A Level Physics CIE: 8. Superposition

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YOUR NOTES
A Level Physics CIE 
8. Superposition
CONTENTS
8.1 Stationary Waves
8.1.1 The Principle of Superposition
8.1.2 Stationary Waves
8.2 Diffraction & Interference
8.2.1 Diffraction
8.2.2 Interference & Coherence
8.2.3 Two Source Interference
8.2.4 Young's Double Slit Experiment
8.2.5 The Diffraction Grating
Page 1 of 42
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8.1 Stationary Waves YOUR NOTES


8.1.1 The Principle of Superposition
The Principle of Superposition
The principle of superposition states that when two or more waves with the same
frequency travelling in opposite directions overlap, the resultant displacement
is the sum of displacements of each wave
This principle describes how waves which meet at a point in space interact
When two waves with the same frequency and amplitude arrive at a point, they
superpose either:
in phase, causing constructive interference. The peaks and troughs line up on
both waves. The resultant wave has double the amplitude
or, in anti-phase, causing destructive interference. The peaks on one wave
line up with the troughs of the other. The resultant wave has no amplitude
Page 2 of 42
YOUR NOTES

Waves in superposition can undergo constructive or destructive interference
The principle of superposition applies to all types of waves i.e. transverse and
longitudinal
Page 3 of 42
Worked Example YOUR NOTES

 Two overlapping waves of the same types travel in the same direction. The

variation with x and y displacement of the wave is shown in the figure
below.
Use the principle of superposition to sketch the resultant wave.
Page 4 of 42
YOUR NOTES

 Exam Tip
The best way to draw the superposition of two waves is to find where the
superimposed wave has its maximum and minimum amplitudes. It is then a
case of joining them up to form the wave. Where the waves intersect
determines how much constructive or destructive interference will occur.
Page 5 of 42
8.1.2 Stationary Waves YOUR NOTES


Stationary Waves
Stationary waves, or standing waves, are produced by the superposition of two
waves of the same frequency and amplitude travelling in opposite directions
This is usually achieved by a travelling wave and its reflection. The superposition
produces a wave pattern where the peaks and troughs do not move
Formation of a stationary wave on a stretched spring fixed at one end
Stretched strings
Vibrations caused by stationary waves on a stretched string produce sound
This is how stringed instruments, such as guitars or violins, work
This can be demonstrated by a length of string under tension fixed at one end and
vibrations made by an oscillator:
Page 6 of 42
YOUR NOTES

Stationary wave on a stretched string
As the frequency of the oscillator changes, standing waves with different numbers
of minima (nodes) and maxima (antinodes) form
Microwaves
A microwave source is placed in line with a reflecting plate and a small detector
between the two
The reflector can be moved to and from the source to vary the stationary wave
pattern formed
By moving the detector, it can pick up the minima (nodes) and maxima (antinodes)
of the stationary wave pattern
Using microwaves to demonstrate stationary waves
Page 7 of 42
Air Columns YOUR NOTES

The formation of stationary waves inside an air column can be produced by sound 
waves
This is how musical instruments, such as clarinets and organs, work
This can be demonstrated by placing a fine powder inside the air column and a
loudspeaker at the open end
At certain frequencies, the powder forms evenly spaced heaps along the tube,
showing where there is zero disturbance as a result of the nodes of the stationary
wave
Stationary wave in an air column
In order to produce a stationary wave, there must be a minima (node) at one end
and a maxima (antinode) at the end with the loudspeaker
 Exam Tip
Always refer back to the experiment or scenario in an exam question e.g.
the wave produced by a loudspeaker reflects at the end of a tube. This
reflected wave, with the same frequency, overlaps the initial wave to create a
stationary wave.
Page 8 of 42
Formation of Stationary Waves YOUR NOTES

A stationary wave is made up of nodes and antinodes 
Nodes are where there is no vibration
Antinodes are where the vibrations are at their maximum amplitude
The nodes and antinodes do not move along the string. Nodes are fixed and
antinodes only move in the vertical direction
Between nodes, all points on the stationary are in phase
The image below shows the nodes and antinodes on a snapshot of a stationary
wave at a point in time
L is the length of the string

1 wavelength λ is only a portion of the length of the string
Page 9 of 42

 A stretched string is used to demonstrate a stationary wave, as shown in

the diagram.
Which row in the table correctly describes the length of L and the name of X
and Y?
ANSWER: C
Page 10 of 42
YOUR NOTES
 Exam Tip
The lengths of the strings will only be in whole or ½ wavelengths. For 
example, a wavelength could be made up of 3 nodes and 2 antinodes or 2
nodes and 3 antinodes.
Page 11 of 42
Measuring Wavelength YOUR NOTES

Stationary waves have different wave patterns depending on the frequency of the 
vibration and the situation in which they are created
Two fixed ends

When a stationary wave, such as a vibrating string, is fixed at both ends, the
simplest wave pattern is a single loop made up of two nodes and an antinode
This is called the fundamental mode of vibration or the first harmonic
The particular frequencies (i.e. resonant frequencies) of standing waves possible in
the string depend on its length L and its speed v
As you increase the frequency, the higher harmonics begin to appear
The frequencies can be calculated from the string length and wave equation
Page 12 of 42
YOUR NOTES

Diagram showing the first three modes of vibration of a stretched string with
corresponding frequencies
The nth harmonic has n antinodes and n + 1 nodes

One or two open ends in air column
When a stationary wave is formed in an air column with one or two open ends, we
see slightly different wave patterns in each
Page 13 of 42
YOUR NOTES

Diagram showing modes of vibration in pipes with one end closed and the other open
or both ends open
In Image 1: only one end of the air column is open, so, the fundamental mode is
now made up of a quarter of a wavelength with one node and one antinode
Every harmonic after that adds on an extra node or antinode
In Image 2: the column is open on both ends, so, the fundamental mode is made
up one node and two antinodes
In summary, a column length L for a wave with wavelength λ and resonant
frequency f for stationary waves to appear is as follows:
Air Column Length & Frequencies Summary Table
Page 14 of 42
YOUR NOTES

 Worked Example
A standing wave is set up in a loudspeaker emits sound with frequency f
and is placed at one end of a pipe with length L. The pipe is closed at the
other end.The speed of sound is 340 m s-1.
With a sound wave of wavelength of 10 m, what is the frequency of the

second lowest note produced?
Page 15 of 42
YOUR NOTES

 Exam Tip
The fundamental counts as the first harmonic or n = 1 and is the lowest
frequency with half or quarter of a wavelength. A full wavelength with both
ends open or both ends closed is the second harmonic. Make sure to match
the correct wavelength with the harmonic asked for in the question!
Page 16 of 42
8.2 Diffraction & Interference YOUR NOTES


8.2.1 Diffraction
What is Diffraction?
Diffraction is the spreading out of waves when they pass an obstruction
This obstruction is typically a narrow slit (an aperture)
The extent of diffraction depends on the width of the gap compared with the
wavelength of the waves
Diffraction is the most prominent when the width of the slit is approximately
equal to the wavelength
Diffraction: when a wave passes through a narrow gap, it spreads out
Diffraction is usually represented by a wavefront as shown by the vertical lines in

the diagram above
The only property of a wave that changes when its diffracted is its amplitude
This is because some energy is dissipated when a wave is diffracted through a
gap
Diffraction can also occur when waves curve around an edge:
Page 17 of 42
YOUR NOTES

When a wave goes past the edge of a barrier, the waves can curve around it
Any type of wave can be diffracted i.e. sound, light, water
 Worked Example
When a wave is travelling through air, which scenario best demonstrates
diffraction?
A. UV radiation through a gate post
B. Sound waves passing a steel rod
C. Radio waves passing between human hair
D. X-rays passing through atoms in a crystalline solid
Answer: D
Diffraction is most prominent when the wavelength is close to the aperture size
UV waves have a wavelength between 4 × 10-7 – 1 × 10-8 m so won’t be diffracted
by a gate post
Sound waves have a wavelength of 1.72 × 10-2 – 17 m so would not be diffracted
by the diffraction grating
Page 18 of 42
Radio waves have a wavelength of 0.1 – 106 m so would not be diffracted by YOUR NOTES
human hair 
X-rays have a wavelength of 1 × 10-8 – 4 × 10-13 m which is roughly the gap
between atoms in a crystalline solid
Therefore, the correct answer is D
 Exam Tip
When drawing diffracted waves, take care to keep the wavelength constant. It
is only the amplitude of the wave that changes when diffracted.
Page 19 of 42
Diffraction Experiments YOUR NOTES

As discussed above, the effects of diffraction are most prominent when the gap 
size is approximately the same or smaller than the wavelength of the wave
As the gap size increases, the effect gradually gets less pronounced until, in the
case that the gap is much larger than the wavelength, the waves are no longer
spread out
The size of the gap (compared to the wavelength) affects how much the waves spread
out
Ripple tanks are used a common experiment to demonstrate diffraction of water

waves
Page 20 of 42
YOUR NOTES

Wave effects may all be demonstrated using a ripple tank
The diagram below shows how the wavelengths differ with frequency in a ripple
tank
The higher the frequency, the shorter the wavelength
The lower the frequency, the longer the wavelength
Page 21 of 42
YOUR NOTES

Ripple tank patterns for low and high frequency vibration
 Exam Tip
Familiarising yourself with the wavelength of electromagnetic waves is
essential for identifying which wave will cause the greatest diffraction effect
for a giving gap width.
Page 22 of 42
8.2.2 Interference & Coherence YOUR NOTES


Interference & Coherence
Interference occurs when waves overlap and their resultant displacement is the
sum of the displacement of each wave
This result is based on the principle of superposition and the resultant waves may
be smaller or larger than either of the two individual waves
Interference of two waves can either be:
In phase, causing constructive interference. The peaks and troughs line up on
both waves. The resultant wave has double the amplitude
In anti-phase, causing destructive interference. The peaks on one wave line
up with the troughs of the other. The resultant wave has no amplitude
Waves in superposition can undergo constructive or destructive interference
Page 23 of 42
YOUR NOTES
At points where the two waves are neither in phase nor in antiphase, the resultant 
amplitude is somewhere in between the two extremes
Waves are coherent if they have the same frequency and constant phase
difference
Coherent v non-coherent wave. The abrupt change in phase creates an inconsistent

phase difference
Coherence is vital in order to produce an observable interference pattern

Laser light is an example of a coherent light source, whereas filament lamps
produce incoherent light waves
Page 24 of 42

 The diagram shows the interferences of coherent waves from two point

sources.
Which row in the table correctly identifies the type of interference at points
X, Y and Z.
ANSWER: B
At point X:
Both peaks of the waves are overlapping. This is constructive interference and
rules out options C and D
At point Y:
Both troughs are overlapping and so constructive interference occurs there
At point Z:
A peak of one of the waves meets the trough of the other. This is destructive
interference (Row B)
 Exam Tip
Think of ‘constructive’ interference as ‘building’ the wave and ‘destructive’
interference as ‘destroying’ the wave
Page 25 of 42
8.2.3 Two Source Interference YOUR NOTES


Demonstrating Two Source Interference
Interference of sound, light and microwaves can be demonstrated with slits or
diffraction gratings
Using Water Waves

Two-source interference in can be demonstrated in water using ripple tanks
The diagram below shows diffracted circle shaped water waves from two point
sources eg. dropping two pebbles near to each other in a pond
Water waves interference pattern from a ripple tank
The two waves interfere causing areas of constructive and destructive interference
The lines of maximum displacement occur when all the peaks and troughs line up
with those on another wave
Using Sound Waves

Two source interference for sound waves looks very similar to water waves
Page 26 of 42
YOUR NOTES

Sound wave interference from two speakers
Sound waves are longitudinal waves so are made up of compressions and

rarefactions
Constructive interference occurs when two compressions or two rarefactions line
up and the sound appears louder
Destructive interference occurs when a compression lines up with a rarefaction
and vice versa. The sound is quieter
This is the technology used in noise-cancelling headphones
Using Microwaves
Two source interference for microwaves can be detected with a moveable
microwave detector
Page 27 of 42
YOUR NOTES

Microwave interference experiment
Constructive interference: regions where the detector picks up a maximum

amplitude
Destructive interference: regions where the detector picks up no signal
Using Light Waves

For light rays, such as a laser light through two slits, an interference pattern forms
on the screen
Page 28 of 42
YOUR NOTES

Laser light interference experiment
Constructive interference is shown as bright fringes on the screen

The highest intensity is in the middle
Destructive interference is shown as the dark fringes on the screen
These have zero intensity
Page 29 of 42
Two Source Interference Fringes YOUR NOTES

For two-source interference fringes to be observed, the sources of the wave must 
be:
Coherent (constant phase difference)
Monochromatic (single wavelength)
When two waves interfere, the resultant wave depends on the phase difference
between the two waves
This is proportional to the path difference between the waves which can be written
in terms of the wavelength λ of the wave
As seen from the diagram, the wave from slit S2 has to travel slightly further than
that from S1 to reach the same point on the screen. The difference in distance is
the path difference
Path difference of constructive and destructive interference is determined by

wavelength
For constructive interference (or maxima), the difference in wavelengths will be an

integer number of whole wavelengths
For destructive interference (or minima) it will be an integer number of whole
wavelengths plus a half wavelength
n is the order of the maxima/minima since there is usually more than one of
these produced by the interference pattern
An example of the orders of maxima is shown below:
Page 30 of 42
YOUR NOTES

Interference pattern of light waves shown with orders of maxima
n = 0 is taken from the middle, n = 1 is one either side and so on
 Worked Example
Two coherent sources of sound waves S1 and S2 are situated 65 cm apart in
air as shown below.
The two sources vibrate in phase but have different amplitudes of vibration.
A microphone M is situated 150 cm from S1 along the line normal to S1 and
S2. The microphone detects maxima and minima of the intensity of the
sound. The wavelength of the sound from S1 to S2 is decreased by
increasing the frequency.Determine which orders of maxima are detected at
M as the wavelength is increased from 3.5 cm to 12.5 cm.
Page 31 of 42
YOUR NOTES

 Exam Tip
The path difference is more specifically how much longer, or shorter, one
path is than the other. In other words, the difference in the distances. Make
sure not to confuse this with the distance between the two paths.
Page 32 of 42
8.2.4 Young's Double Slit Experiment YOUR NOTES


Double Slit Interference
Young’s double slit experiment demonstrates how light waves produced an
interference pattern
The experiment is shown below
Young’s double-slit experiment arrangement
When a monochromatic light source is placed behind a single slit, the light is
diffracted producing two light sources at the double slits A and B
Since both light sources originate from the same primary source, they are coherent
and will therefore create an observable interference pattern
Both diffracted light from the double slits create an interference pattern made up
of bright and dark fringes
The wavelength of the light can be calculated from the interference pattern and
experiment set up. These are related using the double-slit equation
Page 33 of 42
YOUR NOTES

Double slit interference equation with a, x and D represented on a diagram
The interference pattern on a screen will show as ‘fringes’ which are dark or bright
bands
Constructive interference is shown through bright fringes with varying intensity
(most intense in the middle)
Destructive interference is shown from dark fringes where no light is seen
A monochromatic light source makes these fringes clearer and the distance
between fringes is very small due to the short wavelength of visible light
Page 34 of 42

 A laser is placed in front of a double-slit as shown in the diagram below.

The laser emits light of frequency 750 THz. The separation of the maxima P
and Q observed on the screen is 15 mm. The distance between the double
slit and the screen is 4.5 m.Calculate the separation of the two slits.
Page 35 of 42
YOUR NOTES
 Exam Tip
Since a, x and D are all distances, it's easy to mix up which they refer to. 
Labelling the double slit diagram in the way given in the notes above will
help to remember the order i.e. a and x in the numerator and D underneath
in the denominator.
Page 36 of 42
8.2.5 The Diffraction Grating YOUR NOTES


The Grating Equation
A diffraction grating is a plate on which there is a very large number of parallel,
identical, close-spaced slits
When monochromatic light is incident on a grating, a pattern of narrow bright
fringes is produced on a screen
Diagram of diffraction grating used to obtain a fringe pattern
The angles at which the maxima of intensity (constructive interference) are

produced can be deduced by the diffraction grating equation
Diffraction grating equation for the angle of bright fringes
Exam questions sometime state the lines per m (or per mm, per nm etc.) on the
grating which is represented by the symbol N
d can be calculated from N using the equation
Angular Separation
Page 37 of 42
The angular separation of each maxima is calculated by rearranging the grating YOUR NOTES
equation to make θ the subject 
The angle θ is taken from the centre meaning the higher orders are at greater
angles
Angular separation
The angular separation between two angles is found by subtracting the smaller
angle from the larger one
The angular separation between the first and second maxima n1 and n2 is θ2 – θ1
Orders of Maxima
The maximum angle to see orders of maxima is when the beam is at right angles
to the diffraction grating
This means θ = 90o and sin θ = 1
The highest order of maxima visible is therefore calculated by the equation:
Note that since n must be an integer, if the value is a decimal it must be rounded
down
E.g If n is calculated as 2.7 then n = 2 is the highest order visible
Page 38 of 42

 An experiment was set up to investigate light passing through a diffraction

grating with a slit spacing of 1.7 µm. The fringe pattern was observed on a
screen. The wavelength of the light is 550 nm.
Calculate the angle α between the two second-order lines.
Page 39 of 42
YOUR NOTES
 Exam Tip
Take care that the angle θ is the correct angle taken from the centre and not 
the angle taken between two orders of maxima.
Page 40 of 42
Determining the Wavelength of Light YOUR NOTES

Method 
The wavelength of light can be determined by rearranging the grating equation to
make the wavelength λ the subject
The value of θ, the angle to the specific order of maximum measured from the
centre, can be calculated through trigonometry
The distance from the grating to the screen is marked as D
The distance between the centre and the order of maxima (e.g. n = 2 in the
diagram) on the screen is labelled as h - the fringe spacing
Measure both these values with a ruler
This makes a right-angled triangle with the angle θ as the ratio of the h/D = tanθ
The wavelength of light is calculated by the angle to the order of maximum
Remember to find the inverse of tan to find θ = tan-1(h/D)

This value of θ can then be substituted back into the diffraction grating equation to
find the value of the wavelength (with the corresponding order n)
Improving experiment and reducing uncertainties
The fringe spacing can be subjective depending on its intensity on the screen.
Take multiple measurements of h (between 3-8) and finding the average
Use a Vernier scale to record h, in order to reduce percentage uncertainty
Reduce the uncertainty in h by measuring across all fringes and dividing by the
number of fringes
Increase the grating to screen distance D to increase the fringe separation
(although this may decrease the intensity of light reaching the screen)
Conduct the experiment in a darkened room, so the fringes are clearer
Use grating with more lines per mm, so values of h are greater to lower percentage
uncertainty
Page 41 of 42
Page 42 of 42

A Level Physics CIE: 8. Superposition

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8.1 Stationary Waves YOUR NOTES

Waves in superposition can undergo constructive or destructive interference

Worked Example YOUR NOTES

Use the principle of superposition to sketch the resultant wave.

8.1.2 Stationary Waves YOUR NOTES

Formation of a stationary wave on a stretched spring fixed at one end

Stationary wave on a stretched string

Using microwaves to demonstrate stationary waves

Air Columns YOUR NOTES

Stationary wave in an air column

Formation of Stationary Waves YOUR NOTES

L is the length of the string

Worked Example YOUR NOTES

Measuring Wavelength YOUR NOTES

Two fixed ends

The nth harmonic has n antinodes and n + 1 nodes

With a sound wave of wavelength of 10 m, what is the frequency of the

8.2 Diffraction & Interference YOUR NOTES

Diffraction: when a wave passes through a narrow gap, it spreads out

Diffraction is usually represented by a wavefront as shown by the vertical lines in

Any type of wave can be diffracted i.e. sound, light, water

Diffraction Experiments YOUR NOTES

Ripple tanks are used a common experiment to demonstrate diffraction of water

Wave effects may all be demonstrated using a ripple tank

Ripple tank patterns for low and high frequency vibration

8.2.2 Interference & Coherence YOUR NOTES

Waves in superposition can undergo constructive or destructive interference

Coherent v non-coherent wave. The abrupt change in phase creates an inconsistent

Coherence is vital in order to produce an observable interference pattern

Worked Example YOUR NOTES

8.2.3 Two Source Interference YOUR NOTES

Using Water Waves

Water waves interference pattern from a ripple tank

Using Sound Waves

Sound wave interference from two speakers

Sound waves are longitudinal waves so are made up of compressions and

Microwave interference experiment

Constructive interference: regions where the detector picks up a maximum

Using Light Waves

Laser light interference experiment

Constructive interference is shown as bright fringes on the screen

Two Source Interference Fringes YOUR NOTES

Path difference of constructive and destructive interference is determined by

For constructive interference (or maxima), the difference in wavelengths will be an

Interference pattern of light waves shown with orders of maxima

n = 0 is taken from the middle, n = 1 is one either side and so on

8.2.4 Young's Double Slit Experiment YOUR NOTES

Young’s double-slit experiment arrangement

Double slit interference equation with a, x and D represented on a diagram

Worked Example YOUR NOTES

8.2.5 The Diffraction Grating YOUR NOTES

Diagram of diffraction grating used to obtain a fringe pattern

The angles at which the maxima of intensity (constructive interference) are

Diffraction grating equation for the angle of bright fringes

Worked Example YOUR NOTES

Calculate the angle α between the two second-order lines.

Determining the Wavelength of Light YOUR NOTES

The wavelength of light is calculated by the angle to the order of maximum

Remember to find the inverse of tan to find θ = tan-1(h/D)

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