )

= 30-32mmHg ( due to plasma protein) , resist
filtration

3.Capsular Hydrostatic Pressure( CHP)

= 10-18mmHg (due to filtrate in Bowmann capsule),
resists filtration
Net filtration pressure (NFP)

= GHP -(COP+CHP)= 10 -12 mmHg

Filtrate = plasma filtered out from
glomerular capillary into Bowmanns
capsule

 1100 to 1200 ml (1/5th of CO) =

both kidneys receive per minute

Renal plasma flow (RPF) = 650ml

(both kidneys /min)
Glomerular filtration rate (GFR)

 = 125 ml /min or 180 lit. per day

 It is amount of filtrate formed by

kidneys per minute
(produced by all nephrons in both
kidneys per minute )
Filtration fraction:

% of plasma filtered into capsule

FF= GFR/RPF *100

FF= 125/650 *100 = 20%

Composition of filtrate :

=Blood-(Blood cells + Plasma proteins)

=Plasma-Plasma proteins

 Water, nutrients (glucose, a.a) ,

inorganic ions, waste material like
urea, uric acid creatinine, hippuric
acid etc
2. Selective tubular reabsorption :

 99% of filtrate reabsorbed by renal

tubules

 Filtrate formed 180 Lt/day, urine

released 1.5 Lt/day
 Maximum reabsorption (80-85%) in PCT

 Brush border simple cuboidal epithelium

 100% nearly all of essential nutrients

glucose/a.a (secondary active)

 80% water (osmosis)

 75% inorganic ions (Na+ /K+ by primary

active, Cl– ,HCO3-by diffusion)
 Loop of henle – minimum reabsorption

1. Descending limb permeable to only water

(osmosis)
2. Ascending limb permeable to NaCl
(electrolytes)

 DCT - Na+ (aldosterone) and water (ADH) i.e.

conditional reabsorption

 Lack of ADH - diabetes insipidus (10-14

Lt/day urine output)
 Collecting duct – water and little
urea reabsorbed
3. Tubular secretion – tubular cells secrete
H+, K+ & NH3 into filtrate, at PCT,DCT &
Collecting duct.

 It maintains ionic and acid base balance of

body fluids

 Only mode of excretion in animals without

glomeruli
eg.desert amphibia , marine fishes
PCT , DCT & Collecting duct –
Maintains ionic and acid base balance of
body fluids
(secrete H+,K+,NH3 & reabsorbs HCO3-)

Loop of Henle - Role in concentration

of urine
Filtrate in collecting duct – urine
1. Which of following is not a part of renal tubule

1. Glomerulus
2.Bowman’s capsules
3. Convoluted tubules
4. Henle’s loop
2. Structural and functional unit of kidney is

1. Hilum
2. Medulla
3. Cortex
4. Nephron
3. Malpighian body or renal corpuscle is

1. Glomerulus
2. Bowman’s capsule
3. PCT
4. Both 1 & 2 together
4. In juxta-medullary nephrons ,

1. Vasa recta is prominent

2. Loop of Henle is vey long
3. Loop of Henle runs deep into medulla
4. All of these
5. Choose the correct statement

1. The juxta – medullary nephrons have reduced

Henle’s loop

2. Vasa recta is well developed in cortical nephron

3. PCT and DCT are situated in medulla of

kidney

4. The Bowmen’s capsule encloses the

glomerulus
6. In the Glomerulus of Nephron , Afferent arteriole is

1. Narrower than efferent arteriole

2. Wider than efferent arteriole
3. Same diameter as efferent arteriole
4. None of the above
7. The main process involved urine formation

1. Glomerular filtration
2. Reabsorption
3. Tubular secretion
4. All of these
8. Find out the incorrect statement

1. 1100 to 1200 ml of blood is filtered by the

kidneys per minute

2. The glomerular capillary blood pressure causes

filtration of blood vessel through 3 layers

3. The epithelium of Bowman’s capsule has

filtration slits or slits pores

4. All the constituents of plasma pass onto lumen

of Bowman’s capsule
9. GFR is amount of filtrate formed by the kidneys per

1. Minute
2. Second
3. Hour
4. Day
10. Ultra filtrate generated by glomerulus has all
constituents of blood plasma except

1. Plasma proteins
2. RBC
3. WBC
4. All of these
11. GFR in healthy individual is approximately

1. 125 ml / minute
2. 180 L/ day
3. Both of these
4. None of these
12. Choose the false statements

1. Tubular cells secrete H+ ,K+ , ammonia into

filtrate
2. Tubular cells help to maintain acid base balance
of body fluid
3.Tubular cells help in ionic balance
4. Tubular secretion is not a step in urine
formation
13. Net filtration pressure that causes fluid to filter out
of glomeruli in capsule is

1. 20 mmHg
2. 75 mmHg
3. 32 mmHg
4. 50 mmHg
14. PCT is lined by

1. cuboidal epithelium
2. squamous epithelium
3. brush border cuboidal epithelium
4. columnar epithelium
15. In which part of nephron , reabsorption is minimum

1. PCT
2. DCT
3. Loop of Henle
4.Collecting duct
16. Find out the incorrect statement

1. Ascending limb of loop of Henle is permeable

to electrolytes
2. Descending limb of loop of Henle is
impermeable to electrolytes
3. Ascending limb of loop of Henle is
impermeable to water
4. None of these
17. Choose the mismatched

1.Bowmann capsule - Glomerular filtration

2.PCT- Reabsorption of amino acids & sodium
3.DCT-Reabsorption of glucose
4.Loop of Henle-Urine concentration
18. Shapes of Henle’s loop and vasa recta are.
(a) ‘C’ shaped and ‘U’ shaped respectively
(b) ‘U’ shaped and ‘C’ shaped respectively
(c) Hairpin shaped and ‘U’ shaped respectively
(d) ‘U’ shaped and hairpin shaped respectively
19. Which blood vessel takes blood away from
kidney?
(a) Renal portal vein
(b) Renal vein
(c) Afferent arteriole
(d) Efferent arteriole
20. Number of nephrons of a kidney are equal to
(a) Sum of Bowman’s capsules and glomeruli
(b) Sum of Bowman’s capsules and malpighian
corpuscles
(c) Double the number of Bowman’s capsules
(d) Equal to number of Bowman’s capsules
21. Match the Columns & choose the correct answer.
Column I Column II
a. Proximal i. Formation of
convoluted tubule concentrated urine
b. Distal convoluted ii. Filtration of blood
tubule
c. Henle’s loop iii. Resorption of 70-80%
of electrolytes
d. Counter-current iv. Ionic balance
mechanism
e. Renal corpuscle in v. Maintenance of
medulla concentration gradient

(a) a-iii, b-v, c-iii, d-ii, e-i (b) a-iii, b-iv, c-i, d-v, e-ii
(c) a-i, b-iii, c-ii, d-v, e-iv (d) a-iii, b-i, c-iv, d-v, e-ii
22. Find out the incorrect statements.

a. Malpghian body is equal to glomerulus and

Bowman capsule
b. As glomerular filtrate move down in descending
limb of HL it gets concentrated and as concentrated
filtrate pass upward in ascending limb of HL it gets
diluted.
c. Conditional reabsorption of Na+ and water takes
place in PCT
d. Reabsorption in PCT is minimum

(a) a and b (b) b and c

(c) c and d (d) a and c
23. Match columns and choose the correct combination.
Column I Column II
(i) Ultrafiltration (a) Henle’s loop
(ii) Concentration of (b) Ureter
urine
(iii) Transport of urine (c) Urinary bladder
(iv) Storage of urine (d) Malpighian corpuscle
(e) Proximal convoluted
tubule
(a) i-d, ii-a, iii-b, iv-c
(b) i-d, ii-c, iii-b, iv-a
(c) i-e, ii-d, iii-a, iv-b
(d) i-e, ii-d, iii-a, iv-b
24. Human urine is usually acidic because

(a) Excreted plasma proteins are acidic

(b) Potassium and sodium exchange generates
acidity
(c) Hydrogen ion are actively secreted into the
filtrate
(d) The sodium transporter exchanges one
hydrogen ion for each sodium ion, in
peritubular capillaries
25. Blood fraction remaining unchanged after
circulation through kidney is
(a) Urea and uric acid
(b) Urea and proteins
(c) Urea and glucose
(d) Glucose and proteins
Counter current mechanism :

Henle’s loop and vasa recta play

role

 Helps in maintaining increasing

osmolarity towards inner medullary
interstitium

 Gradiant caused by NaCl and urea

 NaCl transported by ascending limb of
henle’s loop is exchanged with descending
limb of vasa recta, returned to interstitium by
ascending portion of vasa recta

 Small amount of urea enter thin segment of

ascending limb of henle’s loop, transported
back to interstitium by collecting tubule

 This interstitial gradient helps in easy passage

of water from collecting tubule, concentrating
urine
Loop of Henle is responsible for urine
concentration

Length of LOH is directly proportional to

urine concentration

LOH Creates osmolarity/concentration

gradient along medullary interstitium i.e 300
mosmol/L (cortex) to 1200 mosmol/L(at
medullary papillae)
Maintainence of concentration gradient or
retention of NaCl in medullary interstitium
by Vasa recta
 Urine :
 Quantity- 1 - 1.5 Lt /day
 pH - 6.0 (slightly acidic)

 Osmolarity-upto 1200 milliosmol/Lt

(4 times hypertonic to plasma)

 Specific gravity-1.015-1.020

 Color-pale/light yellow color due to

pigment ‘urochrome’
 Typical aromatic(pungent)smell/odour -d/t
uronode

 On standing still , smells like ‘ammonia’-

urea→ammonia(bacterial degradation)

 Constitution – 95% water + 2.6% urea

+creatinine+hippuricacid+uric acid+inorganic
ions

 Human excrete 28 gm/day of Urea(Avg. 25-30

gm/day)
Abnormal constituents of urine:
1.Glycosuria-
 presence of glucose in urine
 indicates diabetes mellitus
 (>180 mg/dl blood-renal thresh-hold)

2. Ketonuria-
 presence of ketone bodies in urine
 Indicates diabetes mellitus &
prolonged starvation
3.Albuminuria/proteinuria-
 presence of albumin in urine
 Nephritis(glomerulonephritis&
pyelonephritis)

4.Hematuria-
 presence of blood in urine

5.Haemoglobinuria-Hb in urine
6.Pyuria-presence of pus in urine

7.Alkaptonuria-
 genetic disorder
 alkaptan in urine
 ‘Black urine disease’

8.Uremia-
 indicates non-functioning of kidneys
 >40 mg/dl blood urea
Osmoregulatory role of kidney/regulation of
kidney functions:
1.Body fluid volume/ BP Increase / excessive water
intake:
 Aim: urine becomes hypotonic

A) By increase in ultrafiltration:

 increased blood volume → increased BP →

increased GHP → Increased NFP → Increased
GFR → More filtrate → hypotonic urine → blood
volume restored
B) By decreasing water reabsorption:

 increased blood volume → switch off

osmoreceptors → reduce ADH release from
posterior pituitary → decreased water
reabsorption from DCT & Collecting duct →
hypotonic urine → blood volume restored
2. Blood volume/BP/ GFR Decreased:
Aim: urine becomes hypertonic

A) By reducing ultrafiltration:

 decreased blood volume → decreased renal

BP In Affarent arterioles → constriction in
wall of affarent arterioles ( MYOGENIC
CONTROL) → Reduced filtrate → hypertonic
urine → blood volume restored
B) By increasing water reabsorption:
 decreased blood volume → activates
osmoreceptors → stimulate hypothalamus →
increase ADH release from posterior pituitary
→ increased water reabsorption from DCT &
Collecting duct → prevent Diuresis →
hypertonic urine → blood volume restored

 ADH, vasocostrictor → increase BP →

Increase GFR
C) By activation of RAAS
(Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System )

JUXTA-GLOMERULAR APPARATUS(JGA)-
3 Types of cells
1. Macula Densa cells- dark stained cells of DCT
epithelium , close to glomerulus

2. Juxta- glomerular cells- modified smooth muscle

cells of affarent arteriole (also efferent). Store
Inactive Renin

3. Lacis / Mesangial cells- unknown function

Role of ANF ( ATRIAL NATRIURETIC
FACTOR) : Check on RAAS

Increased blood volume → increased BP →

release of ANF From Right Atrial wall of Heart
a)Vasodilator → BP reduces to normal

b) Inhibits JGA → Inhibits Renin Secretion →

decreased Aldosterone → reduced absorption and
increased excretion of Na+ and Water → blood
volume restored
 Note: ANF is Antagonistic to RAAS
Regulation of GFR ( Blood volume/ BP)

1.ADH
2.Aldosterone
3.ANF

 Involves Hypothalamus , JGA and Heart

1. JGA is special sensitive region formed by cellular
modifications in the
(a) DCT and the afferent arteriole at the location
of their contact
(b) DCT and efferent arteriole at the location of
their contact
(c) PCT and afferent arteriole at the location of
their contact
(d) PCT and efferent arteriole at the location of
their contact
2. Excretion of dilute urine is due to
(a) More secretion of aldosterone
(b) Less secretion of vasopressin
(c) Less secretion of glucagon
(d) More secretion of insulin
3. Formation of hypertonic urine is mediated through
(a) Having small loop of Henle
(b) Eating salt free diet
(c) Counter-current system
(d) Increased waste intake
4. Vasopressin is mainly responsible for
(a) Obligatory reabsorption of water through
Bowman’s capsule
(b) Facultative reabsorption of water from DCT
(c) Facultative reabsorption of water from Henle’s
loop
(d) Obligatory rebsorption of water from PCT
5. The renal fluid isotonic to cortical fluid and blood
is found in
(a) collecting duct & ascending limb
(b) DCT & ascending limb
(c) PCT & DCT
(d) ascending limb & descending limb
6. Which of the following statements is correct?
(a) ADH-prevents conversion of angiotensinogen
in blood to angiotensin
(b) Aldosterone-facilitates water reabsorption
(c) ANF – enhances sodium reabsorption
(d) Renin – causes vasodilation
7. Indicate whether following are true (T) or false (F).
a. Micturition is carried out by a reflex
b. ADH helps in water elimination, making the urine
hypotonic.
c. Protein-free fluid is filtered from blood plasma
into the Bowman’s capsule.
d. Henle’s loop plays on important role in
concentrating the urine.
e. Glucose is actively reabsorbed in the proximal
convoluted tubule.
(a) a-T, b-F, c-T, d-T, e-T
(b) a-T, b-F, c-T, d-F, e-T
(c) a-F, b-T, c-F, d-T, e-F
(d) a-T, b-F, c-F, d-T, e-T
8. Match the column I and II
Column I Column II
a. Ammonotelism 1. Birds
b. Bowman’s capsule 2. Water reabsorption
c. Micturition 3. Bony fish
d. Uricotelism 4. Urinary bladder
e. ADH 5. Renal tubule

(a) a-2, b-4, c-5, d-3, e-1

(b) a-3, b-5, c-4, d-1, e-2
(c) a-1, b-5, c-4, d-3, e-2
(d) a-3, b-4, c-5, d-1, e-2
9. The CNS passes on motor message to initiate the
….a…. of smooth muscles of the urinary bladder
and simultaneous ….b…. of the urethral sphincter
causing the release of the urine.
(a) a-contraction, b-relaxation
(b) a-relaxation, b-contraction
(c) a-relaxation, b-relaxation
(d) a-contraction, b-contraction
10. Which statements are correct?
(1) When someone drinks lot of water , ADH
release is decreased
(2) Exposure to cold temperature suppress ADH
release
(3) Caffein in tea & coffee increase sodium
absorption from DCT & Collecting ducts
(4) ADH also causes vasodilation

a) 1 & 3
b) 1 & 2
c) 3 & 4
d) 2 & 4
11. A fall in glomerular filtration can activates
(a) Juxtaglomerular cells to release renin
(b) Adrenal cortex to release aldosterone
(c) Posterior pituitary to release vasopressin
(d) Adrenal medulla to release adrenaline
12. Which of the following causes an increase in
sodium reabsorption in distal convoluted tubule?
(a) Decrease in antidiuretic hormone levels
(b) Increase in aldosterone levels
(c) Increase in antidiuretic hormone levels
(d) Decrease in aldosterone levels
13. A decrease in blood pressure/volume will not
cause the release of
(a) Atrial Natriuretic factor
(b) Aldosterone
(c) ADH
(d) Renin
14. Why do we pass more urine during winter and wet
seasons?
(a) Increased ADH secretion
(b) Increased activity of kidneys
(c) Decrease water absorption by nephrons
(d) Reduced sweating
15. Counter current mechanism helps to maintain a
concentration gradient . This gradient help in

1. easy passage of water from medullary

interstitial fluid to collecting tubule , diluting
urine
2. easy passage of water from collecting tubule
to medullary interstitial , concentrating urine
3. inhibition of passage of water between
medullary interstitium & collecting tubule , to
form isotonic urine
4. All of these
Diuretics–

Substance increasing urine output

eg. tea , coffee , alcohol etc., cold
weather
 Renal thresh-hold –maximum amount of
substance in blood upto which it is completely
reabsorbed

1. High- glucose(>180 mg/dl blood) , aa

2. Low- urea
3. Arenalthreshold- creatinine , hippuric acid
(PAH), Inulin
 Note :
 Para Amino Hippuric acid (PAH) Clearance
used to estimate RPF
 Inulin Clearance used to estimate GFR
Micturition Reflex:
1. Parasympathetic nerve( ANS) –NERVE OF
MICTURITION

2. Sympathetic nerve( ANS) –NERVE OF

FILLING

3. Somatic Pudental nerve-

• Normally , constricts external sphincter

• During micturition , it is inhibited
Urea/ Ornithine/Kreb-Henseleit
cycle:

 Ammonia is converted into urea in

liver and released into blood,
filtered and excreted by kidneys

 2NH3,1CO2,3ATP are consumed

Trick for Urea cycle:
 Or - ornithine
 Care -carbamoyl phosphate
 Caro -citrulline
 Apni -aspartic acid
 Apni - arginosuccinic acid
 Family -fumaric acid
 Aunty -arginine
 Uncle -urea
Trick for Enzymes in Urea cycle:

 Crying-Carbamoyl phosphate
synthetase
 OAAA -
1) Ornithine transcarbamoxylase
2) Arginosuccinate synthetase
3) Arginosuccinase
4) Arginase
Role of other organs in excretion
1. Lungs – CO2 (200 ml /min), 400ml water
/day

2. Liver- secrete bilirubin, biliverdin,

cholesterol, degraded steroid hormones,
vitamins, drugs. Excreted with faeces

3. Sweat glands (skin) – 99.5% water, NaCl,

small amount of urea, lactic acid,
glucose,aa (cooling effect on body surface)
 4. Sebaceous glands (skin) – waxes, sterols,
hydrocarbons, fatty acids (protective oily
covering for skin)

Note – Saliva (Mercury, lead, thiocynate,

potassium iodide)
1) Oligouria-less production of urine(50-100
ml/day)
2) Anuria-0-50 ml/day
3) Polyuria-excessive production of urine(2
L/day)
4) Polydipsia-Increased drinking
5) Polypepsia-Increased thirst
6) Dysuria-painful micturition
7) Cystitis-infection of urinary bladder
8) Nocturia-increased urine output at night
9) Enuresis-bed wetting
Note :Maximum urea – Hepatic vein
Minimum urea – Renal vein

 Disorders –

1. Renal calculi –
 insoluble masses of crystallised
salts formed within kidney , most
common calcium oxalate
 sharp shooting pain –renal colic
 2. Nephritis / Brights disease
(glomerulo/pyelo)-albuminuria

3.Diabetes insipidus-

lack of ADH (Polyuria , Polydipsia ,

Polypepsia , dehydration , Hypokalemia
(increased K+ loss in urine)
 4. Renal failure – acute/chronic
 Oligouria , anuria , uremia, swelling,
increased K+ ions (cardiac failure)
 Treatment – Hemodialysis and Renal
transplant (best/Ultimate option)

 First renal transplant in India – CMC,

vellore (1971)

 First renal transplant in World- Dr. Joseph

E.Murray (1954)
 Matching- blood group , HLA (human
leucocyte antigen)

 Preferred from close relative to

minimize chances of rejection by
immune system of host
Haemodialysis: simple diffusion (principle)
Kidney failure is treated

1. Haemodialysis machine (artificial kidney)

work on the same principle as the real
kidney.

2. The blood of the patient is pumped out of

the body, filtered to remove the waste
product, a process termed dialysis.
3. The lower part of the arm or leg of the
patient is connected to the machine by
inserted a catheter into an artery.

4. The blood is pumped gently out of the

artery and returned to the vein.
5. Heparin is added to the blood to prevent
clotting.

6. The blood circulates slowly through

dialysis tubing which is an artificial
partially permeable membrane.
( cellophane)
7. Exchange between the blood and dialysing
solution (same composition as plasma
except nitrogenous waste) takes place until
an equilibrium is reached.
8. It removes waste products from blood
especially urea and excess of sodium and
potassium.

9. It takes 6 to 8 hours and is usually done at

least twice a week.
 Disadvantage: hospitalization,expensive,
inconvenient
 Risk of infection is less
Continuous Ambulatory Peritoneal
Dialysis: CAPD

Peritoneum acts as semi-permeable

membrane

Dialysing fluid packets-available in market

No need of hospitalization
Patient can do routine work, less expensive
Risk of infection is very high
1. Ornithine cycle removes two waste products from
blood in liver
(a) Urea and carbon dioxide
(b) Carbon dioxide and ammonia
(c) Ammonia and uric acid
(d) Ammonia and urea
2. Dialysing unit (artificial kidney) contains a fluid
which is almost same as plasma except that it has
(a) High glucose
(b) High urea
(c) No urea
(d) High uric acid
3. What will happen if one kidney is removed from
the body of a human being?
(a) Death due to poisoning
(b) Uremia and death
(c) Stoppage of urination
(d) Nothing, the person will survive and remain
normal
4. Which one is a component of ornithine cycle?
(a) Ornithine, citrulline and alanine
(b) Ornithine, citrulline and arginine
(c) Amino acids are not used
(d) Ornithine, citrulline and fumaric acid
5. Consider statements (a-d) regarding kidney
transplant and select the two correct ones
a. Even if a kidney transplant is proper, the
recipient may need to take immunosuppressant
for a long time.
b The cell mediated immune response is
responsible for the graft rejection
c. B-lymphocytes are responsible for rejection of
graft.
d. Acceptance or rejection of a kidney transplant
depends upon specific interferons.
(a) c and d (b) a and c
(c) a and b (d) b and c
6. The principle nitrogenous excretory compound in
humans is synthesized

(a) In kidneys as well as eliminated by kidneys

(b) In liver and also eliminated by the same
through bile
(c) In the liver but eliminated mostly through
kidneys
(d) In kidneys but eliminated mostly through liver
7. Match the columns.
Column I Column II
a. Uremia 1. Excess of protein level in urine
b. Haematuria 2. Presence of high ketone bodies
in urine
c. Ketonuria 3. Presence of blood cells of urine
d. Glycosuria 4. Presence of glucose in urine
e. Proteinuria 5. Presence of excess urea in
blood
(a) a-2, b-1, c-3, d-4, e-5
(b) a-3, b-5, c-2, d-1, e-4
(c) a-5, b-3, c-4, d-2, e-1
(d) a-5, b-3, c-2, d-4, e-1
8. Urinary bladder is absent in
(a) Aves
(b) Reptiles
(c) Amphibians
(d) Mammal
9. Blood which leaves liver and passes towards heart
has higher concentration of
(a) Bile
(b) Oxygen
(c) RBCs
(d) Urea
10. If kidney fail to reabsorb water, the effect on
tissue would
(a) Remain unaffected
(b) Shrink and shrivel
(c) Absorb water form blood plasma
(d) Take more O2 from blood