Psychology

Paper 4 (A2) Short-answer questions compilation - Topical

_________________________________________________________

28 sets of questions (Specimen 2018/2020, March 2018 - June 2023)

Abnormality
Obsessive-compulsive and related disorders

S18 42 The aim of the study by Lovell et al. (2006) was to compare the effectiveness
of cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) for obsessive-compulsive disorder
(OCD), delivered face-to-face or by telephone.

(a) What was concluded about the effectiveness of the therapy? [2]
(b) How and why did the researchers gather baseline data from the
participants? [4]
(c) Give two differences in the delivery of telephone and face-to-face therapy
in this study. [4]
(d) Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of using telephone delivery of
CBT with patients. You should include a conclusion in your answer. [5]

W18 41 The Yale-Brown Obsessive-Compulsive Scale (Y-BOCS) is a questionnaire. It

has questions which are scored on a five-point scale. One question asks
about the amount of time spent on obsessions:

(a) Explain the difference between obsessions and compulsions. [2]

(b) Give two limitations of the question and rating scale presented above. [4]
(c) Explain how one other questionnaire assesses obsessive-compulsive
disorder (OCD). [4]
(d) Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using psychometric
measures to assess OCD. You should include a conclusion in your answer.
[5]
 M19 42

(a) Outline one neurological explanation of obsessive-compulsive disorder

(OCD). [2]
(b) Outline one genetic explanation of OCD and one biochemical explanation
of OCD. [4]
(c) Suggest two ways in which one biomedical explanation differs from
cognitive explanations for OCD. [4]
(d) Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of the biomedical explanation of
OCD. You should include a conclusion in your answer. [5]

S23 41/43 Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) can be treated with biomedical

treatments and it can be managed with psychological treatments. Biomedical
treatments include the use of drugs such as SSRIs. OCD can be managed
psychologically using exposure and response prevention.

(a) Explain how SSRIs work when treating OCD. [2]

(b) (i) Explain what is meant by an obsession, using an example. [2]
(ii) Explain what is meant by a compulsion, using an example. [2]
(c) Outline one case study where exposure and response prevention was
used to treat OCD. [4]
(d) Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of using drugs to treat OCD. You
should include a conclusion in your answer. [5]

Anxiety disorders

Specimen A study (Ost, 1991) identified the causes of blood and injection phobias. The
2018/2020 following table shows the percentages of participants in each category.

(a) Give one conclusion that can be drawn from this table. [2]
(b) Give two advantages of the treatment of applied tension for blood phobia.
[4]
 (c) Fear of blood and injections are common phobias. Describe how a
different phobia can be explained through conditioning. [4]
(d) Discuss the evidence suggesting that phobias are learned. You should
consider both sides of the argument and include a conclusion. [5]

M18 42 Billy has a fear of the dark, and has read about Freud’s psychoanalytic
explanation of phobias. Billy thinks this is a good explanation for his fear, but
his sister Janet does not agree.

(a) Outline Freud’s psychoanalytic explanation of phobias. [2]

(b) Give two limitations of this psychoanalytic explanation of phobias. [4]
(c) Suggest one alternative explanation for phobias. [4]
(d) Discuss advantages and disadvantages of using case studies to study
phobias. You should include a conclusion in your answer. [5]

S19 42 The Generalised Anxiety Disorder assessment (GAD-7) was developed using
questionnaires with 2740 patients, followed by a telephone interview with 965
of these patients who were selected randomly. The GAD-7 asks 7 questions
each scored from 0–3. A score of 15 or more indicates severe anxiety.

(a) Explain what is meant by ‘generalised anxiety disorder’. [2]

(b) Suggest two advantages of using quantitative data to assess anxiety. [4]
(c) Outline two advantages of the sample used to develop the GAD-7. [4]
(d) Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of using telephone interviews to
assess anxiety. You should include a conclusion in your answer. [5]

W20 41/43 The case study of little Albert

An experimenter made a loud noise behind little Albert who jumped, gasped
and raised his arms. The second time the experimenter did this, Albert
trembled and almost cried. The third time, Albert cried suddenly. So the
experimenter had shown that an emotional situation in the laboratory could
produce fear and crying in a child.
(a) Outline the psychological explanation of phobias on which this case study
is based. [2]
(b) Suggest one reason why this case study could be considered unethical.
[2]
(c) (i) Suggest one generalisation that can be made from this case study. [2]
(ii) Suggest two reasons why the findings of this case study cannot be
generalised. [4]

(d) Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of conducting research on

phobias in a laboratory. You should include a conclusion in your answer. [5]

M21 42 Ost and Westling (1995) compared the effectiveness of applied relaxation
(AR) with cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT) when treating 38 patients for
panic disorder. They gathered data in three phases at different times:
pre-intervention (baseline), post-intervention and at a follow-up.
 (a) Give two conclusions from Fig. 1.1. [2]
(b) Outline two ways in which Ost and Westling (1995) gathered data during
these phases. [4]
(c) (i) Explain how the treatment of the applied relaxation (AR) group differed
from the treatment of the CBT group in this study. [2]
(ii) Explain how the physiological effect of applied relaxation is different
from the physiological effect of applied tension. [2]

(d) Some treatment and management techniques for anxiety disorders

involve learning; these are called behavioural techniques. Discuss the
strengths and weaknesses of using behavioural techniques to treat anxiety
disorders. You should include a conclusion in your answer. [5]

W22 41/43 Richard has a fear of oranges and knows about the behavioural explanation
of phobias. Richard wants to be treated using systematic desensitisation
(Wolpe, 1958). However, his partner thinks that other treatments may be
better.

(a) Explain what is meant by a ‘behavioural explanation of phobias’. [2]

(b) Explain how systematic desensitisation would be used to treat Richard’s
fear of oranges. [4]
(c) Suggest two ways in which a phobia can be treated, other than systematic
desensitisation. [4]
(d) Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of using systematic
desensitisation to treat phobias. You should include a conclusion in your
answer. [5]

W22 42 The Blood Injection Phobia Inventory (BIPI) is a questionnaire with items
about phobic situations. The participants rate their cognitive, behavioural and
physiological responses to these phobic situations on four-point scales. Fig.
1.1 shows one of these items.
 (a) Suggest one physiological response statement that could be used for
Response X in Fig. 1.1. [2]
(b) Suggest two strengths of using a four-point scale to measure anxiety in
people with blood injection phobia. [4]
(c) (i) Suggest one way in which anxiety in people with blood injection phobia
could be measured, other than using a rating scale. [2]
(ii) Suggest one weakness with the measure you suggested in (c)(i). [2]

(d) Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of using quantitative data to

assess blood injection phobia. You should include a conclusion in your
answer. [5]

Impulse control disorders and non-substance addictive disorders

S18 41/43 Blaszczynski and Nower (2002) looked at the effect of imaginal
desensitisation on patients with impulse control disorders and used relaxation
(trigger) monitoring tables to measure the effectiveness of their therapy.
These tables are completed at home by the patient. At the end of their
treatment, the patient should report a significant reduction in the frequency
and intensity of urges to act on impulse.

(a) Explain the technique of ‘imaginal desensitisation’. [2]

(b) Give two advantages of ‘imaginal desensitisation’. [4]
(c) Suggest two problems with the use of relaxation monitoring tables. [4]
(d) Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of psychological techniques
to treat impulse control disorders. You should include a conclusion in your
answer. [5]

S19 41/43 Miller (2010) described the case study of ‘John’ who received impulse control
therapy. John was a 35-year-old successful banker, but had a long history of
gambling problems. In 10 years, John lost more than $1 000 000 playing
poker.

(a) Explain the ‘feeling-state’ theory of impulse control disorders. [2]

(b) Give two differences between impulse control disorder protocol (ICDP)
and eye movement desensitisation and reprocessing (EMDR). [4]
(c) Suggest two cognitive-behavioural treatments for impulse control
disorders. [4]
(d) Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of using case studies to
investigate impulse control therapy. You should include a conclusion in your
answer. [5]

W19 A question from the Kleptomania Symptom Assessment Scale (K-SAS):

41/42/43
During the past WEEK, approximately how many hours (add up hours) did
you spend thinking about stealing? Please circle the appropriate number.

(a) Explain the characteristics of kleptomania. [2]

(b) Suggest two possible limitations of answers participants may give to the
question above. [4]
(c) (i) Suggest how the reliability of the K-SAS could be assessed. [2]
(ii) Suggest how the validity of the K-SAS could be assessed. [2]

(d) Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of using self-report questionnaires

to measure kleptomania. You should include a conclusion in your answer. [5]

S20 42 The use of nalmefene, a biochemical treatment, is believed by Grant et al.

(2008) to help reduce the urge to gamble. To test its effectiveness,
participants were assessed to ensure they were suitable to participate. They
were then randomly allocated to either a group receiving nalmefene or to a
group receiving a placebo.

(a) Explain what is meant by the term ‘placebo’. [2]

(b) Outline two testing procedures used to assess participants’ gambling
severity in the study by Grant et al. (2008). [4]
(c) Give two reasons why this assessment excluded some participants from
the study. [4]
(d) Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of using biochemicals to treat
gambling disorder. You should include a conclusion in your answer. [5]

W20 42 Miller (2010) proposed impulse control therapy which he developed from his
feeling‑state theory of impulse control disorders. This therapy uses what
Miller calls the impulse control disorder protocol (ICDP), a procedure which
uses a modified form of eye movement desensitisation and reprocessing
(EMDR).

(a) Explain what is meant by eye movement desensitisation and reprocessing

(EMDR). [2]
(b) Outline the procedure used in impulse control therapy, including reference
to EMDR. [4]
(c) (i) Suggest one similarity between impulse control therapy and imaginal
desensitisation. [2]
(ii) Suggest one difference between impulse control therapy and imaginal
desensitisation. [2]
(d) Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of using self‑report data from
people with addictions. You should include a conclusion in your answer. [5]

S21 41/43 Griffiths (2005) refers to a case of a person addicted to gambling who says:
‘If I wasn’t actually gambling I was spending the rest of my time working out
clever little schemes to obtain money to feed my habit. These two activities
literally took up all my time.’ This quote is typical of gambling and many other
types of addictive behaviours, including pyromania and kleptomania.
 (a) Explain what is meant by ‘pyromania’. [2]
(b) Give two components of any addiction outlined by Griffiths (2005). [4]
(c) Suggest two ways to measure a person’s addiction to gambling, other
than using a questionnaire. [4]
(d) Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of using questionnaires to
measure kleptomania. You should include a conclusion in your answer. [5]

W21 41/43 A woman was treated by Glover (2011) for kleptomania. She had a 14-year
history of daily compulsive shoplifting and was treated with covert
sensitisation. At a 19-month follow-up she was free of stealing behaviour
apart from one lapse, and there were corresponding improvements in her
self-esteem and socialisation.

(a) Explain what is meant by ‘covert sensitisation’. [2]

(b) Outline how the aversive stimulus was used in the study by Glover (2011)
to treat the woman’s kleptomania. [4]
(c) Give two differences between covert sensitisation and imaginal
desensitisation. [4]
(d) Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using covert sensitisation
to treat impulse control disorders. You should include a conclusion in your
answer. [5]

S22 41/43 In a case study by Glover, a 56-year-old married woman who had been
shoplifting every day for 14 years attended treatment sessions. Her treatment
used covert sensitisation with aversive imagery.

(a) Explain what is meant by the term ‘aversive imagery’. [2]

(b) Suggest two strengths of the use of a face-to-face interview by a therapist
treating a patient with kleptomania. [4]
(c) Suggest why biochemical treatments might not be effective when treating
kleptomania. [4]
(d) Discuss whether generalisations can or cannot be made from this case
study. You should consider both sides of the argument and include a
conclusion. [5]

Schizophrenic and psychotic disorders

W18 42 People with symptoms of schizophrenia are often diagnosed through an

interview with their doctor. Freeman (2008) says virtual reality (VR) is useful
for symptom assessment and the treatment of psychotic disorders. Freeman
also says this technology has many other applications.

(a) Explain the symptoms of schizophrenia which are targeted by virtual

reality. [2]
(b) Suggest two uses of virtual reality in abnormal psychology, other than the
application to schizophrenia. [4]
(c) Give two differences between the use of virtual reality for symptom
assessment of schizophrenia and an interview with a doctor. [4]
(d) Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of using virtual reality to treat
schizophrenia. You should include a conclusion in your answer. [5]

S20 41/43 Newspaper headline: Treatment for schizophrenia is successful.

 Sensky et al. (2000) conducted a longitudinal study and found that
cognitive-behavioural therapy was effective. It treated both negative and
positive symptoms in patients that were resistant to drug treatments for
schizophrenia.

(a) Explain what is meant by the term ‘baseline’ when gathering data. [2]
(b) Suggest two weaknesses of the longitudinal method in the study by
Sensky et al. (2000). [4]
(c) A randomised controlled design was used by Sensky et al.
(i) Identify the two therapies that this design compared. [2]
(ii) Suggest why a randomised controlled design was used. [2]
(d) Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of cognitive-behavioural therapy
as an alternative to drug treatments for schizophrenia. You should include a
conclusion in your answer. [5]

S21 42 Three comments about electro-convulsive therapy (ECT):

‘It was the best thing that my wife could have had at that time; a good
decision by the doctors after drugs had failed.’
‘It was a positive experience; worked well for my schizophrenia.’
‘I was able to go home after five months of inpatient stay as a result of ECT,
after years of unsuccessful psychological treatment.’

(a) Outline the procedure of electro-convulsive therapy (ECT). [2]

(b) (i) Outline one biochemical treatment for schizophrenia. [2]
(ii) Give one advantage of this biochemical treatment for schizophrenia. [2]
(c) Outline two psychological treatments for schizophrenia. [4]
(d) Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of ECT as a treatment for
schizophrenia. You should include a conclusion in your answer. [5]

S22 42 Schizophrenia can be treated with medical techniques and it can be

managed with psychological techniques. Medical treatments include the use
of electro-convulsive therapy (ECT) and drugs such as antipsychotics and
atypical antipsychotics. Schizophrenia can be managed psychologically using
token economy and cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT).

(a) Suggest one difference between medical and psychological techniques

for treating and managing schizophrenia. [2]
(b) Explain two differences between antipsychotic drugs and atypical
antipsychotic drugs. [4]
(c) Explain how ECT is used to treat schizophrenia. [4]
(d) Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of psychological techniques to
manage schizophrenia. You should include a conclusion in your answer. [5]

S23 42 Paul and Lentz (1977) conducted a study with 84 patients with schizophrenia,
allocating each patient to one of three types of treatment, including token
economy. After more than four years, the effectiveness of each treatment was
compared. Alternatively, schizophrenia can be treated using biochemical
techniques.

(a) Outline how operant conditioning explains token economy. [2]

(b) Outline the findings about the effectiveness of token economy from this
study. [4]
 (c) Suggest two reasons why an independent measures design was a better
choice for this study than any other experimental design. [4]
(d) Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of using biochemical techniques
to treat schizophrenia. You should include a conclusion in your answer. [5]

Bipolar and related disorders

M20 42 The Beck depression inventory (BDI) includes 21 items, all of which are
assessed on a four-point scale. One of the items is ‘irritation’, as shown
below.

(a) State two items from the BDI, other than ‘irritation’. [2]
(b) Explain the theory on which the BDI is based. [4]
(c) (i) Suggest how the reliability of the BDI could be assessed. [2]
(ii) Suggest how the validity of the BDI could be assessed. [2]
(d) Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of using self-report questionnaires
to measure depression. You should include a conclusion in your answer. [5]

W21 42 The ABC model of psychological change:

• Activating event
• Beliefs about the event
• Consequences: emotional and behavioural responses.

Ellis (1962) used this model in rational emotive behaviour therapy (REBT).
The aim of REBT is to treat depression by changing a client’s thinking.

(a) Explain why a depressed client’s thinking needs to be changed in order to

treat their depression. [2]
(b) (i) Outline one irrational belief that clients might have before starting
REBT. [2]
(ii) Outline how irrational beliefs are changed by REBT. [2]
(c) Suggest one psychological treatment for depression, other than REBT. [4]
(d) Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of psychological treatments for
depression. You should include a conclusion in your answer. [5]

M22 42 One drug treatment for depression is monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs).
The effectiveness of this treatment can be tested using randomised control
trials.

(a) Explain how MAOIs work when treating depression. [2]

(b) (i) Suggest how randomised control trials can be used to study the
effectiveness of MAOIs. [2]
(ii) Give one strength of a randomised control trial. [2]
(c) Suggest one treatment for depression, other than MAOIs. [4]
(d) Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of using drugs to treat depression.
You should include a conclusion in your answer. [5]

M23 42 Depression can be treated with medical treatments and it can be managed
with psychological treatments. Medical treatments include the use of
 electro‑convulsive therapy (ECT) and chemical/ drug treatments. Depression
can also be treated psychologically.

(a) Outline the procedure of ECT for depression. [2]

(b) (i) Explain one chemical/drug treatment for depression. [2]

(ii) Suggest one weakness of this chemical/drug treatment for depression.
[2]

(c) Outline two psychological treatments for depression. [4]

(d) Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of using ECT for the treatment of
depression. You should include a conclusion in your answer. [5]

Organisational
Leadership and Management

S18 41/43 Traditional management theory challenged

For many years, Henry Mintzberg’s ten managerial roles allowed the nature
of leadership to be defined. However, it has never been clear how leadership
relates to the way managers in organisations manage their workers.

(a) Explain the relationship between leadership and managerial roles. [2]
(b) Suggest one disadvantage of a participative/democratic style of
leadership. [4]
(c) Give two types of leader behaviour determined by how much they
participate with their workers and how much they direct their workers. [4]
(d) Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of investigating leadership
styles in organisations. You should include a conclusion in your answer. [5]

W18 41 The Leadership Practices Inventory (LPI) assesses the extent to which
leaders use the five practices outlined by Kouzes and Posner (1987). An
LPI-self questionnaire is completed and then other people complete the
LPI-observer questionnaire which includes rating scales and open ended
questions.

(a) Outline one of the five leader practices from Kouzes and Posner (1987).
[2]
(b) Give one strength and one weakness of using open-ended questions. [4]
(c) Suggest one way in which leadership could be measured, other than
using a questionnaire. [4]
(d) There are advantages and disadvantages to using both an LPI-self
questionnaire and an LPI-observer questionnaire.
 Discuss how having both questionnaires affects the validity of the LPI. You
should consider both sides of the argument and include a conclusion in your
answer. [5]

W20 42 Fiedler (1967) proposed a contingency theory.

Leader member relations: good or poor

Task structure: high or low
Position power: strong or weak

(a) Explain what is meant by a ‘contingency theory’ of leadership. [2]

(b) (i) Explain how Fiedler used the Least‑Preferred Co‑worker (LPC)
questionnaire. [2]
(ii) Suggest one disadvantage of using this questionnaire with workers. [2]

(c) Explain how one alternative theory of leadership considers individual

differences between workers. [4]
(d) Discuss the usefulness of theories of leadership to the management of an
organisation. You should consider both sides of the argument and include a
conclusion. [5]

S22 42 Heifetz (1997) proposes a ‘modern’ theory of adaptive leadership, and

suggests that ‘getting on the balcony’ to see the whole organisation is more
effective than seeing a specific part of one work process.

(a) Explain one principle from adaptive leadership, other than ‘getting on the
balcony’. [2]
(b) (i) Explain what is meant by the reductionism versus holism debate. [2]
(ii) Suggest how adaptive leadership shows holism rather than
reductionism. [2]
(c) Suggest two ways in which adaptive leadership differs from ‘traditional’
leadership. [4]
(d) Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of adaptive leadership. You
should include a conclusion in your answer. [5]

W22 42 The success of a leader could be due to how well followers can follow them.
Kelley (1988) described the different qualities and types of followers and
within this description he included a diagram. Fig. 4.1 is based on this
diagram.
 (a) Explain what is meant by ‘followership’. [2]
(b) Explain two qualities of effective followers from Kelley (1988). [4]
(c) Give two differences between alienated followers (alienated) and
conformist followers (yes people). [4]
(d) Discuss whether Kelley’s types of followers can be applied to all
organisations. You should consider both sides of the argument and include a
conclusion. [5]

Motivation to Work

M19 42 ‘I really lack motivation.

What I need is ERG: existence, relatedness and growth.’

(a) Explain what is meant by a ‘need theory of motivation’. [2]

(b) Suggest one similarity and one difference between the need theories of
Maslow and Alderfer. [4]
(c) Outline one theory of motivation, other than a need theory. [4]
(d) Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using self-reports to gather
data on need theories of motivation. You should include a conclusion in your
answer. [5]

S19 41/43 The harder I work the more I get paid. It is hard work, but pay is all I need to
support my family.
Do I get bored? Yes, of course I do.
Do I have a sense of job satisfaction? Not at all.
Am I motivated? Yes, by the pay. Pay is all I will ever need.’ [Factory worker]

(a) Explain what is meant by the term ‘intrinsic motivation’. [2]

(b) Outline two types of extrinsic reward system that could be used to
motivate workers. [4]
(c) Outline two cognitive theories of motivation, other than equity theory
(Adams, 1963). [4]
 (d) Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of different types of reward
system used to motivate workers. You should include a conclusion in your
answer. [5]

M21 42 According to achievement motivation theory (McClelland, 1965), people have

different needs. Some have a need for power or need for achievement,
others have a need for affiliation.

(a) Explain what is meant by ‘need for affiliation’. [2]

(b) Suggest two reasons why the need for affiliation is important in work
environments. [4]
(c) Suggest how the needs of a manager in an organisation would differ from
the needs of a worker. [4]
(d) Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using self-report to
measure need for achievement. You should include a conclusion in your
answer. [5]

M22 42 In his theory, Maslow originally proposed a hierarchy of five needs. Several
years later, he added three more needs, giving eight in total. These needs
are: physiological, safety, social, esteem, cognitive, aesthetic,
self-actualisation and transcendence. These needs can be understood in
relation to individual and situational explanations.

(a) Explain what is meant by ‘self-actualisation’. [2]

(b) (i) Explain how one need, other than self-actualisation, could be
‘individual’. [2]
(ii) Explain how one need, other than self-actualisation, could be
‘situational’. [2]
(c) Suggest why Alderfer’s ERG theory is more reductionist than Maslow’s
theory. [4]
(d) Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using interviews to gather
data on need theories of motivation. You should include a conclusion in your
answer. [5]

S23 41/43 A manager can motivate workers by giving a monetary reward for extra work
or good performance. A manager can take money away for poor performance
or for not meeting targets. However, giving or taking away money might not
be the best motivator. Non-monetary reward systems might be more effective
motivators.

(a) Explain what is meant by the term ‘non-monetary reward system’. [2]
(b) Explain how two types of non-monetary reward can be used to motivate
workers. [4]
(c) Suggest how non-monetary rewards apply to two needs from Maslow’s
hierarchy. [4]
(d) Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of using monetary reward systems
to motivate workers. You should include a conclusion in your answer. [5]

Group behaviour in organisations

S20 41/43 Wedley and Field (1984) proposed that the decision-making process of any
group can be improved using a pre-decision support system. Their model of
the pre-decision process begins with the manager answering situational
 questions. Examples of these questions and how they could be answered
appear in Table 4.1.

(a) Explain what is meant by the term ‘pre-decision support system’. [2]
(b) (i) Identify the type of questions used to gather the data in Table 4.1. [1]
(ii) Identify the type of data gathered in Table 4.1. [1]
(iii) Suggest one disadvantage of this type of data, using an example from
Table 4.1. [2]
(c) Suggest two ways in which any decision support system can improve
managerial effectiveness. [4]
(d) Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of gathering data from
managers and workers about decision-making in their organisation. You
should include a conclusion in your answer. [5]

Organisational Work Conditions

S18 41 The study by Gold et al. (1992) found that the number of shiftwork accidents
made by nurses was significantly higher in those working a ‘rotator’ shift. To
investigate this further, the researchers sent questionnaires to all nurses.
However, only 78% returned their questionnaires.

(a) Explain what Gold et al. meant by a ‘rotator’ shift. [2]

(b) Give two findings for ‘rotators’ compared with ‘non-rotators’, other than the
number of shiftwork accidents. [4]
(c) Suggest two reasons why only 78% of participants returned their
questionnaires. [4]
(d) Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using questionnaires to
gather data about accidents in the workplace. You should include a
conclusion in your answer. [5]

W18 42 Manager José was bullied at work for many years. The bullies argued with
him every day and stole his belongings. Eventually he left to work for an
employer where bullying was not tolerated.

(a) Explain the effects bullying may have on an individual in the workplace.
[2]
(b) Suggest two phases in the development of bullying at work. [4]
(c) Give two differences between dispute-related bullying and predatory
bullying. [4]
(d) Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using interviews to
investigate bullying at work. You should include a conclusion in your answer.
[5]
 M20 42 Oldham and Brass (1979) studied open plan offices, such as shown in Fig.
4.1.

(a) Explain what is meant by an ‘open plan office’. [2]

(b) Suggest two job characteristics that may be affected by office design. [4]
(c) Outline two of the dependent variables (outcome measures) in the study
by Oldham and Brass. [4]
(d) Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of gathering qualitative data
using interviews to study workers’ views of open plan offices. You should
include a conclusion in your answer. [5]

S21 41/43 In the 1920s, scientific management studies were conducted at the
Hawthorne Plant of the Western Electric Company in the United States,
which were known as the ‘Hawthorne studies’. The aim was to investigate
which physical variables could be manipulated to increase production. The
findings were not as expected, leading to a conclusion called the ‘Hawthorne
effect’.

(a) Explain what is meant by the ‘Hawthorne effect’. [2]

(b) (i) Describe the main independent variable (IV). [2]
(ii) Describe the dependent variable (DV). [2]
(c) Suggest two alternative interpretations of the results of the study, other
than the Hawthorne effect. [4]
(d) Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of controlling variables when
conducting field experiments on physical working conditions. You should
include a conclusion in your answer. [5]

W21 42 One type of rapid rotation is the metropolitan shift-work rota: work two early
shifts (6am to 2pm), two late (2pm to 10pm), two night (10pm to 6am), two
rest days. Then repeat.

(a) Explain what is meant by ‘temporal conditions of work environments’. [2]

(b) (i) Give one difference between the metropolitan rota and one other type
of rapid rotation. [2]
(ii) Suggest two negative effects of shift-work on health. [2]
(c) Suggest two ways in which the number of hours people work can be
organised, other than rotation of shifts. [4]
(d) Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of shift-work, other than in
relation to health. You should include a conclusion in your answer. [5]
S22 41/43 In just one year in the UK there were 21 deaths and 1372 injuries caused by
chip pan fires. Cowpe (1989) reported on a safety campaign where two
television advertisements were shown in ten regions of the UK between 1976
and 1982.

(a) Suggest the type of experiment used in this study. [2]

(b) Explain how two safety promotion strategies were used in the television
advertisements for this campaign. [4]
(c) (i) Explain how the effectiveness of the campaign was measured. [2]
(ii) Suggest one strength of gathering data in this way. [2]
(d) Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of using television to promote
safety in organisations. You should include a conclusion in your answer. [5]

W22 41/43 Gold et al. (1992) studied the effect of shift patterns on sleep. Fig. 4.1 shows
the percentage of participants in each sleep time category per 24 hours on
workdays for the four types of shift.

(a) Outline what is meant by ‘rotator’ in this study. [2]

(b) Give two findings from the data shown in Fig. 4.1. [4]
(c) (i) Identify two types of error or accident that were more likely to happen to
nurses on a rotator shift in this study. [2]
(ii) Other than errors or accidents, shiftwork can have direct effects on
health. Suggest two effects shiftwork could have on health. [2]
(d) Discuss whether the findings of the study by Gold et al. can be
generalised. You should consider both sides of the argument and include a
conclusion. [5]

M23 42 Oldham and Brass (1979) investigated workers moving from a traditional to
an open plan office. They assessed worker preferences at three different
times, using questionnaires and interviews. Fig. 4.1 shows three of the
variables that were measured in the experimental group
 (a) Give two findings from the data shown in Fig. 4.1. [2]
(b) (i) Suggest one strength of gathering data using a seven‑point scale. [2]
(ii) Suggest one weakness of gathering data using a seven‑point scale. [2]

(c) Explain two problems reported in the interviews with workers about
working in the open plan office. [4]
(d) Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of using interviews to assess
office preference in workers. You should include a conclusion in your answer.
[5]

Satisfaction at Work

Specimen Mowday et al. devised the Organisational Commitment Questionnaire (OCQ).

2018/2020 One question is:

‘I would accept almost any type of job assignment in order to keep working
for this organisation.’

Answers are scored on a 7-point scale:

strongly disagree
moderately disagree
slightly disagree
neither disagree nor agree
slightly agree
moderately agree
strongly agree

(a) Give one weakness with the wording of the OCQ question in the study. [2]
(b) Give two strengths of psychometric tests using the OCQ as an example.
[4]
(c) Suggest how an alternative method to a questionnaire could be used to
gather qualitative data. [4]
(d) An alternative scale has 6 points, without ‘neither disagree nor agree’.
Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of including this point on a scale.
You should include a conclusion in your answer. [5]

M18 42 In the study by Giacalone and Rosenfeld (1987), the Sabotage Reasons
Questionnaire asked workers to rate each of the sabotage methods on a
7-point scale of 1 (not at all justifiable) to 7 (totally justifiable).

(a) Give one way in which this study was ethical. [2]
 (b) Suggest two ways in which the data from the Sabotage Reasons
Questionnaire could be analysed, including reasons for your suggestions. [4]
(c) Suggest how the reliability of this questionnaire could be tested. [4]
(d) Discuss advantages and disadvantages of using a 7-point scale in
questionnaires given to workers. You should include a conclusion in your
answer. [5]

S19 42 To test commitment, Mowday et al. (1979) developed and validated the
Organisational Commitment Questionnaire (OCQ). Three items from this
questionnaire state:

● I am willing to put in a great deal of effort beyond that normally

expected in order to help this organisation be successful.
● I am proud to tell others that I am part of this organisation.
● I feel very little loyalty to this organisation.

Each is scored on a 7-point scale: 1 = strongly agree, 7 = strongly disagree.

(a) Explain what is meant by ‘organisational commitment’. [2]

(b) Suggest two advantages of using a 7-point scale in the OCQ. [4]
(c) Suggest two reasons why the sample used in the validation of the OCQ
was representative. [4]
(d) Discuss the evidence suggesting that measuring organisational
commitment using a questionnaire like the OCQ is useful. You should
consider both sides of the argument and include a conclusion in your answer.

W19 There are five job facets in the job descriptive index (JDI) (Smith et al., 1969).
41/42/43 One question from the JDI asks about the co-worker facet:

Think of the majority of people with whom you work or meet in connection
with your work. How well does each of the following words or phrases
describe these people?

__ Stimulating __ Intelligent __ Frustrating __ Stubborn

‘Y’ for ‘Yes’ if it describes the people with whom you work
‘N’ for ‘No’ if it does not describe them
‘?’ for ‘do not know’ if you cannot decide

(a) Explain how the JDI is scored. [2]

(b) Give two ways in which job satisfaction can be measured using
questionnaires, other than the JDI. [4]
(c) Outline two job facets measured by the JDI, other than the co-worker
facet. [4]
(d) Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of measuring job satisfaction
using a ‘yes/no/do not know’ scale. You should include a conclusion in your
answer. [5]

S20 42 The Minnesota satisfaction questionnaire (MSQ) measures satisfaction with

the work environment. The long version takes 15–20 minutes to complete,
using 100 satisfaction items. It is easy to read and Weiss et al. (1967) say it
is both reliable and valid. It can be completed as a postal questionnaire or in
an interview setting.
 (a) Explain how Weiss et al. (1967) know the MSQ is reliable. [2]
(b) (i) Give two MSQ satisfaction items. [2]
(ii) Suggest one problem that would arise if the questionnaire took longer
than 20 minutes to complete. [2]
(c) Suggest two disadvantages of using a five-point scale, using an example
from the MSQ. [4]
(d) Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using postal questionnaires
to gather data about work satisfaction. You should include a conclusion in
your answer. [5]

W20 41/43 Hackman and Oldham (1976) used several different ways to collect data for
their job characteristics model:

• the self-report Job Diagnostic Survey (JDS) was administered to groups of

employees
• supervisors and the researchers completed the Job Rating Form
• members of management were asked to rate the work performance of each
worker
• absence data was obtained from company records.

(a) Explain what is meant by the ‘job characteristics model’. [2]

(b) Outline two psychological states identified by this model. [4]
(c) (i) Suggest one strength of using absence data from company records. [2]
(ii) Suggest one weakness of using members of management to rate each
worker. [2]
(d) Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using self-reports to gather
data on job satisfaction. You should include a conclusion in your answer. [5]

W21 41/43 Fig. 4.1 is an example of a question about the quality of working life from the
QWL questionnaire (Walton, 1974).

(a) Explain what is meant by ‘quality of working life’. [2]

(b) Outline two of the eight ‘key components’ used to assess quality of
working life. [4]
(c) (i) Suggest how the reliability of the QWL questionnaire could be
assessed. [2]
(ii) Suggest how the validity of the QWL questionnaire could be assessed.
[2]
(d) Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using a five-point scale to
measure quality of working life. You should include a conclusion in your
answer. [5]

S22 42 Job design involves matching work processes to improve a worker’s interest
in the task and to improve productivity. It can involve job rotation, job
enrichment and job enlargement.
 (a) Explain what is meant by the term ‘job rotation’. [2]
(b) Suggest one similarity and one difference between job enrichment and job
enlargement. [4]
(c) (i) Suggest one way in which worker satisfaction can be measured using a
psychometric test. [2]
(ii) Suggest one way in which worker satisfaction can be measured, other
than using a self-report. [2]
(d) Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of measuring job satisfaction
using an interview. You should include a conclusion in your answer. [5]

S23 42 Blau and Boal (1987) proposed a model to explain how job involvement and
organisational commitment could interact to affect turnover and absenteeism
in workers. Each interaction of job involvement and organisational
commitment produces different worker behaviours. Each interaction is
represented by a letter (W, X, Y, Z) in Fig. 4.1.

(a) Explain what is meant by the term ‘job involvement’. [2]

(b) (i) Explain what Blau and Boal’s model predicts about workers’ behaviour
in ‘Z’. Do not refer to absenteeism in your answer. [2]
(ii) Explain what Blau and Boal’s model predicts about workers’ behaviour
in ‘X’. Do not refer to absenteeism in your answer. [2]
(c) Outline two of the four categories of absence identified by Blau and Boal.
[4]
(d) Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of using absenteeism to measure
organisational commitment. You should include a conclusion in your answer.
[5]