AN INDUSTRIAL TRAINING REPORT ON 132/33 KV SUBSTATION GUN ROCK

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements of

STATE BOARD OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING

DIPLOMA IN

ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

By

D. VARUN SAI (20001-EE-027) K. SAI RAJESH (20001-EE-038)

B. KARTHIK REDDY (20001-EE-040) V. SHIVA KUMAR (20001-EE-046)

A. SRI MANASA. (20001-EE-033) M. SHIVA TEJA (20001-EE-035)

N. PRIYANKA (20001-EE-015) P. ARUN (20001-EE-013)

O. SRIHITA (20001-EE-029) B. NIHITH KUMAR (20001- EE-024)

Under the Esteemed Training Guidance of :

Mr. DHEERAJ (Asst. Engineer)

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

GOVERNMENTMENT POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE, MASABTANK

(Affiliated to SBTET Hyderabad)

2022-23

1
 TRANSMISSION CORPORATION OF TELANGANA LIMITED
CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the Dissertation entitled 220/132/33 KV SUBSTATION is a

bonafide work of below students

D. VARUN SAI. (20001-EE-027) K. SAI RAJESH (20001-EE-038)

B. KARTHIK REDDY (20001-EE-040) V. SHIVA KUMAR (20001-EE-046)

A. SRI MANASA (20001-EE-033) M. SHIVA TEJA (20001-EE-035)

N.PRIYANKA (20001-EE-015) P. ARUN (20001-EE-013)

O.SRIHITA. (20001-EE-029) B. NIHITH KUMAR (20001- EE-024)

Who carried out the industrial training under my supervision as partial fulfillment
for the award of diploma in Electrical & Electronics Engineering from Government
Polytechnic Masab Tank. Affiliated to SBTET, Hyderabad

During the industrial training , the candidates has shown keen interest and
commitment towards learning and their performance was satisfactory.

Duration : from 03-06-2022 to 30-11-2022.

Mr.G.DHEERAJ
Assistant Engineer,

132/33 KV Substation,

GUNROCK,

TSTRANSCO.

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We would like to express our profound sense of gratitude and indebtedness to our
Industrial Training guide Mr. G.DHEERAJ, Assistant Engineer, for his valuable guidance,
untiring cooperation at each and every phase of this Industrial Training and suggestions all
the way throughout the Training and for providing exceptional facilities for successful
completion of the Training.

We would like to express our sincere gratitude to Mrs.M.V.Vasundhara Rani, M.

Tech, and Head of Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Government
Polytechnic Masab Tank for providing us with all the necessary facilities for the Industrial
Training .

We take immense pleasure in thanking the Principal of our college Dr.N.

RAJESHWARI DEVI Principal , PhD , Government Polytechnic Masab Tank for permitting
us to carry out this Industrial Training

We would like to express our thanks to all the faculty members & supporting staff
of Electrical and Electronics Engineering Department and we also place on the record, the
assistance by our friends during the course of Industrial Training.

Finally, we would like to lend our special thanks to all the persons, who we

We

D.VARUN SAI ( 20001-EE-027)

B. KARTHIK REDDY (20001-EE-040)
A. SRI MANASA (20001-EE-033)
N.PRIYANKA (20001-EE-015)
O. SRIHITA (20001-EE-029)
K. SAI RAJESH (20001-EE-038)
V. SHIVA KUMAR (20001-EE-046)
M. SHIVA TEJA (20001-EE-035)
P. ARUN (20001-EE-013)
B. NIHITH KUMAR (20001- EE-024)

3
 ABSTRACT

A Substation receives electrical power from generating station via incoming

transmission line and delivers electrical power through feeders and this is used for
controlling the power on different routes..Substations are integral part of a power system and
form important part of transmission and distribution network of electrical power system.

Their main functions are to receive energy transmitted at high voltage from
the generating stations, reduce the voltage to a value appropriate for local distribution and
provide facilities for switching some sub-station are simply switching stations different
connections between various transmission lines are made, others are converting sub-stations
which either convert AC into DC or vice-versa or convert frequency from higher to lower or
vice-versa.

The various circuits are joined together through these components to a bus-
bar at substation. Basically, Sub-station consists of power transformers, circuit breakers,
relays, isolators, earthing switches, current transformers, voltage transformers, synchronous
condensers/ Capacitor banks etc.

This report covers the important equipments & their function in a Sub-
Station. And also an attempt is made to cover the general maintenance of Substation. As a
part of case study we are going to visit a 132/33 KV.

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 CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE No

1. Electrical Substation 1-3

1.1 Introduction
1.2 The main functions of substation in transmission and distribution
1.3 Types of Substation
1.4 Parts and Equipment of Substation

2. Lightning Arrestor 4-6

2.1 What is lightning
2.2 Tests on Arrestor

3. Wave trap 7-9

3.1 Design & working of wave trap
3.2 Protective device

4. Instrument transformers 10-13

4.1 Potential transformer
4.2 Current transformer
4.3 Capacitor voltage transformer

5. Circuit breakers & Isolators 14-19

5.1 SF6 Circuit Breaker
5.1.1
Operation of SF6 Circuit breaker
5.1.2
The maintenance of Circuit breaker
5.2 Isolator
5.2.1
Types of Isolators
5.2.2
Single break Isolator
5.2.3
Double break Isolator

6. Power Transformers 20-26

6.1 Types of Transformers based on voltage
6.2 Types of Transformer based on core material

7. Relays 27-32
7.1 What is Relay

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 7.2 Types
7.2.1
Over current Relay
7.2.2
Induction disc cover over current relay
7.2.3
Distance Relay
7.2.4
Current differential protection
7.2.5
Static relay
7.2.6
Digital protection relay
7.3 Power line carrier communication (PLCC)
7.4 Equipment
7.4.1
Line trap unit
7.4.2
Coupling capacitor
7.4.3
Tuning Unit
7.4.4
Over current relay
8. Control and Relay panel 33-35
8.1 Control and relay panel product range
8.2 Multi circuit panels
8.3 Applications of control & relay panel
9. Batteries 36-38
9.1 Battery room
9.2 Battery charger
10. Earthing system 39-40
10.1 Earth switch
10.2 Equipment Earthing
10.3 Neutral point earthing
10.4 Advantages of Earthing
11. Operation and Maintenance of the Substation 41-43
11.1 CT tests
11.2 M.R.T test
12. Description of Substation 44-45
13. Ratings of Equipment 46-49
14. Single Line Diagram 50
Conclusion 51

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 LIST OF ABREVATIONS

EHV - Extra High Voltage

LA - Lightning arrestor
SLD - Single Line Diagram
CT - Current Transformer
PT - Potential Transformer
CVT - Capacitor Voltage Transformer
CB - Circuit Breaker
HV side - High Voltage Side
LV side - Low Voltage side
PLCC - Power line Carrier Communication
OLTC - On Load Tap Changer
PTR - Power Transformer

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 CHAPTER-1
ELECTRICAL
SUBSTATION
1.1 INTRODUCTION
An electrical substation is an integral part of a generation, transmission and distribution
system. Substation can interrupt or establish electrical circuit, change the voltage, frequency or
other characteristics of electrical energy flowing in the circuit. circuit, connected to a common
Bus-bar system. A substation receives electrical power from generating station via incoming
transmission lines and delivers electricity
Basically an electrical substation consists of number of incoming circuits, and outgoing
power via the outgoing transmission lines. Substations transform voltage from high value to low
or the reverse and perform several important functions. It serves as the source of energy supply
for local areas of distribution in which these are located. The main function of the substation is to
revive energy transmitted at high voltage and convert to a value appropriate for the distribution.
The substation is connected to the network through overhead lines. In some cases, it may
not be possible to make a connection to the substation directly by the overhead line then the
underground cables must be considered.
Generally, Electrical energy is generated at power stations which are far away from the
load centres. Hence, an extensive network of conductors between the power stations and the
consumers is required. The conductors used for this network is preferably ACSR (Aluminium
Conductor Steel-Reinforced). This network is classified into following systems:
(a) Generating system
(b) Transmission system
(c) Distribution system

Transmission and distribution systems are combine known as Electrical Power System.
Transmission system transfer bulk power from the power stations to load centres and industrial
consumers. The distribution system transfer power from substations to consumers.
As the load increases, current increases. Hence, the copper loss (PR) along the
transmission line increases and the efficiency reduces. So, in order to increase efficiency of the
line voltage generated at the generating station is to be stepped up to higher values such as
132KV or 220KV or 400KV or 760KV depending on the following aspects:
 Distance of generating stations to consumers
 Load consumed
As the distance and load consumed increases from power station to load centre, High
voltage is used to transfer the power. As the voltage is having higher value, the current is low
and the transmission losses are less. As the current is low, the area of cross sections is minimum,
so the cost of conductor utilized is decreased. It also improves voltage regulation and the voltage
drop(IR) across the line is less. Hence the efficiency of the transmission is high in high voltage
conditions for longer distances.

1
1.2 The main functions of Substation in transmission and distribution are:

1. Protection of transmission system.

2. Controlling the Exchange of Energy.
3. Maintaining the system frequency within targeted limits.
4. Voltage Control; reducing the reactive power flow by compensation of reactive power, tap-
changing.
5. Securing the supply by proving adequate line capacity.
6. Data transmission via power line carrier for the purpose of network monitoring; control and
protection.
7. Fault analysis and pin-pointing the cause and subsequent improvement in that area of field.
8. Determining the energy transfer through transmission lines.
9. Establishment of economical load distribution and several associated functions.
10. Also has backup power supply

1.3 Types of substations:

Substations can be classified on several basis.

Based on the type of power supply

 AC substation
 DC substation.
(b) Based on voltage levels:
 UI-IV substation (operated voltage 400KV)
 EHV (operated voltage between 132KV and 400KV)
 HV substation (operated voltage between 11KV and 132KV)
 LV substation (Below 11KV)
(c) Based on locations:
 Outdoor Substation (Substation is under open sky.)
 Indoor substation (Substation is inside a building.)
(d) Based on configurations:
 Conventional Air insulated outdoor
 SF6 Gas Insulated Substation (GIS)
 Composite substations having combination of the both
(e) Based on Voltage and function
 Generating substation (Step up substations)
 Transmission Substation (Can be both step up or step down substations)
 Distribution substation (Step down substations).

The step up substations increase the voltage level to higher value and the step down substation
decrease the voltage level to a lower value

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1.4 Parts and equipment of a substation

- Incoming and outgoing lines

- Bus bars
- Transformers - Lightening arrestors and wave traps
- Insulators
- Instrument Transformers [ Current Transformer CT, Potential transformer Capacitive
Voltage Transformer CVT] Isolators and circuit breakers - Surge arrestors

- Communication system
- Station earthing system
- Overhead Earth wire shielding from lightening strokes.
- Cables
- Control and relay panel
- Office building - DC battery system - DCDB and ACDB
- Fire fighting system

3
 CHAPTER – 2
LIGHTNING ARRESTOR

2.1 What is a lightning?

Lighting is the occurrence of a natural electrical discharge of very short duration and
high voltage between a cloud and the ground or within a cloud. This violent and sudden
electrostatic discharge generates a bright flash and thunder
Whenever high voltages enter the substation, All the equipment gets damaged and the
power supply to the consumers get interrupted. So we need a special type of device to protect the
substation and its equipment from sudden high voltage surges. This special device is known as a
Lightning arrestor.

Definition:
The device which is used for the protection of the equipment at the substations against
surges and lightning is called lightning arrester or surge diverter. In other words, lightning
arrester diverts the abnormal high voltage to the ground without affecting the continuity of
supply. It is connected between the line and earth, i.e., in parallel with the equipment to be
protected at the substation
The lightning arrestor is installed at the beginning of a substation and close to the more
valuable equipment like a power transformer. Lightning arresters contain semiconductor blocks,
which limit the magnitude of high-surge voltages, permit the large-surge currents to pass
harmlessly to the ground, and interrupt the power-follow current after the surge is eliminated.

4
 When a high voltage begins to build up across the semiconductor blocks, they provide a
low-impedance path to ground, which permits the surge current to flow to ground, limiting the
voltage build up and preventing the equipment from being damaged. The semiconductor blocks
in the arresters are manufactured using zinc oxide material.
To know the number of surges, occur at lightning arrestor, there is a surge monitor. LA is
connected to the ground through the surge monitors
Different types of LA’S are:

 Rod Gap Arrester. Sphere Gap Arrester. Horn Gap Arrester

 Multiple-Gap Arrester

 Impulse Protective Gap Arrester

 Electrolytic Arrester

 Expulsion Type Lightning Arrester

 Valve Type Lightning Arresters

 Thyrite Lightning Arrester

 Auto valve Arrester

 Oxide Film Arrester

 Metal Oxide Lightning Arrester

The below figure shows the Surge arrestor and a corona ring of a lightning arrestor

In our substation, we use corona discharge technology at the lightning arrestors. Corona
ring is placed at the top of LA. Corona Discharge Technology uses the mechanism of discharge
5
 of

6
 high voltage in a short period by ionization of nearby air ions. A typical lightning arrester consists
of a high-voltage terminal at the top, followed by a low-voltage terminal at the ground.

2.2 Tests on Lightning Arrestor

(a) IR test

(b) Power factor test

7
 CHAPTER- 3
WAVE TRAP

A line trap, also known as wave trap, or high-frequency stopper, is a maintenance-

free parallel resonant circuit, mounted inline on high-voltage (HV) AC transmission power lines
to prevent the transmission of high frequency (40 kHz to 1000 kHz) carrier signals of power line
communication to unwanted destinations. Line traps are cylinder-like structures connected in
series with HV transmission lines.
The line trap acts as a barrier or filter to prevent signal losses. The inductive reactance of
the line trap presents a high reactance to high-frequency signals but a low reactance to mains
frequency. This prevents carrier signals from being dissipated in the substation or in a tap line or
branch of the main transmission path and grounds in the case of anything happening outside of
the carrier transmission path. The line trap is also used to attenuate the shunting effects of high-
voltage lines.

3.1 DESIGN & WORKING OF A WAVE TRAP:

8
 The trap consists of three major components: the main coil, the tuning device, and the protective
device (also known as a surge arrester).

MAIN COIL:

The main coil is the outer part of the line trap which is made from stranded aluminium
cable. The reactor coil, depending on the device, can be made up of several aluminium wires,
allowing equal distribution amongst the parallel wires. The stranded aluminium coil is wound in
one layer. However, when the application of more than one layer is necessary, separation
between layers is required to provide a cooling duct between them to avoid overheating. The
cooling duct is created with spacer bars made out of epoxy resin and fiberglass. The coil carries
rated continuous power frequency currents, therefore this is the power inductor in this system. It
provides a low impedance path for the electricity flow Since the power flow is rather large at
times, the coil used in a line trap must be large in terms of physical size. Hence, a line trap unit is
inserted between the busbar and connection of coupling capacitor to the line.
It provides a low impedance path for the electricity flow.
The total current carrying capacity of the transmission system will be calculated, and the
trap coil is designed according to that.
That’s why the coil becomes a bigger size as you can see in High voltage transmission.

TUNING DEVICE OF WAVE TRAP:

The next major component is the tuning device. This device is securely installed inside
the main coil. It adjusts blocking frequency or bandwidth, and consists of coils, capacitors, and
resistors. This smaller coil is attached to both ends of the main coil. Its purpose is to create a
blocking circuit which provides high impedance. There are three types of tuning devices:
wideband tuning, single frequency tuning, and double frequency tuning. The tuned circuit is
usually a dual- circuit broadband type. If the traps are self tuned, they do not require the use of
any tuning devices. With the use of a tuning device, a line trap can be tuned to a frequency of
1000 Hz.

3.2 PROTECTIVE DEVICE:

Last main component is the protective device, which is parallel with the main coil and the
tuning device. It protects the main coil and the tuning device by lowering the voltage levels. The
bandwidth of a line trap is the frequency range over which the line trap can provide a certain
specified minimum blocking impedance or resistance.

Traps are connected in series with power line and thus their coils are rated to carry the
full line current. The impedance of a line trap is very low at the power frequency and will not

9
 cause any significant voltage drop.

10
 USES:

Power line carrier communication (PLCC) technology has been frequently used since
1950 by the grid stations to transmit information at high speed. Transmitting information along
high-voltage lines, at high frequency, has been one of the main means of communication in
electric power for over fifty years. The data collected from different sensors is transmitted on
power lines thereby reducing the maintenance cost of the additional wiring. In some countries,
this technology is also used to provide Internet connection. In order to communicate, high-
frequency line traps are used as they allow substations to communicate with each other through
the power lines at the same time as they transmit electrical power. In order to separate power
from messages being sent, different frequencies are used. Electrical power has a frequency of 50
Hz or 60 Hz in most places, and the communication waves use frequencies such as 150 kHz and
200 kHz. Line traps consist of filter circuits that allow only power frequency waves to travel to
that of electrical equipment. They also stop communication waves from traveling to equipment

Communication is crucial for substations.

Wave trap is used to create a high impedance to the carrier wave high-frequency
communication entering into unwanted destinations typically substation.
Carrier wave communication uses up to 150kHz to 800kHz frequency to send all the
communication. These high-frequency damages the power system components which are
designed to operate 50 or 60 Hz. It consists of an inductor coil which is connected in series with
the high voltage power system.

11
 CHAPTER-4
INSTRUMENT
TRANSFORMERS
Three types of transformers are used for protective relaying purposes These are
1. Potential transformer
2. Capacitor voltage transformer
3. Current transformer

4.1 Potential Transformer(PT):

The potential transformers are employed for voltages above 380v to find the potential
coils of metering and indicating instruments (volt meters, watt meters, watt-hour meters) and
relays. These transformers make the ordinary low voltage instruments suitable for measurement
of high voltage and isolate from high voltage

The primary winding of potential transformer is connected directly to the power circuits
either between a phase and ground depending on the rating of the transformer. Various indicating
and metering instruments and relays are connected.

The primary winding has a large number of turns and the secondary winding which has a
small number of turns is coupled magnetically through the magnetic circuit to the primary
winding. The primaries of PT are rated from 400 V to several thousand volts and secondary
always for 110V. The ratio of primary voltages to secondary rated voltage is known as
transformer ratio or turns ratio.

The principle of operation of PT and PTR is essentially same. The main deference
between a PT and transformer is due to the fact that the load current of PT is of the order of its
exciting current and secondary impedance of the PT is mostly resistive being made up of the
potential circuit of the instrument. The PT is rated in terms of the maximum burden (volt-ampere
output) it delivers without exceeding temperature rise. The output of PT 's is usually limited to
12
 few hundred volt-amperes while the output of the power transformer may be of the order of
several MVA.

13
 4.2 Capacitor Voltage Transformer:
A capacitor voltage transformer (CVT), or capacitance coupled voltage transformer
(CCVT) is a transformer used in power systems to step down extra high voltage signals and
provide a low voltage signal, for measurement or to operate a protective relay. In its most basic
form the device consists of three parts; two capacitors across which the transmission line signal is
split and an inductive element to tune the device to line frequency, a transformer to isolate and
further step down the voltage for the instrumentation or protective relay. The device has at least
four terminals: a terminal for connection to high voltage signal, a ground terminal, two secondary
terminals which connect to the instrumentation or protective relay. CVT's are typically single-
phase devices used for measuring voltages in excess of one hundred kilo volts where the use of
voltage transformers would be uneconomical. In practice, capacitor Cl is often constructed as a
stack of smaller capacitors connected in series. This provides a large voltage drop across Cl and a
relatively small voltage drop across C2

The CVT is also useful in communication systems. CVT's in combination with wave traps
are used for filtering high frequency communication signals from power frequency. This forms a
carrier communication network throughout the transmission.

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 MEASURING DEVICE FOR THE OVERVOLTAGE MONITORING IN A SUBSTATION

To characterize, in a statistical approach, the share of HV events at the electromagnetic

environment of an open-air substation, a long term record of transient over voltages may be
useful. The main difficulty to fulfil a suitable recording system, regarding the costs and locations
in a substation is that of HV impulse divider.

The proposed solution is based on a modification of existing CVT's shown in above diagram.

 The removal of earthing reactor

 The addition to CVT of a measuring capacitor, between high frequency terminals, as a low
voltage.
Arm of a capacitive voltage divider, as high voltage arm acting the CVT's capacitors Cl
and C2.This relatively cheap solution does not need an additional place in substation and does
not disturb the basic functions of CVT., regarding the measuring and protection.

4.3 Current Transformer (CT):

Current transformer is used for measurement of electric current. Current transformers,

together with voltage transformers, power transformers are known as instrument transformers.
When current in a circuit is too high to directly apply to measuring instruments, a current
transformer produces a reduced current accurately proportional to the current in the circuit,
which can be conveniently connected to measuring and recording instruments. A current
transformer also isolates the measuring instruments from what may be very high voltage in the
monitored circuit. Current transformers are commonly used in metering and protective relays in
the substation.

Like any other transformer, a current transformer has a primary winging, a magnetic core,
and a secondary winging. The alternating current flowing in the primary produces a magnetic
field in the core, which then induces a current in the secondary winding circuit. A primary
transformer design is to ensure that the primary and secondary circuits are efficiently coupled, so
that the secondary current bears and accurate relationship to the primary current.
15
 The CT's of primary circuit therefore consists of a single turns of conductor, with a
secondary of many hundreds of turns. The primary winding may be a permanent part of the
current transformer, with a heavy copper bar to carry current through the magnetic core.
Window-type current transformers are also common, which can have circuit cables run through
the middle of an opening in the core to provide a single-turn primary winding. When conductors
passing through a CT are not centred in the circular (or oval) opening, slight inaccuracies may
occur

Shapes and sizes can vary depending on the end user or switchgear manufacture.
Typically examples of low voltage transformers are either ring type or plastic moulded case.
High voltage current transformers are mounted on porcelain bushings to insulate them from
ground. Some CT configurations slip around the bushing of a high voltage transformer or circuit
breaker, which automatically centres the conductor inside the CT window

The primary circuit is largely unaffected by the insertion of the CT. The rated secondary
current is commonly standardized at I or 5 amperes. The secondary winding can have single ratio
or multi ratio, with 5 taps being common for multi ratio CT's. The load, or burden, of the CT
should be of low resistance. If the voltage time integral area is higher than the core's design
rating, the core goes into saturation towards the end of each cycle, distorting the waveform and
affecting the accuracy.

16
 CHAPTER-5
CIRCUIT BREAKERS & ISOLATORS
Circuit breaker is device which makes or breaks a circuit. A circuit breaker is an
automatically operated electrical switch designed to protect an electrical circuit damage caused
by overload or short circuit. Its basic function is to detect fault condition, to immediately
replaced, a circuit breaker can be reset (either manually or automatically) to resume normal
operation. Circuit breakers are made in varying sizes, from small devices that protect an
individual household appliance up to large switchgear designed to protect high voltage circuits

feeding an entire city.

Operation:
The breaker must detect a fault condition; in low-voltage circuit breakers this is usually
done within the breaker enclosure. Circuit breakers for large currents or high voltages are usually
arranged with pilot devices to sense a fault current and to operate the trip opening mechanism.
The trip solenoid that releases the latch is usually energized by a separate battery, although some
high- voltage circuit breakers are self-contained with current transformers, protection relays self
— continued with current transformers, protection relays, and an internal control power source
Once a fault is detected, contacts within the circuit breaker must open to interrupt the circuit;
some of the mechanically-stored energy (using something such as springs or compressed air)
contained with the breaker is used to separate the contacts, although some of the energy required
may be obtained from the fault current itself.

Small circuit breakers may be manually operated; larger units have solenoids to trip the
mechanism, and electric motors to restore energy to the springs

The circuit breaker contacts must carry the load current without excessive heating and
must also withstand the heat of the produced when interrupting the circuit. Contacts are made of
copper or copper alloys, silver alloys, and other materials. Service life of the contacts is limited
by the erosion due to interrupting the arc. Miniature and moulded case circuit breakers are
17
 usually

18
 discarded when the contacts are worn, but power circuit breakers and high-voltage circuit
breakers have replicable contacts.

When a current is interrupted, an arc is generated. This arc must be contained, cooled and
extinguished in a controlled way, so that the gap between the contacts can again withstand the
voltage in the circuit. Different circuit breakers use vacuum, air, insulating gas, or oil as the
medium in which the arc forms. Different techniques used to extinguish the arc including:

 Lightening of the arc

 Intensive cooling (in jet chambers)
 Division into partial arcs
 Zero-point quenching (contacts open at the zero current time crossing of the AC
waveform, effectively breaking no load current at the time of opening. The zero crossing
occurs at twice the line frequency i.e. 100 times per second for 50Hz and 120 times per
second for 60Hz AC)
 Connecting capacitors in parallel with contacts in DC circuits

Arc interruption:
Miniature low-voltage circuit breakers use air alone to extinguish the arc. Larger ratings
will have metal plates or non-metallic arc chutes to divide and cool the arc. Magnetic blowout
coils deflect the arc into the arc chute in larger ratings, oil circuit breakers rely upon vaporization
of some of the oil to blast a jet of oil through the arc
Gas (usually Sulphur hexafluoride) circuit breakers sometimes stretch the arc using a magnetic
field, and then rely upon the dielectric strength of the Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) to quench the
stretched arc. Vacuum circuit breakers have minimal arcing (as there is nothing to ionize other
than the contact material), so the arc quenching when it is stretched a very small amount (2-3
mm). Vacuum circuit breakers are frequently used in modern medium-voltage switchgear to
35,000 volts

Air circuit breakers may use compressed air to terminate all current very quickly:
typically, the arc is extinguished between 30 ms and 150 ms after the mechanism has been
tripped, depending upon age and construction of the device

Short-circuit current:

Circuit breakers are rated both by the normal current that they are expected to carry, and
the maximum short-circuit current that they can safely interrupt. Under short-circuit conditions, a
current many times greater than normal current exist. When electrical contacts open to interrupt a
large current, there is a tendency for an arc to form between the opened contacts, which would
allow the current to continue. This condition can create conductive ionized gasses and molten or
vaporized metal which can cause further continuation of the arc, or creation of additional short
circuits, potentially resulting in the explosion of the circuit breaker and the equipment that it is
installed in. Therefore, circuit breakers must incorporate various features to divide and extinguish
19
 the arc.

20
 In air-insulated and miniature breakers an arc chute structure consisting of metal plates or
ceramic ridges cools the arc, and magnetic blowout coils deflect the arc into arc chute. Larger
circuit breakers such as those used in electrical power distribution may use vacuum, an inert gas
such as sulphur hexafluoride or have contacts immersed in oil to suppress the arc.

The maximum short-circuit current that a breaker can interrupt is determined by testing.
Application of a breaker in a circuit with a prospective short-circuit current higher than the
breaker's interrupting capacity rating may result in failure of the breaker to safely interrupt a
fault. In a worst-case scenario the breaker may successfully interrupt the fault, only to explode
when reset

Miniature circuit breakers used to protect control circuits or small appliances may not
have sufficient interrupting capacity to use at a panel board; these circuit breakers are called
"supplemental circuit protectors" to distinguish them from distribution-type circuit breakers.

5.1 SF6 Circuit Breaker:

Sulphur Hexafluoride (SF6) is an excellent gaseous dielectric for high voltage power
applications. It has been used extensively in high voltage circuit breakers and other switchgears
employed by the power industry. Applications for SF6 include gas insulated transmission lines
and gas insulated power distributions.

The combined electrical, Physical, chemical and thermal properties offer many advantages when
used in power switchgears.

Some the outstanding properties of SF6 making it desirable to use in power applications are:

 High dielectric strength

 Unique arc-quenching ability
 Excellent thermal stability
 Good thermal conductivity

5.1.1 Operation of Circuit Breaker:

In case of a fault, the relay signal actuates the opening coil and circuit breaker opens.
(This is mechanically a primary protection system). In general, the circuit breakers consist two
main parts, the poles and the mechanism is the part to open or close the contacts in the poles at
the same time instantaneously (with max. 5 millisec. Tolerance). The closing and opening
procedures are performed through springs which are performed through springs which are
charged by a servomotor and a driving lever. In the system, the closing springs are first charged

If "close" button is pressed the opening springs get charged while the contacts get closed.
Thus, circuit breaker will be ready for opening. The mechanical operating cycle of the circuit
breaker is (OPEN-3Min CLOSE/OPEN3 Min- CLOSE/OPEN) or (OPEN-0.3 sec

21
 CLOSE/OPEN-

22
 3 Min CLOSE/OPEN). The second cycle is valid when the circuit breaker is used with re-closing
relay. In that case, after the closing operation, the closing springs are charged by the driving lever
or by driving motor. Thus, the circuit breaker will be ready for opening and reclosing Auxiliary
Switch

The auxiliary switch mounted on the circuit breaker has 12 contacts. One of them is for
anti-pumping circuit; four of them are allocated for opening and closing coils. The remaining 7
coils are spare. Three of them are normally opened and four are normally closed. When it is
necessary, the number of the contacts can be increased.

Rapid Automatic Reclosing :

The circuit breaker which opens due to short circuit failure, can be reclosed automatically after a
preselected time by arc closing relay, assuming the fault is temporary. Thus we avoid long time
power loss in case of temporary short circuits. But, if the fault lasts re-closure, the protection
relay will trip to open the circuit breaker again.

5.1.2 The Maintenance of Circuit Breaker:

Normally at least once a year of after every 500 operations, the circuit breaker must be
maintained. During maintenance, the moving parts of the mechanism must be lubricated
carefully. The insulating parts are wiped out by clean and dry cloth. When maintain, the circuit
breaker should be open and high voltage sides must b grounded. Auxiliary power supply should
also be disconnected. On saline areas near seaside, the insulating parts of the circuit breaker must
be carefully cleaned, at least once every two months. If not, the microscopic salt particles drawn
by wind from the sea will create conductive layers on the insulating surfaces and may cause
surface flashover. Before maintenance, first circuit breaker, then isolator should be opened and
grounded carefully.

23
 5.2 ISOLATOR:

Isolator switch is used for completely de-energized for service or maintenance. They
do not have specific current breaking capacity or current making capacity.

Such switches are often found in electrical distribution and industrial applications where
machinery must have its source of driving power removed for adjustment or repair. High voltage
isolation switches are used in electrical substation to allow isolation of apparatus such as circuit
breakers and transformers, and transmission lines, for maintenance. Often the isolation switch is
not intended for normal control of the circuit and is only used for isolation.

Isolator switch have provisions for a padlock so that inadvertent operation is not possible.
In high voltage or complex systems, these padlocks may be part of a trapped key interlock
system to ensure proper sequence of operation. In some designs the isolator switch has the
additional ability to earth the isolated circuit there by the providing additional safety. Such an
arrangement would apply to circuits which inter connect power distribution systems where both
end of the circuit need to be isolated.

The major difference between and a circuit breaker is that an isolator is an off-load device
intended to be opened only after current has been interrupted by some other control device.
Safety regulations of the utility must prevent any attempt to open the disconnector while it
supplies a current.

5.2.1 TYPES OF ISOLATORS:

i) Based on applications
(a) Single break type isolator
(b) Double break type isolator
ii) Based on placement
(a) Bus side isolator
(b) Transfer side bus isolator
(c) Line isolator
24
 iii) Based on shape of isolator
(a) Pipe type isolator
(b) Knife type isolator
(c) Blade type isolator

5.2.2 Single break isolator:

In this type of isolator, arm contact is separated into two elements. The first arm holds
male contact holds male contact, second arm contact holds female contact. The arm contact shifts
because of the post insulator rotation upon which the arm contacts are fixed.

The post insulators rotation stacks in reverse to each other which makes to shut the
isolator by shutting the arm contact. Post insulators counter-rotation stacks to open the arm
contact as well as isolator, rotate into an off condition. Generally, the motor operated isolator is
used however an emergency manual operated isolator is also offered.

5.2.3 Double break isolator :

This isolator consists of three loads of post insulators. The middle insulators hold a male
contact that can be turned straight by a spin of the middle post insulator can be done by a lever
method at the bottom of the post insulator

Two isolators are provided on either side for the maintenance of the circuit breaker and
current transformer. While opening the circuit, the isolator is closed first then circuit breaker.
While opening carelessly when carrying a heavy current, the resultant is could easily cause flash
over to ground

The conducting part of conducting copper or aluminium rods have fixed and moving contacts.
During the opening operation the conducting rod swings apart and isolation is obtained.
 Electric motor mechanism
 Pneumatic mechanism
To prevent the mall operation, the isolators are providing with the following interlock
 Interlock between three of simultaneous operation
 Interlocking with the circuit breaker

25
 CHAPTER 6
POWER
TRANSFORMERS
A transformer is a passive component that transfers electrical energy from one electrical circuit
to another circuit, or multiple circuits A varying current in any coil of the transformer produces a
varying magnetic flux in the transformer's core, which induces a varying electromotive force
(EMF) across any other coils wound around the same core. Electrical energy can be transferred
between separate coils without a metallic (conductive) connection between the two circuits.
According to Faraday's law of induction, the induced voltage effect in any coil due to a changing
magnetic flux encircled by the coil

Transformers are used to change AC voltage levels; such transformers being termed step-up or
step down to increase or decrease the voltage levels, respectively.

Working principle:
A varying current in the transformer's primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in
the transformer core, which is also encircled by the secondary winding. This varying flux at the
secondary winding induces a varying electromotive force or voltage in the secondary.
The windings are wound around a core of infinitely high magnetic permeability so that all
of the magnetic flux passes through both the primary and secondary windings. With a voltage
source connected to the primary winding and a load connected to the secondary winding, the
26
 transformer currents flow in the indicated directions and the core magneto motive force cancels
to zero.

27
 According to Faraday's law, since the same magnetic flux passes through both the
primary and secondary windings in an ideal transformer, a voltage is induced in each winding
proportional to its number of windings. The transformer winding voltage ratio is equal to the
winding turns ratio

Energy losses :
Transformer energy losses are dominated by winding and core losses.
Transformers' efficiency tends to improve with increasing transformer capacity. The efficiency of
typical distribution transformers is between about 98 and 99 percent.

As transformer losses vary with load, it is often useful to tabulate no load loss, full-load loss,
half- load loss, and so on. Hysteresis and eddy current losses are constant at all load levels and
dominate at no load, while winding loss increases as load increases. The no-load loss can be
significant, so that even an idle transformer constitutes a drain on the electrical supply. Designing
energy efficient transformers for lower loss requires a larger core, good-quality silicon steel, or
even amorphous steel for the core and thicker wire, increasing initial cost. The choice of
construction represents a trade-off between initial cost and operating cost.

Transformer losses arise from:

(a) Winding joule losses:

Current flowing through a winding's conductor causes joule heating due to the resistance of the
wire. As frequency increases, skin effect and proximity effect causes the winding's resistance
and, hence, losses to increase.

(b) Core losses:

i) Hysteresis losses:
Each time the magnetic field is reversed, a small amount of energy is lost due to hysteresis within
the core, caused by motion of the magnetic domains within the steel.
ii) Eddy current losses:
Eddy currents are induced in the conductive metal transformer core by the changing magnetic
field, and this current flowing through the resistance of the iron dissipates energy as heat in the
core. The eddy current loss is a complex function of the square of supply frequency and inverse
square of the material thickness. Eddy current losses can be reduced by making the core of a
stack of laminations (thin plates) electrically insulated from each other, rather than a solid block;
all transformers operating at low frequencies use laminated or similar cores.

Magnetostriction related transformer hum Magnetic flux in a ferromagnetic material, such as the
core, causes it to physically expand and contract slightly with each cycle of the magnetic field,
an effect known as magnetostriction, the frictional energy of which produces an audible noise
known as mains hum or "transformer hum". This transformer hum is especially objectionable in
transform supplied at power frequencies and in high-frequency fly back transformer associated
with television CRTs.
28
iii) Stray losses:
Leakage inductance is by itself largely lossless, since energy supplied to its magnetic fields is
returned to the supply with the next half-cycle. However, any leakage flux that intercepts nearby
conductive materials such as the transformer's support structure will give rise to eddy currents
and be converted to heat.
iv) Radiative losses:
There are also radiative losses due to the oscillating magnetic field but these are usually small.
Mechanical vibration and audible noise transmission. In addition to Magnetostriction, the
alternating magnetic field causes fluctuating forces between the primary and secondary windings.
This energy incites vibration transmission in interconnected metalwork, thus amplifying audible
transformer hum.
6.1 Transformer Types based on Voltage Level:
A Transformer can have multiple types of construction. Transformer does not have any electrical
connection from one side to another; still, the two electrically independent coils can conduct the
electricity by electromagnetic flux. A transformer can have multiple coils or windings on the
primary side as well as on the secondary side. In several cases, multiple primary sides, where two
coils are connected in series, often called as a centre tapped. This centre tapped condition can
also be seen on the secondary side.
Transformers can be constructed in a way that it can convert the voltage level of the primary side
to the secondary side. Depending on the voltage level, the transformer has three categories. Step
Down, Step Up and Isolation Transformer. For the Isolation transformer, the voltage level is the
same for both sides.

1. Step-Down Transformer:
Step down Transformer is used in both Electronics and Electrical domain. A step-down
transformer converts the primary voltage level to a lower voltage across the secondary output.
This is achieved by the ratio of primary and secondary windings. For step-down transformers the
number of windings is higher across the primary side than the secondary side. Therefore, the
overall winding ratio of primary and secondary always remains more than 1.

In electrical, step down transformers are used in electrical distribution system which works on
very high voltage to ensure low loss and cost effective solution for long distance power delivery
requirements. To convert the high voltage to a low voltage supply line, step down transformer is
used.

2. Step- up Transformer:
Step Up transformer is exactly opposite of the step-down transformer. Step up transformer
increase the low primary voltage to a high secondary voltage. Again it is achieved by the ratio of
primary and secondary winding ratio. For the Step Up transformer, the ratio of the primary
winding and the Secondary winding remains less than 1. That means the number turns in
secondary winding is higher than the primary winding. A step-up transformer is also used in
Electrical power distribution. High voltage is required for power distribution related application.

29
3. Isolation Transformer:
Isolation transformer does not convert any voltage levels. The Primary voltage and the secondary
voltage of an isolation transformer always remain the same. This is because the primary and the
secondary winding ratio is always equal to the 1. That means the number of turns in primary and
secondary winding is same in isolation transformer

6.2 Transformer Types based on Core material:

1. Core Transformer:
Iron core transformer uses multiple soft iron plates as the core material. Due to the excellent
magnetic properties of iron, the flux linkage of the iron core transformer is very high. Thus, the
efficiency of the iron core transformer is also high.

2.Ferrite Core Transformer:

A ferrite core transformer uses a ferrite core due to high magnetic permeability. This type of
transformer offers very low losses in the high-frequency application. Due to this, ferrite core
transformers are used in high-frequency application such as in switch mode power supply
(SMPS), RF related applications

3. Core Transformer:
Toroidal core transformer uses toroid shaped core material, such as iron core or ferrite core.
Toroid’s are ring or donut shaped core material and widely used for superior electrical
performance. Due to the ring shape, the leakage inductance is very low and offers very high
inductance and Q factors. The windings are relatively short and weight is much less than
traditional, same rating transformers.
4. Air core transformer:
Air Core transformer does not use any physical magnetic core as the core material. The flux
linkage of the air-core transformer is made entirely using the air.
In air core transformer, the primary coil is supplied with alternating current which produces an
electromagnetic field around it. When a secondary coil is placed inside the magnetic field, as per
the Faraday law of induction, the secondary coil is induced with a magnetic field which further is
used to power the load.
However, air core transformer produces low mutual inductance compared to physical core
material such as iron or ferrite core.

 The transformer has the following parts

1. Core
2. Windings
3. Tank

4. Transformer Oil
5. Conservator
6. Breather

30
 7. Terminal Bushings
8. Explosion Vent
9. Oil Gauge
10. Bucholz Relay

1. CORE : The purpose of core is to provide a path of low reluctance for the magnetic flux. Core
is made up of laminated stampings to reduce Eddy current losses. In building the core, high
pressure is used to minimize air gap between Plates to avoid losses and also to minimize noise
during operation

2.WINDING : Windings are made up of copper conductors and are placed on the core. The
windings which it's connected to the supply is known as primary winding and the winding which
as connected to load is known as secondary winding.

3.TANK : The transformer with core and windings is housed in proper container contains
transformer oil is called tank.

4.TRANSFORMER OIL : The transformer oil which as used in the tank of a transformer is
called transformer oil. It proves three functions:
i. It carries away the heat produced in the core and windings
ii. Additional insulation for the windings and
iii. protects the insulation from dirt and moisture

31
 5.CONSERVATOR: It is an auxiliary tank mounted above the transformer and connected to the
main tank by a pipe.

When transformer is on load, the oil in the main tank gets heated up due to winding temperature,
so the volume of the oil increases. When the oil is cooled, the volume of the oil decreases. And it
reduces the rate of oxidation of oil because it ensures surface of the oil is less exposed to air.

6.BREATHER: The function of the breather is to prevent entry of moisture in the air and allows
dry air into the transformer. Moisture reduces the dielectric strength of oil. It mainly consists of
silica gel which absorbs the moisture.

7. TERMINAL BHUSHINGS: Connections from the transformer windings brought out by

means of bushings mounted on the transformer tank.

32
 8.EXPLOSION VENT: It is a device to avoid high pressure Build up inside the transformer
during the fault condition and is fitted on the top of the tank. This device allows rapid release of
excessive pressure that may be generated in the event of a serious fault.The device is fitted with
the alarm or trip switch .
9.OIL LEVEL INDICATOR/OIL GUAGE: For indicating the level of the oil in the conservator
an oil level indicator is fix to it. It is essential that, the oil level in the conservator is maintained
above a predetermined minimum level.
10. BUCHLOZ RELAY: The Buchholz relay is used as a protective device sensitive to the
effects of dielectric failure inside the equipment. A generic designation for this type of device is
"gas detector relay".

33
 CHAPTER-7
RELAYS
A relay is an electrically operated switch. It consists of a set of input terminals for a
single or multiple control signals, and a set of operating contact terminals. The switch may have
any number of contacts in multiple contact forms, such as make contacts, break contacts
The first relay was used in long distance telegraph circuits; repeating the signal coming
from one circuit and retransmitting to another. Relays were extensively used in telephone
exchanges and early computers to perform logical operations. A type of relay that can handle the
high power required to directly control an electric motor is called a contractor. Solid state relays
control power circuits with no moving part; instead using a semiconductor device to perform
switching. Relays with calibrated operating characteristics and sometimes multiple operating
coils are used to protect electrical circuits from overloads and faults, in modern electrical power
systems these functions are performed by digital instruments called "protective relays".

Several operating coils can be used to provide "bias" to the relay, allowing the sensitivity
of response in one circuit to be controlled by another. Various combinations of "operating
torque" can be produced in the relay.

By use of a permanent magnet in the magnetic circuit; a

relay can be made to respond differently to current in one
direction than in another. Such polarized relays are used on
direct - current circuits to detect. For example: reverse coil
into a generator. These relays can be made bistable;
maintaining a contact closed with no coil current and
requiring reverse current to reset
For AC circuits, the principle is extended with a polarizing
winding connected to a reference voltage source. Light
weight contacts make for sensitive relays that operate
quickly; but small contacts can't carry or break heavy
currents .0ften
auxiliary telephone type armature relays are triggered by the measuring

In a large installation of electromechanical relays; it would be difficult to determine which

device originated the signal that tripped the circuit. This information is useful to operating
personal to determine the likely cause of the fault and to prevent its re occurrence. Relays may be
fitted with a "target" or "flag" unit, which is released when the relay operates, to display a
distinctive coloured signal when the relay has tripped.

7.2 Types :
7.2.1 Over current relay :
An "over current relay" is a type of protective relay which operates when the load current
exceeds a present value. The ANSI device number is 50 for an instantaneous over current (IOC),
51 for a time over current (TOC). In a typical application the over current relay is connected to a
34
 current transformer and calibrated to operate at or above specific current level. When the relay
operates; one or more contacts will operate and energize to trip (open) a circuit breaker.

7.2.2 Induction disc over current relay :

These relays are more robust and reliable. The magnetic system in induction dis over
current relays is designed to detect over currents in a power system and operate with a pre-
determined time delay when certain over current limits have been reached. In order to operate,
the magnetic system in the relays produces torque that acts on a metal disc to make contact;
according to the following basic current/torque equation
The relays primary winding is supplied from the power systems current transformer via a
plug bridge; which is called the plug setting multiplier (psm). Usually seven equally spaced
tapings or operating bands determine the relays sensitivity. The primary winding is located on
the upper electromagnet. The secondary winding has connections on the upper electromagnet
that are energized from the primary winding connected to the lower electromagnet. Once the
upper and lower electromagnets are energized, they produce eddy currents that are induced on to
the metal disc and flow through the flux paths. This relationship of eddy currents and fluxes
creates a torque proportional to the input
In an over current condition; a value of current will be reached that over comes the spring
pressure on the spindle and the braking magnet; causing the metal disc to rotate towards the fixed
contact. The initial moment of the is also held off to a critical positive value of the current by
small slots that are often cut in to the side of the disc. The time taken for rotation to make the
contacts is not only dependent on current but also the spindle backstop position; known as the
time multiplier setting (tms). The time multiplier is divided into 10 linear divisions of the full
rotation time.

Providing the relay free from dirt; the metal disc and the spindle with its contact will
reach the fixed contact; thus sending a signal to trip and isolate the circuit; within its designed
time and current specifications. Drop off current the relay is much lower than its operating value,
and once reached the relay will be reset in a reverse motion by the pressure of the control spring
governed by braking magnet.

35
 7.2.3 Distance relay :
The most common form of protection on high voltage transmission systems is distance
relay protection. Power lines have set impedance per kilometre and using this value and
comparing voltage and current the distance to a fault can be determined. The ANSI standard
device number for a distance relay is 21
7.2.4 Current differential protection :
Another common form of protection for high voltage apparatus such as transformers and
power lines is current differential.
This type of protection works on the basic theory of Kirchhoff's law which states that the
sum of the currents entering the node will be equal to zero. It is important to note the direction of
the currents as well as the magnitude as they are vectors. It requires a set of current transformers
(smaller transformers that transform current down to a level which can be measured) at each end
of the power line or each side of the transformer. The current protection relay then compares the
currents and calculates the difference between the two. As an example power line from one
substation to another will have a current differential relay at both substations will communicate
with each other. In a healthy condition relay at substation A may read 500 amps (power
exporting) and substation B will read 599 amps (power importing). If a path to earth or ground
develops there will be a surge of current. As supply grids are generally well interconnected the
fault in the previous will be fed from both ends of the power line. The relay at the substation A
will see a massive increase in current and will continue to export. Substation B will also see a
massive increase in a current however it will now start to export as well. In turn protection relay
will see the currents travelling in opposite direction (180 degrees phase shift) and instead of
cancelling each other out to give a summation of zero it will see a large value of current. The
relay will trip the associated circuit breakers. This type of protection is called unit protection as it
only protects what is between the current transformers.
It is important to note that generally the higher the currents in the lines the larger the
differential current required for the relay to see it as fault. This is basically done due to small
mismatches in current transformers, small errors will increase as current increases to the point
where the error could cause a false trip if the current differential relay only had an upper limit
instead of raising differential characteristic. It is also important to note that CTS have a point
where the core saturates and the current in the CT is no longer proportional to the current in the
line. A CT can become inaccurate or even saturate because of fault outside protected zone
(through fault) where the CT's see a large magnitude but still in the same direction.

A very common example of a differential current relay is the ground fault current interrupter
(GFCI), or residual-current device
7.2.5 Static relays :
Static relays with no or few moving parts became practical with the introduction of the
transistor. Static relays offer the advantage of higher sensitivity than purely electromechanical
relays; because power to operate output contacts is derived from a separate supply, not from the
signal circuits. Static relays eliminated or reduced contact bounce could provide fast operation;
long life and low maintenance.
36
 7.2.6 Digital Protective Relays
The functions of electromechanical protection systems are now being replaced by
microprocessor-based digital protective relays, sometimes called "numeric relays".
7.3 Power line carrier communication (PI-CC)
The communication and data transmission from one substation to another substation
carried out by means of power line carrier communication (PI-CC) system. PLCC utilizes high
frequency data transmitted through the power line conductors.

PLCC is also used for protection in case of long lines. The PLCC equipment comprises the
following:
1. Line trap
2. Coupling capacitor
3. Tuning unit
4. Transmitter, receiver and other electronic equipment
PLCC is used for voice telecommunication control, network monitoring, supervisory control
and data acquisition. Identical PI-CC equipment is installed in substation at each of the
transmission line.
7.4 Equipment
7.4.1 Line Trap Unit
Line trap is inserted in bus bars and connection of coupling of the line. It has low
impedance less than 0.1 ohms to 50HZ and high impedance to carrier frequency. This unit
prevents this high frequency signals from entering the neighbouring line, and the carries current
flow only in the protected line.

7.4.2 Coupling capacitor

The carrier equipment is connected to the transmission through the coupling capacitor.
This is of such capacitor that it offers high reaction to power frequency; For example 2000pf
capacitor offers 1.5mega ohms to 50HZ and 150 ohms to 500HZ
Thus coupling capacitor allows carrier frequency signals to enter the carrier equipment
but does not allow 50 Hz power frequency current to enter the induction is connected in series
with coupling capacitor to form a resonance at carrier frequency.

7.4.3 Tuning unit

The tuning unit is mounted inside the main coil on the tension rod. It is accessible and
detachable. The tuning unit is designed to one of the following:

1. Single wave
2. Doubling wave
3. Wide band
4. Adjustable tuning

37
 7.4.4 Over voltage arrestor
It is located inside the main coil and it protects the unit from implies voltage.
Advantages of PLCC
The transmission reliability of PLCC is high as that of power lines themselves, whereas
telephone lines much weak mechanically and always fails under difficult condition long before
the power overhead lines. As channels are solely used by power utilities only and not by general
public; there will not be any traffic problem in communication. Carrier current transmission is
not subjected to any variation from atmospheric or ionosphere coilcitions as is the case with VHF
(very high frequency) and microwave system.

Disadvantages of PLCC
The cost of insulation of communication equipment on transmission lines is very high.

Noise will be so high due to interference of corona. High speed data transfer is not possible of
band width limitations.

Applications of PLCC
PLCC will be widely used for the following applications

1. Voice communication
2. Facsimile transmission
3. Tele protection
4. Tele g

Following coupling equipment are used for coupling voice, fax, tele protection and tele metering
signals to the transmission media i.e.; transmitting signals.

1. Wave trap or line trap

2. Coupling filter or capacitor voltage transformer (CVT)
3. Line matching unit
4. Balancing unit
5. Lightening arrestor
6. Earth switch
Relays Based On Timings
1. Instantaneous type
2. Definite time lag type
3. Inverse time lag type

38
 Distance type relays:
1. Impedance type
2. Reactance type Admittance type

Differential type relays

1. Current differential type

2. Voltage differential type

Based on construction:
1. Electromechanical relay
2. Solid state relay
3. Microprocessor relay
4. Numerical relay

Based on actuating signals:

The actuating signals may be any of the following signals including a number of different
combinations of these signals depending up on whether the designed relay require a signal or
multiple input for its realization.

1. Current (over current relays)

2. Voltage (under voltage or over voltage relays)
3. Power (over power and under power relays)
4. Frequency (under frequency relays)
5. Temperature (high temperature relays)
6. Pressure (low pressure relays)
7. Speed

Based on function:

1. Directional over current relay

2. Distance relay
3. Over voltage relay
4. Differential relay
5. Reverse power relay

39
 CHAPTER-8
CONTROL AND RELAY PANEL

AC Control & Relay Panel (CRP) solution is designed to control several feeders, through
medium voltage indoor and outdoor switchgear in a primary distribution substation. It is typically
deployed when associated switchgear does not have space to accommodate the protection,
control, and monitoring needs of a substation.

The CRP can also be extended to incorporate substation HMI, time synchronization,
metering and networking functionality in the substation and thereby avoid requirement of a
separate control room. By deploying CRP also enhances the safety to the substation engineer, as
exposure to a live switchgear is mitigated.
A control & relay panel is designed to provide to control the associated line or
transformer through outdoor switchgear at various 11 KV and 33KV zonal substations. The
control & Relay panels are complete in themselves with all main and auxiliary relays,
annunciation relay, fuses, links, switches, wiring, labels, terminal blocks, earthing terminals, base
frame, foundation bolts, illumination, cable glands etc. These panels are used for the control &
monitoring of electrical equipment such as transformers, generators and circuit breakers. Indoor
Control panel for Outdoor VCB includes IDMT
Numerical relay, Master Trip Relay, Trip circuit Supervision Relay, Indications & meters
etc. These control & Relays panels are available in various combinations as single circuit or

40
 multi- circuit depending upon the customer requirements.

41
 Complete protection of transformer or feeder

Alarm & Annunciation features

Simplex Construction
Multiple Construction Choice (front door or rear door type)
Also available with Communicable Relays

8.1 CONTROL & RELAY PANEL PRODUCT RANGE:

Feeder Panels: A feeder panel scheme consists of feeder circuits for either
11 KV or 33KV switchgear. Single point annunciator is provided for generating the alarm during
fault condition as well as annunciation to indicate the type of faults and breaker status indication.
Transformer Panels: A transformer panel scheme consists of transformer circuits for either 11
KV or 33KV switchgear. Single point annunciator is provided for generating the alarm during
various types of transformer fault condition as well as annunciation to indicate the type of faults
and breaker status indication.

8.2 MULTI CIRCUIT PANELS:

One Transformer & One Feeder Panels: A multi circuit one transformer & one feeder panel
is a combination of a transformer & a feeder circuit in a single panel built for either 11KV or
33KV Switchgear. The transformer circuit shall be same as in single circuit transformer panel.
Similarly, the feeder circuit shall be same as in single circuit feeder panel.
The Control & relay panels are designed & manufactured as per voltage class of substations
like 11KV, 33KV, 66KV, 132KV, 220KV and 400KV etc. However, DC voltage or supply
voltage may differ according to the panel requirement such as 30V DC, 110V DC, 220V DC etc.
Use of Control & relay panel is not only limited in Substations owned and operated by electrical
utilities, but also essential in industrial and commercial sector where power consumption is very
high.
Modern Control & Relay panels are widely being manufactured as per international
standards and strictly following IEC -61850 communication protocol, which is well compatible
to SCADA application.
8.3 APPLICATIONS OF CONTROL & RELAY PANEL:
11KV Switchgear: 11kV switchgear products are used for the protection of power generation
& distribution in electrical equipment. Designing and manufacturing of Control and Relay panel
depend on the requirement of utilities and these can broadly be classified as follows
 Transformer protection
 Generator protection
 Feeder protection
 Capacitor switching

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  33KV Switchgear: 33kV switchgear products mainly used to protection of power
transmission electrical equipment.

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  Bus bar protection
 Breaker
 Coupler
 Reactor
 Line protection

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 CHAPTER -9
BATTERIES
Batteries are the most vital equipment of the substation. Normally lead acid battery banks
are installed in TSTRANSCO substations. In GUNROCK, there are two battery banks. Entire
protection system depends upon battery system as they provide a uninterrupted & reliable power
supply to control the switch gears & Monitor the status of Feeders in case of power failure.
Batteries are used for supplying power for operating automatic control circuits, the
protective relay systems as well as the emergency lightening circuits in substations. These
constitute independent source of operating DC power, irrespective of any fault occurring in the
substation or even in the complete disappearance of AC service voltage in the installation. These
are assembled with certain number of accumulator cells depending up on the voltage of the
respective DC circuits.

The storage battery gives the necessary operative DC power for the tripping mechanism
of the circuit breaker in good condition.

In due course of operation each cell undergoes a certain drop in voltage. At the end of
discharge, when prettily every cell in the battery reaches minimum permissible al voltage to open
the circuit and isolate the fault. The much needed communication either by power line carrier or
the magneto carrier during emergencies may not work if this station battery is not maintained.
The charger is connected to the battery to charge the cells and simultaneously feed DC
loads. The charger voltage is maintained such that the recommended starting current flows
through the battery. After the charging is completed specific gravity and the voltage of all the
cells are checked and the charger is disconnected. Now the battery is ready for discharge.

45
 The general practices to install the rectifier charging equipment: Two separate chargers,
one worth smaller capacity for trickle or float charging and the other of larger capacity for boost
charging function can be combined in one charger by suitable cutting out resistors.
For the DC needs of GUNROCK substation there are two types of batteries one is of the UPST
100 AH and other is of 2V200 AH. There are 104 number of cells in Lead Acid battery
and
the Tubular batteries with a count of 110 cells.

The impedance to the ground should be as low as possible and should not exceed 1 ohm
in large sub-station and 2 ohms’ small sub-station and 0.5 ohm in power station. In distribution
transformer station it could be 5 ohms.
There is also safety equipment with the Fire Extinguishers being placed to the next of the
batteries in the battery room which is manufactured by an Indian Industry "The Exide Industries
limited. It is suitable for B and C category fires with a weight of 6.8kg and 250kgf/cm 2

9.1 Battery Room

A battery room is a room in a facility used to house batteries for backup or uninterruptible power
systems. Usually, to supply the substation locally, there is a station transformer present but
suppose the station transformer fails, in that case, supply should be available. Therefore. battery
set is provided for backup.
In a Substation DC power is supplied in following feeders of a panel:
Trip and Closing circuit of Circuit breaker

• Protection Relay
• Isolator control circuit
• Indication lamp, Alarm
• PLCC panel
Emergency lamps in Control room
All of the above are minimum requirements and supply to the above circuits should be available
in any condition

SAFETY MEASURES
Minimum requirements to be fulfilled in the battery room:
1.The walls and the ceiling of the battery room should be well painted with acid resistant paints.
The flouring of the room shall be of acid resistant tiles and materials
2The battery room should have good ventilation. There should be no direct light on the cells.
3. Exhaust fans are to be fixed to provide a minimum of six air changers per hour. Blowers are to
be provided to maintain sufficient air inlet into the room. Entrance door should be kept open
always in order to avoid development of negative pressure

46
 4. Smoking or use of a naked flame in the battery room should be strictly prohibited. Ensure
correct polarity between adjacent cells and the battery and the charging source. Charging the cell
in the wrong direction will ruin it.

9.2 Battery Charger

Battery chargers comprise of separate float charger and boost charger or combination of
both float cum boost charger DC output voltage available from boost charger on the full load has
range between 1.8V and 2.65V per cell. The float charger on full load has voltage less than 2V.
Total numbers of cells are 110.The boost charger is used for rapid charging. In this case each cell
has a voltage greater than 2V. Hence only 84 cells are connected to supply voltage of 220V

47
 CHAPTER 10
EARTHING SYSTEM
An earthing system (on) grounding system connects part of an electric power system with
the ground, pasts of an electric typically the Earth's conductive surface, for safety and functional
purposes. The choice of earthing can affect the safety and electro- magnetic capability of the
installation.

Earthing system comprises of an earth mat (having the dimensions 100mmx10gm) which
is spread over the substation. Each equipment in the substation is surrounded by earth pits. Earth
pit is of 12 it in depth and is composed of alternate layers of charcoal and salt. Charcoal acts as
insulating material and salt is used to absorb moisture content. Every earth pit is provided with
running water supply in order to reduce the earth resistance. Every equipment is connected to the
earth pit which is connected to the earth mat on both sides. Earth mat is made of Galvanized Iron
which is anti-corrosive in nature.

10.1 Earth Switch

It is a switch, which connects a conductor to the earth so as to discharge the charges on
the conductor to the earth. Earthing switches are generally installed on the frames of the is
isolator.
For example, in the case of disconnection of a transformer, first the earth switch should
be kept in closed position in order to discharge the transformer. When the transformer discharges
completely, the switch should be opened.
10.2 Equipment Earthing
Equipment earthing relates to the manner in which the frames, enclosures structures and
48
 other non-current carrying metallic parts in the sub-station are Interconnected and earthed.

49
10.3 Neutral Point Earthing
All power systems of today operate with grounded metal. Grounding offers several
advantages. The neutral point of generator, transformer system circuit, rotating machines etc, is
connected to earth either directly or through a resistance reactors. The neutral earthing is one of
the most important features of system design in every sub-station, neutral grounding in important
because.
1.The earth fault protection is based on the method of neutral earthing.
2.The system voltage during fault depends on neutral earthing.

10.4 Advantages of Earthing

Ensures the safety of electrical appliances and devices from the excessive amount of
electric current.

Helps in the flow of electric current directly inside the ground.

Keeps the electric appliance safe from the damage.
It protects building breakdown from the lightning.

50
 CHAPTER 11
OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE OF THE SUB-STATION
11.1 CT-TESTS
The following are the tests to be conducted on Current Transformer (CT)

1. Insulation test
2. Polarity test
3. Ratio test by primary injection test
4. Test for checking magnetization curve test

11.1.1 Insulation tests

All the earth connections on the secondary winding to be tested should be removed ie.. earthing
links on the CT and trip supply. It is difficult to predict the insulation resistance to be expected as
this varies widely depending on the amount of winding involved, its grade and the site humidity.
Readings of a few mega ohms down to 0.2 mega ohms are generally obtained. The insulation
resistance should be measured to earth and between circuits.

11.1.2 Polarity test

Each CT should be individually tested to verify that the primary and secondary polarity markings
are correct. The ammeter connected to the secondary permanent magnet, Centre zero type. A low
voltage battery is used via a single pole push button to energize the primary winding. On closing
the push button, the D.C ammeter should indicate positive flick and on opening, a negative flick.
11.2 M.R.T (METERING, RELAY AND TESTING)
MRT wing plays a crucial role in the protection system of the substation. Each and every
equipment in the sub-station is tested by MRT personnel periodically i... once in a year. Relays
are the important devices upon which we rely for the purpose of protection. The auxiliary supply
for the relay is fed from the DC supply and actuating quantity from the instrumental transformers
such as CT's and PT's Classification of protection system:
1. Based in voltage level:
a. 33kV protection
b. 132kV protection
c. 220kV protection
2. Based on type of devices/equipment being protected
a. Transformer protection
b. Feeder protection
c. Capacitor bank protection

51
 Electromechanical relays generally consist of two overcurrent relays and one earth fault relay.
Numerical relay consists of three overcurrent relays and one earth fault relay. In case of
electromechanical relays though only two overcurrent relays are provided i.e., for R-phase and B-
phase, these relays together with earth fault relay can protect the whole three phase system. This
economizes the protection system.
In a sub-station, we receive only 3-phase conductors, the neutral is solidly grounded i.e. ground
acts as star neutral. (in a Y-Y connection which is general connection for transmission network
whereas delta-star is general connection for distribution network).
Currents and voltages from instrumental transformer are divided into two groups. One for
metering and other for protection. For this purpose, CT secondary consists of different number of
cores based on voltage level.
For 33kV CT's secondary contains 2 or 3 cores
For 132kV CT's secondary contains 3 to 5 cores
For 220V CT's secondary contains 5 or more
cores
are designed for full load current i.e., normal operation current whereas relays are designed for
maximum fault current. For this purpose, different cores on CT secondary have different kind of
winding (varies in thickness and spacing).
Now-a-days, digital relays are being used in most of the sub-stations, because of their good and
simpler in processing. The major disadvantage of these relays is that en bits are more. The error
bits get multiplied as the level of voltage increase sensitivity of these relays is less compared to
analog relays. So these digital relays are equipped where less sensitivity is sufficient. Though
analog relays are more sensitive, the major drawback is they have mechanical inertia. The cost of
these is also high. Therefore, these are equipped only where very high precision is required. The
standard power handling capacity of various conductors of different voltage levels are:
33kV Conductors-Maximum power of 20MW
132kV Conductors-Maximum power of 100MW
220kV conductors -Maximum power of 200MW
In case of replacement of any conductor due to faults, these standards have to be maintained for
the selection of suitable conductor. Sensitivity of metering relays is based on the class of accuracy.

0.1 class of accuracy or 0.1 error

0.2 class of accuracy+or-0.2 error

0.3 class of accuracy+or-0.3 error

Based on sensitivity required, that relay of particular class of accuracy is selected. For protective
relays, there is only type i.e., PS class relays.

11.2.1 Feeder protection:

For the protection of 220kV feeders, two distance relays are provided. The main relay is
designed for just 12V DC supply. This main relay actuates auxiliary relays, which take care of
52
 isolation or separation breaker contacts. This is because. the main relays are generally micro-
processor based

53
 numerical relays which can mille only mA of current, whereas auxiliary relays are
electromechanical relays which can handle high currents up to few amperes.

For 132kV protection, one impedance relay for primary protection is provided. Three overcurrent
and one earth fault relays are provided for back-up protection. Impedance relays are distance
relays and back-up relays are numerical type. For distance relays, the area to be protected is
divided into different zones i.e. zonal zone2, zone3, zone4.
For 220kV feeder relay, time of operation of zonal fault-20ms. For 132kV feeder relay, time of
operation of zonal fault-50ms.
For 33KV feeder relay, time of operation of zonal fault-100ms.

11.2.1 Transformer protection:

For protection of transformer one overcurrent relay and one earth fault relay are used.
Differential protection is generally employed for protecting the transformer, which is
the costliest equipment in the sub-station. The other relays that are equipped for
transformer protection are
(a) Under voltage relay
(b) Over voltage relay
(c) Over flux relay

11.2.2 Capacitor bank protection

Capacitor banks employed at load end is the most advantageous one, but this is most impractical.
So capacitor banks are provided at different voltage levels in sub-station itself.
For the protection of the capacitor banks, three overcurrent relays and one earth fault relay are
used. Power factor lead, lag trip relays are also provided.

11.2.3 Bus-Bar protection

This is only for high voltage levels i.e., starting from 220kV level. For bus-bar protection,
additional separate cores for CT's are provided.

11.2.4 TESTING OF VARIOUS EQUIPMENT:

Various testing equipment used by MRT personnel:
a. Insulation Testing equipment
b. Transformer testing equipment
c. HV testing equipment
For testing various equipment. they are to be disconnected from the instrumental transformers
and are supplied from a simulator which provides artificial fault atmosphere. The response of the
relays for the faults and their characteristics are studied to observe their healthiness.

54
 CHAPTER 12
DESCRIPTION OF 132/33KV (GUNROCK) SUBSTATION
The 132/33KV GUNROCK substation line diagram is described as follows:
A single incoming feeder (132KV) consists of a lightening arrester; CVT; Isolator
connected to 132KV bus. Similarly, another feeder of 132 KV is also connected to the same bus.
In the same way we are having another bus having 2 incoming feeders which are connected
parallel to one another.

Incoming feeders (132kv)

1. Shapurnagar
2. Gunrock-1
3. Moulali
4. Gunrock-2
The 132/33kv GUNROCK substation receives power from gunrock-1 and gunrock-2 feeders
from gunrock substation (220/132KV). The other two incoming feeders are from MOULALI and
SHAPURNAGAR substations being in ideal charge (stand by feeders). This power is used to
meet commercial and domestic loads.

It has 50 MVA and 2x 80 MVA 132/33kV power transformers feeding power to the
feeders. Two 50 MVA Transformer (Current rating: 37500/50000amps)

OUTGOING FEEDERS (33kV):

1. Alwal
2. Gunrock
3. Bowenpally
4. HMT

5. Malkajgiri
6. R.P nilayam
7. Marredpally
8. Gymkhana
9. Machabollaram
10. James street
11. Airport
12. Thokatta
13. Bhudevinagar

55
 14. Nehru nagar
15. Kims
16. Hakimpet
17. New Bowenpally
18. Hakimpet Cable-I
19. Thirumalgiri
20. New marredpally

56
SALIENT FEATURES OF 132/33 KV SS GUN ROCK

The 132/33 KV SS at Gun Rock has the following equipment :

1. Power Transformer
a) 50 MVA PTR s - 2
b) 80 MVA PTR s – 2

50 MVA PTR :

S.No Characteristic Rating

01. Manufacture Bharat Bijlee

02. KVA 37,500 / 50,000

03. Amperes
a) HV side 164.0 / 218.7
b) LV side 656.1 / 874.8

04. Frequency 50 Hz

05. Make of OLTC EASUN-MR

06. Type of cooling ONAN / ONAF

07. Total mass with oil 90,000 kg

08. Volume of oil 21,500 / 25,000 kg/l

09. Make of LV bushings CJI

10. Make of HV bushings AREVA

57
80 MVA PTR :

S.No Characteristic Rating

01. Manufacture BBL

02. KVA 60,000 / 80,000

03. Amperes
a) HV side 262.4 / 349.9
b) LV side 1049.7 / 1399.6
04. Frequency

05. Make of OLTC CTR ELIN

No.of steps 24
06. Type of cooling ONAN / ONAF

07. Mass of core and winding assembly 60,000 kg

08. Volume of oil 23,500/27,300 kg/l

09. Total mass 1,50,000 kg

10. Phases HV / LV 3 /3

58
 2. Current Transformer
a) 132KV PTR-HV-2 CT s
b) 132 KV PTR-HV-3 CT s

S.No. Characteristic Rating

01. Phase R - Phase

02. Manufacture ITC

03. Year of manufactured 2006

04. Frequency 50Hz

05. Insulation level 275 / 650 KV

06. Current ratio 300 – 200 – 100 / 1 – 0.577.1 - 1

07. Short time current 31.5 KA for sec

08. Quantity of oil 140 litres

09. Total weight 270 kg

59
 3. Specifications of SF6 Circuit Breaker :

S.No Characteristic Rating

01. Type 3AP1FG

02. Rated voltage 145 KV

03. Rated frequency 50Hz

04. Rated normal current 3150 A

05. Rated pressure of SF6 ( 20 degree Celsius ) 6.0 bar

06. Weight including SF6 1500 kg

07. Client TS TRANSCO

4. Batteries :

Characteristic Rating
S.No.
01. Type Lead acid

02. Ampere – hour 200 AH

03. Voltage (200 + 10) V or (200 – 10) V

04. Number of cells

a) For protectiom 2 sets of 110 V
b) For carrier communication 1 set of 48 V

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SINGLE LINE DIAGRAM :

61
 CONCLUSION

The study of 132KV sub-station GUNROCK has given knowledge about the transmission
system prevailed in the state and the various equipment used in the 132/33 kV substations
acquainted with Lighting Arrestors, CT’s, CVT’s, Isolators, Power transformer, Power
transformer accessories, protection system adopted for HV transmission lines, power
transformers and feeders.

The maintenance of HV substation in TS TRANSCO is studied.

Maintenance of the substations are critical in ensuring reliable, continuous, efficient and
resilient to transient over-voltages in power distribution.
Battery system and protection system, PLC’s, communication system are studied.
Earthing system, earth pits, earthing wires, control panels, SCADA communication, alarms
are studied.

62