Structure Analysis

1. Introduction
a) Static indeterminacies
• The number of equations required over and above the equations of static equilibrium for the analysis
of a structure is known as the degree of static indeterminacy or degree of redundancy of the
structure.
• External indeterminacies (𝐷#$ )
¨ It deals with support reaction only; it is number of reactions in excess of equilibrium equation.
• Internal indeterminacies (𝐷#& )
¨ It deals with internal member forces only, axial, shear, bending. It is number of internal
forces in excess of equilibrium equations.
¨ For beams: there is no internal indeterminacy because if we know the support reactions then
we can find axial forces, shear force and bending moment at any section of beam.
¨ For Truss: it is number of members in excess of (2𝑗 − 3)

¨ For frames: we can directly find the total degree of static indeterminacies by counting the
number of cuts required for a stable cantilever beams time 3
𝐷# = 3 × 𝐶 − number of reactions added at internal hinge or supports
𝐷# = 𝐷#$ + 𝐷#&
b) Kinematic indeterminacy
• The number of equilibrium conditions needed to find the displacement components of all joints of the
structure are known as degree of kinetic indeterminacy or degree of freedom.
• It is also the number of independent displacements at all joints in a structure.
¨ Displacements are counted at joints or free ends only.
¨ Whenever cross-sectional area changes or material changes or configuration changes then it is
treated as a joint.
• Truss (pin jointed frame)
¨ At each joint in a truss, number of independent displacements are only two, horizontal and
vertical displacements.
¨ Rotation of a member in a truss is not considered because it implies that the member buckled it
implies that member failed.
¨ Rigid body rotation is also not counted it is not unknown.
¨ In trusses we cannot assume members as inextensible as primary force is axial only.
Plane frame 𝐷B = 2𝑗 − 𝑒
Space frame 𝐷B = 3𝑗 − 𝑒
𝑗 = number of joints
𝑒 = number of known boundary conditions
• Frames
¨ At a rigid joint in a plane frame, all members rotate by the same angle, so we have to count
only one rotation for all members meeting at a rigid joint.
¨ At a pin joint in a frame all members rotate independently, so we count rotation of all members
meeting at a pin joint.
¨ If all the members are inextensible then deformation of each member in its longitudinal
direction is not possible.
¨ If members are axially rigid and bracing is done, then only rotations are possible, sway is not
possible due to bracing rods.
c) Stability of structures
• External stability

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 ¨ For any structure to be stable externally, minimum number of reactions required is equal to
three.
¨ These reactions must be non-parallel and non-concurrent.
¨ If a structure is unstable due to geometry of reactions then it is called geometrically unstable.
¨ If it is unstable due to less than three reactions, then it is called statically unstable structure.
• Internal stability
¨ It deals with stability within the structure
¨ Three consecutive hinges with central floating hinge will make structure unstable.
¨ For truss
o If 𝑚 < 2𝑗 − 3
o Then, truss is classified as unstable,
o It is necessary but not sufficient condition.
d) Strain Energy
• Strain energy: it is energy stored due to straining of a body.
• Resilience: ability of a material to store strain energy within elastic limit.
• Proof resilience: it is strain energy stored in the body at elastic limit.
• Modulus of resilience: it is proof resilience per unit volume, it is given by area of stress-strain curve
up to elastic limit.
• Toughness: it is ability of a material to store strain energy up to fracture.
• Modulus of toughness: it is the toughness per unit volume, it is given by area of stress strain curve up
to fracture.
e) Strain energy stored due to Gradually applied loading
1 𝑃I 𝑙
𝑈=
2 𝐴𝐸
MN
¨ 𝑈 = IO × Volume
Q N RO
¨ 𝑈=
IS
f) Strain energy stored due to Suddenly applied load
• Instantaneous stress due to suddenly applied load is twice that of gradually applied load
2𝑃
𝜎UVWX =
𝐴
• Instantaneous elongation is also twice
2𝑃𝑙
ΔUVWX =
𝐴𝐸
• Instantaneous strain energy stored due to suddenly applied load is 4 times
2𝑃I 𝑙
𝑈=
𝐴𝐸
• When load is applied suddenly the bar vibrates, after the vibrations are stopped, stress and
elongations are same as that of gradually applied load.
g) Impact loading
• The dynamic action of a moving load is called impact.
• Maximum stress developed due to impact
𝑃 2𝐴𝐸ℎ
𝜎= Z1 + [1 + ]
𝐴 𝑃𝑙

• Instantaneous maximum deflection

ΔUVWX = Δ#^ + _ΔI#^ + 2Δ#^ ℎ

h) Castigliano's first theorem – for forces in an elastic structure
• Castigliano's method for calculating forces is an application of his first theorem, which states:
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 • If the strain energy of an elastic structure can be expressed as a function of generalised
displacement then the partial derivative of the strain energy with respect to generalised displacement
gives the generalised force.
• It is applicable to both linear and non-linear structures,
¨ if this theorem is applied to linear elastic structure, we get stiffness method of analysis.
i) Castigliano's second theorem – for displacements in a linearly elastic structure.
• If the strain energy of a linearly elastic structure can be expressed as a function of generalised force
then the partial derivative of the strain energy with respect to generalised force gives the generalised
displacement in the direction of force.
• When it is applied to linear elastic structures then the method of analysis is called flexibility method
of analysis.
2. Moment area & Conjugate beam
a) Moment area
• It is a semi analytical method, used to find slopes and deflection in beams.
• If finding area of BMD and finding CG of area of BMD are simple then this method is used to find
slopes and deflection quickly.
• Mohr’s theorem I
𝐴
𝜃=
𝐸𝐼
¨ It states that the angle between two tangents drawn on the elastic line is given by area of BMD
between these two tangents divided by EI.
• Mohr’s theorem II
𝐴𝑥̅
𝛿=
𝐸𝐼
¨ The deviation of any point B away from the tangent drawn at A (BB’) is given by moment of
area of BMD about B divided by EI.
• Areas to remember

1 2 1
𝐴 = (ℎe + ℎI )𝑏 𝐴 = 𝑏ℎ 𝐴 = 𝑏ℎ
2 3 3
𝑏 2ℎI + ℎe 3 1
𝑥̅ = g h 𝑥̅ = 𝑏 𝑥̅ = 𝑏
3 ℎe + ℎI 8 4
b) Conjugate Beam
• DISCUSSED IN SOM NOTES
3. Trusses
a) Precautions
• All members must be straight and connected by smooth pins, at the ends. Otherwise if members are
curved they will bend and structure cannot be called a truss.
• Members must be straight but need not be prismatic.
• Loads must be applied only at the joints otherwise if the loads are applied at intermediate location
then they will bend.
• In a truss total the total number of members and
¨ Total number of joints are related by 𝑚 = 2𝑗 − 3
o If 𝑚 = 2𝑗 − 3 perfect stable structure

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 o If 𝑚 < 2𝑗 − 3 deficient or unstable truss
o If 𝑚 > 2𝑗 − 3 redundant truss
¨ We provide more members to make the structure more stable, these additional members are
called counter bracing.
b) Analysis of trusses
• Method of joints
¨ Equilibrium of joints are considered in this method.
¨ Find the support reactions by considering equilibrium of entire truss.
¨ Consider equilibrium of a joint where only two unknown forces are available and use
∑𝐹n = 0, ∑𝐹q = 0
¨ Arrow marks away from joints means tension and towards means compression.
¨ If two members in a joint are collinear and there are only three members then the force in the
third member is zero if there is no external load at the joint.
¨ For two non-collinear members are there and there is no external force on the joint, then both
the member will have zero force.
¨ Always use sign rule to avoid solution of simultaneous equations, sine rule is used only when
three forces are acting at a point which are in equilibrium. The arrows must be either towards
the joint or away from the joints.
• Method of section
¨ Equilibrium of a section of a truss is considered in this method. The advantage of this method
of section is that the force in any intermediate member can be found directly without finding
forces in any other members.
¨ Find support reaction by considering equilibrium of entire truss.
¨ Cut the member under consideration with a section so that the truss is divided in two parts and
by applying moment or force balance the required force in the member can be found out.
¨ If panel shear force is zero in any panel then force in inclined member in that panel is always
zero.
c) Types of trusses
Pratt truss diagonals can buckle if
length is more

Warren truss More efficient

distribution of
distributed load (UDL)

K truss Less length required so

less chance for buckling

Howe truss Oppositve of Pratt truss

Fink truss Transfer of load to

columns is efficient.

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 Gambrel truss More space so used in
roof

d) Deflection using strain energy/unit load method

𝑃𝑘𝐿
Δ=r
𝐴𝐸
Δ = r 𝑘𝛿&
• Finding absolute deflection of a joint
¨ STEPS
o strain energy stored in all members
𝑃&I 𝑙&
𝑈=r
2𝐴𝐸
o where Pi is force in each member due to applied load.
o 𝑙& is length of members, A of member
𝑃& 𝑘& 𝑙&
𝛿=r
𝐴& 𝐸
o 𝑘 is the force due to unit load, applied in the direction of the deflection.
Length Area P k 𝑃𝑘𝐿
Member 2
(mm) (mm ) (kN) (kN) 𝐴
AB
BC ∑
¨ Note: principal of superposition cannot be applied to calculate strain energy stored in the
structure all the loads must be applied at once on the structure and increased gradually to reach
their respective magnitude for that load system.
• Finding relative displacement of two joints
¨ Apply unit loads at J1 and J2 in the direction of each other, then find forces in all members as k
𝑃& 𝑘& 𝑙&
𝛿uv uN = r
𝐴& 𝐸
¨ Similarly, for finding rigid body rotation of any member, apply unit couple at the joints, find
force in all members due to these loads, then rotation of the member is given by
𝑃& 𝑘& 𝑙&
𝜃uv uN = r
𝐴& 𝐸
RO
¨ If axial rigidity (load required to produce unit deformation in unit length 𝐾 = S
) and
Temperature change are given
𝑃& 𝑘& 𝑙&
𝛿uv uN = r = ∑𝑘& 𝛿 = ∑𝑘& 𝑙𝛼Δ𝑇
𝐴& 𝐸
e) Analysis of statically Indeterminate Truss
• Due to temperature change or sinking of support or yielding of support or due to fabrication errors
forces are developed in the structure which are statically indeterminate.
¨ Find degree of indeterminacy of truss by
𝐷# = 𝑚 + 𝑟$ − 2𝑗
¨ Here the unknowns are represented by the number of bar forces (m) plus the support reactions
(re), and the number of available equilibrium equations is 2j since two equations can be written
for each of the ( j) joints.
¨ The force method is quite suitable for analysing trusses that are statically indeterminate to the
first or second degree.
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 • STEPS
¨ We remove any member force or reaction, provided the structure becomes determinate not
unstable. Let the force be 𝑅
¨ From compatibility
𝑃𝑘𝐿 𝑘I𝐿
r +𝑅r =0
𝐴𝐸 𝐴𝐸
𝑃𝑘𝐿
∑
𝑅 = − 𝐴𝐸
𝑘I𝐿
∑
𝐴𝐸
Length Area P k 𝑃𝑘𝐿 𝑘I𝐿
Member 2 𝑆 = 𝑃 + 𝑅𝑘
(mm) (mm ) (kN) (kN) 𝐴 𝐴
AB
BC ∑ ∑
• Force due to fabrication error (𝛿𝑙)
¨ We remove any member. Let the force be 𝑋
¨ From compatibility
𝑘I𝐿
𝑋r = 𝛿𝑙
𝐴𝐸
𝛿𝑙
𝑋=
𝑘I𝐿
∑
𝐴𝐸
∑𝑘𝛿𝑙
=−
𝑘I𝐿
∑
𝐴𝐸
Length Area k 𝑘I𝐿
Member 2 𝑆 = 𝑘𝑋
(mm) (mm ) (kN) 𝐴
AB
BC ∑
• Similar step as above is done for temperature stress
𝑘I𝐿
𝑋r = 𝐿𝛼𝑇
𝐴𝐸
𝐿𝛼𝑇
𝑋=
𝑘I𝐿
∑
𝐴𝐸
∑𝑘𝐿𝛼𝑇
=−
𝑘I𝐿
∑
𝐴𝐸
¨ Depending on either the temperature increases, the direction of unit load applied will change.
If temperature increases, it will push the joints and decreases it will pull the joints. Similar case
will happen in fabrication error for short or long bars.
4. Moving load and Influence line
a) Introduction
• An influence line represents the variation of either the reaction, shear, or moment, at a specific point
in a member as a concentrated force moves over the member.
• Once this line is constructed, one can tell at a glance where the moving load should be placed on the
structure so that it creates the greatest influence at the specified point
• In 1886, Heinrich Muller Breslau developed a technique for rapidly constructing the shape of an
influence line. Referred to as the Muller Breslau principle,
¨ It states that the influence line for any stress function (reaction, shear, or moment) may be
obtained by removing the restraint offered by that function and introducing a directly
related generalized unit displacement at that location in the direction of the stress function.
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 b) Muller Breslau principle
• To draw ILD for reaction at any support remove the support and apply unit displacement. Then
corresponding deflected shape of the beam is the ILD for reaction at that support.
e
• ILD for SF, cut the beam at the required section, and lift the beam such that 𝜃R = 𝜃~ = and total
S
ordinate is 𝑋• = 1
• ILD for BM at any section, without removing the supports at A and B assume an imaginary hinge at
ۥ
section, apply unit rotation, to get unit rotation the hinge must be lifted by an amount of
S
c) Maximum Bending Moment
• If UDL is shorter than span and is moving on the beam, to get maximum BM at any section, keep the
n €
UDL in same proportion as the span, S‚n = •
• If more than two-point loads are moving on the beam then to get maximum BM at C, keep the load
such that
¨ 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝐴𝐶 − 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝐵𝐶 ≤ 0
¨ As soon as this relation is satisfied keep the load on the peak point to get the maximum BM at
the section.
• To get the absolute maximum bending moment, when a series of load are moving on a simply
supported beam, then to get maximum BM under a load
¨ Keep the loads such that the chosen load and the resultant of load system are at equal distance
from the centre then maximum BM occurs under the chosen load, (not at centre)
• When a couple is moving on a simply supported beam
¨ The external effect of it remains same when it is placed anywhere in its plane i.e. support
reactions are same, but internal effect may be different (BMD is different)
¨ When a moment M is moving from left to right absolute maximum BM occurs when it is at the
supports, its magnitude is M.
5. Influence line diagram for statically indeterminate structures
a) For statically determinate structure ILDs for stress functions like reactions, shear force, BM are straight
lines,
• but for statically indeterminate structure ILD for reaction, SF and BM are curved lines (3o curves)
b) From Muller Breslau principle
• To draw ILD for reaction at any support remove the support and apply unit displacement, then the
displaced shape of the beam itself is ILD for reaction at support.
• Muller Breslau principle is applicable for statically determinate and indeterminate structure which are
linearly elastic.
6. Energy method
a) Strain energy stored due to bending moment
Œ•N Žn
• 𝑈=∫ IO•
• From Castigliano’s theorem II
𝜕𝑈
𝛿=
𝜕𝑊
𝜕𝑀
2𝑀n 𝜕𝑊n 𝑑𝑥 𝑀n 𝑚𝑑𝑥
⇒𝛿=“ =“
2𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼
¨ Where, 𝑀n – BM at xx due to load
¨ m – BM due to unit load
𝜕𝑀
2𝑀n 𝜕𝑀n 𝑑𝑥 𝑀n 𝑚𝑑𝑥
⇒𝜃=“ =“
2𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼
¨ Where, 𝑀n – BM at xx due to load

7
 ¨ m – BM due to unit moment
b)
7. Moment distribution (Hardy Cross)
a) Important terms
• Carryover moment: it is moment developed at one end due to applied moment at other end. It is
defined only when one end is subjected to a moment M. All COM are reacting moments but all
reacting moments are not COM.
When far end if
fixed COF = 0.5

When far end is

hinged COF = 0

For cantilever
beam COF = -1

• Stiffness factor
¨ It is the moment required to produce unit rotation
When far end if
fixed 4𝐸𝐼
𝑀=
𝑙

When far end is

hinged 3𝐸𝐼
𝑀=
𝑙

For cantilever
beam, or with a 𝐸𝐼
𝑀=
guided roller 𝑙

• Relative stiffness
¨ It is defined to simplify calculations, it is found by dividing with 4𝐸
•
¨ When far end is fixed 𝑘 =
S
••
¨ When far end is hinged 𝑘 = –S
¨ When far end is free 𝑘 = 0
• Distribution factor
¨ It is the ratio in which applied the moment (M) is distributed to various members, meeting at a
rigid joint.
— B
¨ 𝐷𝐹 = ∑— = ∑B
¨ If far end is free then DF=0 as stiffness is zero.
• Fixed end moments

8
 M/4

b) Assumptions
¨ Clockwise end moments and clockwise rotations are taken as positive
¨ Sign conventions are used while distributing end moments only.
¨ Sagging BM is taken as positive form BMD.
¨ Axial forces and corresponding axial deformations are neglected in MDM.
c) STEPS
¨ Find distribution factors for joints
¨ Find fixed end moments for the members (according to the sign convention)
¨ Release the fixed joints which are free, hinged, as releasing will create an unbalance moment,
apply moment of opposite sign on those joints.
¨ From new application of moments find carry over to other joints.
¨ These carryovers along with previous moments needs to be balanced and distributed according
to the DFs.
¨ Remember Carry over in same sign and balance in opposite sign.
d) SWAY analysis
• Side sway occurs if there is a lack of symmetry either w.r.t. loading or w.r.t. geometry. In that case
analysis is in two steps
¨ Step I: the frame is restrained by applying some external loading (restraining force) and
analysis is performed to find out end moments. (non-sway analysis)
o Also, the restraining force R is calculated.
¨ Step II: all external loadings are removed and an arbitrary sway force of magnitude equal to S
(restraining force) and opposite to the direction of restraining force is applied and analysis is
performed. This is called sway analysis.
o As fixed moments are not known in advance, hence arbitrary values are assumed for
FEM as 100, 10 etc.
o Joint moments are determined using MDM.
o Arbitrary sway force (S) is now determined, from equilibrium equation.
o Correction Factor
Actual sway force R
𝐶𝐹 =
Arbitrary sway S
o Actual sway moment = end moment x CF
¨ Total end moment = actual sway moment + non-sway moment
e) Trick and simplifications
• In case where moments are iteratively shared between two supports, ie. A B C D are joints and B is
getting CO from C and C is getting CO from B, then only middle column can be solved (𝑀~• 𝑀•~ )
and other moments can be calculated from Equilibrium equations.

9
 𝑀~R = −𝑀~•
𝑀~R − 𝑀ž~R
𝑀R~ = 𝑀žR~ +
2
• Symmetrical beam with symmetrical loading
¨ If a beam is symmetric with respect to both its loading and geometry, the bending-moment
diagram for the beam will also be symmetric. As a result, a modification of the stiffness factor
for the center span can be made, so that moments in the beam only have to be distributed
through joints lying on either half of the beam.
2𝐸𝐼
𝐾=
𝐿
8. Slope deflection (S.A. Maney)
a) Basic equations
2𝐸𝐼 3Δ
𝑀R~ = 𝑀žR~ + g2𝜃R + 𝜃~ − h
𝑙 𝑙
2𝐸𝐼 3Δ
𝑀~R = 𝑀ž~R + g𝜃R + 2𝜃~ − h
𝑙 𝑙
b) Assumptions
• Slope deflection is applicable to linear elastic structures only.
• It is also called stiffness method of analysis
• If far end is free, for overhang portion of a beam, we cannot write slope deflection equations because
there is no support at free end.
• The effect of axial force and axial deformations are neglected in slope deflection method.
• Since internal joint equilibrium equations are used to find unknown displacements, this method of
analysis is also called equilibrium method of analysis.
• Since displacements are unknown this method is also called displacement method of analysis.
c) Sign convention
• Clock wise end moments and clockwise rotations are taken as positive. (anti-clock is negative) while
writing slope deflection equations only.
• For bending moment original sagging is positive and hogging is taken as negative.
• w.r.t. left support, if right support sinks down then Δ is taken as positive, if right support moves up Δ
is taken as negative to suite end moments sign convention.
9. Three moment
a) Introduction
• The three moment equations express the
relationship between the moments at three
consecutive supports and the loading on the two
spans between those three supports, with or without
the unequal settlement of the supports.
• This relation is derived from the consistency
condition that the slope at the middle support,
calculated from the left span should be the same as
the slope at the middle calculated from the right
span.
• It is also referred as Clapeyron’s Theorem of three
Moment Equation.
• Application: The three-moment equation may be
used conveniently for the analysis of continuous
beams.
• General form

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 𝐿e 𝐿e 𝐿I 𝐿I 6𝐴e 𝑎e 6𝐴I 𝑎I 6𝐸ℎR 6𝐸ℎ•
𝑀R g h + 2𝑀~ g + h + 𝑀• g h = − − + +
𝐼e 𝐼e 𝐼I 𝐼I 𝐼e 𝐿e 𝐼I 𝐿I 𝐿e 𝐿I
• For UDL (on both span)
𝑤𝑙 • 𝑤𝑙 •
𝑀R 𝑙 + 2𝑀~ (𝑙 + 𝑙 ) + 𝑀• 𝑙 = − −
4 4
10. Arches and cables
a) Analysis of cables
• Cables cannot take compression and bending moment, i.e. BM is zero everywhere in cable. It can
only be subjected to tension.
• To keep two forces in equilibrium they must be equal, oppositely directed and collinear in action.
¨ To keep three forces in equilibrium, they must be co-planer and concurrent (to stop rotation).
• Catenary: if any cable sags due to its own weight along its curved length, then it takes the shape of a
catenary. (A cosh function).
• If a cable is subjected to horizontal UDL it takes the shape of parabola. Equation of parabola can be
taken as
4ℎ
𝑦 = I 𝑥(𝑙 − 𝑥)
𝑙
• For UDL the horizontal thrust at the supports are equal to as that for an Arc
𝑤𝑙 I
𝐻=
8ℎ
• The change in horizontal thrust due to temperature change can be computed with
𝛿𝐻 3 𝑙 I
= − g h 𝑙∆𝑇
𝐻 16 ℎ
b) Funicular polygon or string polygon
• It is the shape taken by a simply supported cable when subjected to loads.
¨ It is similar to the shape of BMD for an imaginary simply supported beam subjected to same
load.
• The maximum sag of a cable occurs where BM is maximum in an imaginary simply supported beam
subjected to same load.
• If we build any structure which takes the shape of BMD or funicular polygon then SF and BM are
zero everywhere in the structure, the cross section are subjected to axial loads only, such structures
are called Theoretical arches or linear arches.
• For moving load, it is impossible to build theoretical arches as BMD changes.
c) Three Hinged Arches
• Bending Moment at any point in the arch
𝐵𝑀nn = 𝑉R 𝑥 − 𝐻R 𝑦
¨ When compared with a beam of same span. BM at any section in three hinged arches is less by
𝐻R 𝑦 or H-moment, this is advantage of the arch.
• Three hinged arches are statically determinate structures.
ILD for horizontal thrust 𝑙
𝐻 = g h 𝑉~
2ℎ
𝑙
𝐻′ =
4ℎ
ILD for BM at any section ۥ height of both triangles in the is
At point D = S
same.
At top hinge point
𝑙𝑦 𝑎𝑏
= =
4ℎ 𝑙
So,
ILD for BM at D = ILD for Beam moment at D – ILD for Hy

11
 • From the ILD, we find that, to get maximum positive BM at D, keep the unit load at D
¨ and to get maximum negative BM at D keep the unit load at the center top.
¨ To get zero BM at D, keep the unit load somewhere between D and C.
• To get absolute maximum positive bending moment put load at point 𝑥 = 0.211𝑙 from any of the
two ends.
d) Temperature effect in three hinged arches
• Since three hinged arches is statically determinate structure,
¨ due to temperature change or
¨ due to sinking of supports or
¨ due to yielding of supports,
¨ stresses are not developed anywhere in the structure. Because rigid body translation or rigid
body rotation takes place due to these three actions.
• Due to increase in temperature the crown of the arch will rise by Δℎ to accommodate free expansion
of the arch.
𝑙 I + 4ℎI
Δℎ = 𝛼𝑡
4ℎ
• If a three hinged parabolic arch is subjected to UDL and a temperature rise then the Horizontal
±S N
thrust decreases as ℎ ↑ 𝐻 = ²³
↓
Qµ Q³
¨ =−
µ ³
e) Normal thrust and Radial shear
• If a two hinged or three hinged parabolic arches is subjected to UDL throughout its length, then
radial shear and BM are zero everywhere in the structure.
• The cross section is subjected to normal thrust only.
• If we build any structure which follows the shape of BMD for an imaginary simply supported beam
then SF and BM are zero everywhere in the structure, then cross section is subjected to axial loads
only.
f) Two hinged parabolic arches
• Two-hinged arches have degree of indeterminacy 𝐷# = 1. we require one compatibility condition to
analyse two hinged arches. Analysis using strain energy principle:
𝑀n = 𝑀 − 𝐻𝑦
• Strain energy stored in arch
𝑀nI 𝑑𝑠
𝑈=“
2𝐸𝐼
𝑑𝑠
= “(𝑀 − 𝐻𝑦)I g h
2𝐸𝐼
• Horizontal displacement of the end is zero
𝜕𝑈
𝛿µ~ = =0
𝜕𝐻
𝑑𝑠
0 = “ 2·𝑀 − 𝐻q ¸(−𝑦)
2𝐸𝐼
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠
𝐻 “ 𝑦I g h = “ 𝑀 𝑦 g h
𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼
𝑑𝑠
∫ 𝑀 𝑦 ¹𝐸𝐼 º
𝐻=
𝑑𝑠
∫ 𝑦 I ¹𝐸𝐼 º
• I is varying as 𝐼 = 𝐼» sec 𝜃, 𝐼» being the value at crown
𝑑𝑥
∫ 𝑀 𝑦 ¹ 𝐸𝐼 º sec 𝜃
𝐻=
𝑑𝑥
∫ 𝑦 I ¹ 𝐸𝐼 º sec 𝜃
12
 ∫ 𝑀 𝑦 𝑑𝑥
𝐻=
∫ 𝑦 I 𝑑𝑥
• Since two hinged arches is statically indeterminate structure temperature change or due to sinking of
support or yielding of support forces are developed.
If temperature increases 𝑀n 𝑦𝑑𝑥
∫ 𝐸𝐼 + 𝑳𝜶𝑻
Ø horizontal thrust increases. •
𝐻=
(whereas in 3 hinged it decreases, when load is present, 𝑦 I 𝑑𝑥
∫ 𝐸𝐼
else no temperature stress is induced) •

Due to yielding of support by ∆³ in horizontal direction 𝑀 n 𝑦𝑑𝑥

∫ 𝐸𝐼 − ∆𝒉
Ø Horizontal force decreases. (if the load is acting 𝐻= •

downward, and support has yielded outwards) 𝑦 I 𝑑𝑥

∫ 𝐸𝐼
•
If the support is elastic and it yields by 𝑘′ due to unit 𝑀n 𝑦𝑑𝑥
horizontal force at support level, (here 𝑘 is flexibility ∫ 𝐸𝐼
•
𝐻=
NOT stiffness) 𝑦 I 𝑑𝑥
∫ 𝐸𝐼 + 𝒌
∆= 𝑘 𝐻 •

Rib shortening: cross-section of arch is also subjected to 𝑀n 𝑦𝑑𝑥

normal thrust. The arch, being made up of elastic ∫ 𝐸𝐼
•
𝐻=
material, shortening of rib takes place. This shortening of 𝑦 I 𝑑𝑥 𝑳
∫ 𝐸𝐼 + 𝑨𝑬
rib reduces the horizontal thrust. •

11. Approximate method of structure analysis

a) Important points
• To analyse any statically indeterminate structure, we must know the member sizes (I value)
• Therefore, to get approximate value of member sizes, approximate method of analysis is used, after
getting the approximate sizes of members, exact methods of analysis like MDM, SDM etc. are
carried out.
• In the analysis of multi storied frame for horizontal load like wind load, earth quake load etc. exact
method of analysis is time consuming. So approximate methods are used to find internal forces and
moments quickly.
b) Portal method
• It is applicable to low rise portal frames (height of frame is less than width of the frame)
• Assumptions:
¨ Point of contra flexure is assumed to be located at the midpoint of each beam and column.
¨ The horizontal shear is assumed to be divided among all columns such that each interior
column takes twice that of exterior column.
• The purpose of above two assumptions is to make statically indeterminate to determinate structure so
that equations of equilibrium alone are sufficient to find axial forces and bending moment in any part
of structure.
• The approximate method like portal and cantilever are applicable only when the frame is subjected to
horizontal loads at the joints and when all joints are rigid.
c) Cantilever method
• It is applicable to high rise structures, i.e. height of the frame is more than the width of the frame,
where frame behaves like cantilever beam
• Assumptions:
¨ POC is assumed to be located at midpoint of each beam and column.
¨ Axial stress in each column is proportional to its distance from CG of area of column group
at any level.
12. Matrix method

13
 a) This is a method to analyse indeterminate structures. All the methods of analysis can be classified into two
types, depending on the type of unknown chosen for the analysis. i.e. force method & displacement
method
Force-Flexibility-Compatibility Displacement-Stiffness-Equilibrium
(FFC) (DSE)
Ø Forces are taken as unknowns (reactions, shear, Ø Displacements (slopes, deflection) are taken
BM) and equations are expressed in terms of as unknowns and equations are expressed in
these forces using external equilibrium equations. terms of these unknown displacements
Ø Additional equations called compatibility (slope deflection equation)
conditions are developed to find the unknown Ø Additional internal joint equilibrium
forces. equations are developed to find the
Ø These methods are suitable when static unknown displacement.
indeterminacy is less than kinematic Ø If 𝐷B is less then these methods are suitable.
indeterminacy Ø Examples:
Ø Examples: • Slope deflection (SA Maney);
• Virtual work / unit load • Moment distribution (Hardy Cross, it is
• Theorem of 3 moments (Clay Peyron) also called method of successive
• Method of consistent deformation approximation of slope deflection
• Flexibility matrix method equations);
• Column analogy method • Kani’s equation (it is iterative version
• Castigliano’s theorem II gives force method of slope deflection method)
of analysis. It is a particular case of principle • Matrix/stiffness matrix – it is matrix
of minimum strain energy* version of slope deflection method
• Principle of minimum strain energy is applicable to both linear and non-linear elastic structure, when
it is applicable to linear elastic structure it is similar to Clastigliano’s theorem II.
b) Stiffness Matrix method
• In this method the basic unknowns to be determined are the displacement components of various
joints. Hence, the degree of kinematic indeterminacy is identified first.
¨ Assign coordinate numbers to the unknown displacements.
¨ Impose restraints in all coordinate directions to get a fully restrained structure.
¨ Determine the forces developed in each of the coordinate directions of a fully restrained
structure. It is called [𝑃Ä ]
¨ Determine the stiffness matrix [𝑘] by giving unit displacement to the restrained structure in
each of the coordinate directions and finding the forces developed in all the coordinate
directions.
¨ [𝑃] is the final forces on various coordinate direction.
¨ Solve the stiffness equation
[𝑘][∆] = [𝑃 − 𝑃Ä ]
• Stiffness: It is equal to the load required to produce unit displacement.
Axial stiffness – force required at coordinate 1 to produce a unit displacement 𝐴𝐸
=
at 1(after fixing all the other coordinates) 𝑙
Transverse stiffness: to produce ∆ = 1 force required 𝐹 = SÆ
eIO• 12𝐸𝐼
= •
ÇO• 𝑙
And to produce ∆= 1 moment required 𝑀 = SN 6𝐸𝐼
= I
𝑙
Flexural stiffness 𝐾•• – Moment required to produce unit rotation at that point. 4𝐸𝐼
=
𝑙
Torsional stiffness – torque required to produce unit rotation at that point only. 𝐺𝐽
=
𝑙

14
 • Stiffness matrix is a square symmetric matrix, (symmetric because of Maxwell’s reciprocal deflection
theorem)
𝐾ee 𝐾eI 𝐾e•
[𝐾] = Ê𝐾Ie 𝐾II 𝐾I• Ë
𝐾•e 𝐾•I 𝐾••
ÌÍ
• In stiffness matrix diagonals are always positive because, from Castigliano’s theorem 1 𝐹 =
ÌÎ
¨ Which states that the first partial derivative of total strain energy w.r.t. displacement at any
point in a structure gives load at that point in the direction of displacement.
¨ Castigliano’s theorem 1 is applicable to both linear and non-linear elastic structures. If it is
applied to linear elastic structures the it is called, stiffness method of analysis. So Castigliano’s
theorem 1 gives stiffness coefficients.
c) Analysis of indeterminate trusses
• Stiffness matrix [𝐾] at a truss joint
RO
¨ 𝐾ee = ∑ cos I 𝜃
S
RO
¨ 𝐾II = ∑ sinI 𝜃
S
RO
¨ 𝐾eI = 𝐾Ie = ∑ S
cos 𝜃 ∙ sin 𝜃
• Coordinates 1 & 2 must be along +x and +y axes only. 𝜃 must be measured from +x axis in
anticlockwise direction only.
• Force in any member AB is given by
𝐴𝐸
𝐹R~ = − Ð(Δ𝐴n − Δ𝐵n ) cos 𝜃R~ + ·Δ𝐴q − Δ𝐵q ¸ sin 𝜃R~ Ñ
𝑙
Where Δ𝐴n Δ𝐵n Δ𝐴q Δ𝐵q are displacement of joint A and B in x and y direction.
𝜃R~ is angle in anticlockwise direction with + x direction
• If 𝐹R~ is positive it means that force is tensile, and negative means force is compressive.
d) Flexibility Matrix Method
• Flexibility [𝛿] – It is displacement produced due to unit force. It is the inverse of stiffness.
• Types of flexibility
S SÆ
Axial flexibility 𝛿ee = RO Transverse flexibility 𝛿II = eIO•
S S
Flexural flexibility 𝛿•• = Torsional flexibility 𝛿–– =
–O• ÒÓ
• Characteristics of flexibility matrix [𝛿]
¨ In flexibility matrix method coordinate numbers are given to redundant forces.
¨ We remove all the redundant forces, to get a released structure, or determinate structure.
¨ The element 𝛿&u of a flexibility matrix is the displacement at coordinate 𝑖 due to a unit force at
coordinate 𝑗.
¨ To get 1st column of flexibility matrix, apply unit force at coordinate 1 and find displacements
at all coordinates in the released structure.
¨ Similarly, to get 2nd column of flexibility matrix, apply unit force at coordinate 2 and find
displacements at all coordinate in the released structure.
¨ Flexibility matrix is also a square matrix, symmetrical because of Maxwell reciprocal
deflection theorem.
𝛿ee 𝛿eI 𝛿e•
[𝛿] = Ê𝛿Ie 𝛿II 𝛿I• Ë
𝛿•e 𝛿•I 𝛿••
ÌÍ
¨ Diagonal elements are always positive because, Castigliano’s theorem II 𝛿 = ÌÕ
o Which states that the first partial derivative of total strain energy w.r.t. load at any
point in a structure gives deflection at that point in the direction of the load.

15
 ¨ If the structure us unstable then large deformations will occur and flexibility matrix doesn’t
exist.
• Equation
[∆] = ∆Ä + [𝛿][𝑃]
[𝑃] = [𝛿]‚e [∆ − ∆Ä ]
¨ ∆&Ä = displacement at 𝑖 due to given loading in released structure in coordinate direction 𝑖
13. Miscellaneous
a) Structural dynamics
𝑊
Time period 𝑇 = 2𝜋 [
𝐾∙𝑔

1 𝐾∙𝑔
Cyclic frequency 𝑓= [
2𝜋 𝑊

2𝜋 𝐾𝑔
Natural circular frequency 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 = =[
𝑇 𝑊
Natural Damped frequency 𝜔Ž = 𝜔 Ù1 − 𝜉 I
Damping coefficient 𝐶
Damping factor 𝜉= =
Critical damping coefficient 𝐶•Ü
Critical damping coefficient 𝐶•Ü = 2√𝐾𝑚
2𝜋𝜉
Logarithmic Decrement 𝛿=
Ù1 − 𝜉 I
Ratio of two successive 𝑢&
Þß 𝛿 = ln g h
amplitudes ¹Þ àeº 𝑢& + 1
ß
Number of cycles (𝐽) after
1 𝑢& 1 1
initial amplitude is reduced by 𝛿 = ln g h = ln g h
𝐽 𝑢& + 1 𝐽 1−𝛼
certain %𝛼
b) Kani’s method
• In Kani’s method (rotation contribution method) rotational factors, displacement factors and sway
can be considered together.
• It is an extension of slope deflection method.
• If an end of a member is hinged or pinned or simply supported, treat it as fixed and take the relative
stiffness as ¾(I/L).
• If an end of a member is fixed, the rotation of that end being zero, the rotational contribution is also
zero.
c) Previous Year Question
• Degree of indeterminacy
¨ Static indeterminacy
o Space truss 𝐷# = 𝑚 + 𝑟 − 3𝑛
o Plane frame 𝐷# = 3𝑚 + 𝑟 − 3𝑛
o Space frame 𝐷# = 6𝑚 + 𝑟 − 6𝑛
• Methods of Analysis
¨ Hardy cross method of moment distribution can be applied to analyze (i) continuous beams
including non-prismatic structures (ii) continuous beam with prismatic structures (iii)
structures with intermediate hinges (iii) rigid frames.
¨ The symmetry of the stress tensor at a point in a body when at equilibrium is obtained from
moment equilibrium equation.

16
 ¨ Method of substitution is validly employed in the analysis of member forces in certain
geometries of truss structures, it is not always easier to analyze determinate truss form by
geometrical diagramming.
¨ A correct solution of a statically indeterminate structure as per energy method is the one which
makes the strain energy of a structure minimum, is statically admissible and kinetically
consistent. (statically admissible – any set of external loads and internal forces which fulfills
the conditions necessary to maintain equilibrium of a structure.)
¨ Virtual work is zero for a body in equilibrium, for moving or accelerating body, virtual work is
not zero.
¨ Clapeyron’s three moment theorem is generally applicable to continuous beam, however, a
fixed beam can be modified to a continuous beam.
¨ For application of principal of superposition two conditions are necessary, material is linear
elastic, and deformations are small (in case of settlement of support or temperature changes,
still superposition can be applied)
¨ Castigliano’s II theorem or method of least work or principle of minimum strain energy applies
only to the structures that have constant temperature, unyielding supports and linear elastic
material behavior.
¨ According to the principle of virtual work for rigid body, if a rigid body is in equilibrium under
the action of a system of forces and if it continues to remain in equilibrium if the body is given
a small displacement, then the virtual displacement is zero.
¨ If a system of forces 𝐹& acting on a deformable body is in equilibrium, as the body is subjected
to a small deformation, the external virtual work done by the force will be ∑𝐹& 𝛿𝑢& and will be
equal to internal virtual work.
¨ Williot-Mohr diagram is used to determine deflections in a truss. (joint displacements of a pin
jointed plane frame)
¨ For beam carrying UDL throughout its length strain energy stored are
± NSã
o Cantilever –äO•
± NSã
o Simply supported I–äO•
± NSã
o Propped cantilever Ç–äO•
± NSã
o Fixed beam e––äO•
¨ In Kani’s method, error get eroded but in moment distribution method error get accumulated,
that is why Kani’s method is better than moment distribution.
• Arches
¨ Unsymmetrical parabolic arch value of horizontal thrust for uniformly distributed load is
𝑤𝑙 I
𝐻= I
2·Ùℎe + ÙℎI ¸
¨ Horizontal thrust due to rise in temperature in semicircular two hinged arch of radius R is
–O•åæ
o 𝐻= çè N
¨ Horizontal thrust in a two hinged arc
Load Semicircular arc Parabolic arc
Concentrated load W at the 𝑊 25 𝑊𝐿
𝐻=
crown 𝜋 128 ℎ
For UDL over entire span 4𝑅𝑤 𝑤𝐿I
𝐻=
3𝜋 8ℎ
UDL on half span 2𝑅𝑤 𝑤𝐿I
𝐻=
3𝜋 16ℎ
¨ Linear arch is the one which represents the Thrust line, as there is no BM and SF in linear arch.
17
 ¨ Shallow arches are undesirable, as heavy foundation support has to be designed to resist high
value of horizontal thrust.
e
o 𝐻∝³
• Matrix method
¨ Maxwell’s diagram: it is a technique used for calculating the forces in truss members.
¨ Henneberg’s method: concept of substitute member is used.
¨ New mark’s method: numerical integration.
¨ Williot-mohr diagram: displacement of joints in a truss.
¨ Axel bendixen: slope deflection
¨ Hardy cross: moment distribution
¨ Winkler: theory of curved beams
¨ St. Venant: mathematical theory of elasticity.
¨ The force method of analysis is not convenient for computer programming as the choice of
redundant is not unique. Further, the bandwidth of the flexibility matrix in the force method is
much larger than the stiffness method. However it is very useful for hand computation.
14. Appendix
a) Deflection and slope and FEM of some Indeterminate structures
12𝐸𝐼Δ
↓𝐹=
𝑙•
6𝐸𝐼Δ
↺𝑀= I
𝑙
3𝐸𝐼Δ
↓𝐹=
𝑙•
3𝐸𝐼Δ
↺ 𝑀R = I
𝑙
5𝑃𝑙 5𝑃𝑙
↑ 𝐹~ = 𝑀ì€n (+) =
16 32
11𝑃𝑙 𝐿
↑ 𝐹R = 𝛿ì€n 𝑎𝑡 𝑥(←) =
16 √5
3𝑃𝑙 3𝐿
↺ 𝑀R = 𝑥Œîä (→) =
16 11
3𝑤𝑙
↑ 𝐹~ = 9𝑤𝑙 I
8 𝑀ì€n (+) =
5𝑤𝑙 128
↑ 𝐹R = 𝛿ì€n 𝑎𝑡 𝑥(←) = 0.421𝑙
8
𝐿
𝑤𝑙 I 𝑥Œîä (→) =
↺ 𝑀R = 4
8

𝑃𝑙 𝑃𝑙 •
𝑀(∓) = 𝛿ì€n =
8 192𝐸𝐼
𝐿
𝑥Œîä (→, ←) =
4
b) Deflection and slope chart to remember
𝑃𝑙 I 𝑃𝑙 •
𝜃R = 𝜃~ = 𝛿ì€n =
16𝐸𝐼 48𝐸𝐼
𝑃𝑙 I 𝑃𝑙 •
𝜃~ = 𝛿ì€n =
2𝐸𝐼 3𝐸𝐼

18
 𝑀𝑙 𝑀𝑙 I
𝜃~ = 𝛿ì€n =
𝐸𝑙 2𝐸𝐼

1 𝑃𝑙 •
𝜃=0 𝛿ì€n = ò ó
4 48𝐸𝐼

𝑤𝑙 • 5𝑤𝑙 –
𝜃R = 𝜃~ = 𝛿ì€n =
24𝐸𝐼 384𝐸𝐼

𝑤𝑙 • 𝑤𝑙 –
𝜃~ = 𝛿ì€n =
6𝐸𝐼 8𝐸𝐼

1 5𝑤𝑙 –
𝜃=0 𝛿ì€n = ò ó
5 384𝐸𝐼

5𝑤𝑙 • 𝑤𝑙 –
𝜃R = 𝜃~ = 𝛿=
192𝐸𝐼 120𝐸𝐼

𝑤𝑙 • 𝑤𝑙 –
𝜃~ = 𝛿=
24𝐸𝐼 30𝐸𝐼

𝑀𝑙 𝑀𝑙 I
𝜃R = 𝜃~ = 𝛿ì€n =
2𝐸𝐼 8𝐸𝐼

𝑀𝑙 𝑀𝑙 I
𝜃R = 𝛿ì€n =
6𝐸𝐼
𝑀𝑙 9√3𝐸𝐼
𝜃~ = At 𝑥(→) = 𝑙/√3
3𝐸𝐼
𝑀𝑙 I
𝑀𝑙 𝛿ì€n =
𝜃~ = 27𝐸𝐼
4𝐸𝐼 At 𝑥(→) =
IS
•
𝑀𝑙
𝜃R = 𝜃~ =
24𝐸𝐼
𝑀𝑙
𝜃• =
12𝐸𝐼
𝑃𝑎I 𝑏I
𝛿• =
3𝐸𝐼𝑙
𝑃𝑎• 𝑏•
𝛿• =
3𝐸𝐼𝑙 •

19