1 GOAT Computer Awareness PDF - Introduction To Fundamentals of Computer

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GOAT Computer Awareness PDF - Introduction to Fundamentals of Computer
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INTRODUCTION TO FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTER
INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER
A Computer is a general purpose device that can be programmed to carry out a set of arithmetic or
logical operations automatically. It has the ability to store, retrieve and process data.
PARTS OF A COMPUTER
1. Monitor: - A computer monitor is an output device that displays information in pictorial or textual
form.
2. Keyboard: - A keyboard is an input device that enables a user to input text into a computer.
3. Mouse: - A mouse is an input device that allows the user to navigate one’s computer system. It
controls the movement of the cursor on the computer screen and allows users to move and select
folders, text, files, and icons on a computer.
4. CPU: - The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is the brain of the computer. It executes instructions of
a computer program, such as arithmetic, logic, controlling, and input-output operations.

5. Routers: - Routers are networking devices that enable exchanging of data from different
networks.
6. Speakers: - It is an output device that generates sound, when connected to a computer.

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APPLICATIONS OF COMPUTER
1. Business: - Computers are used in business for accounting, keeping all records up-to date, etc.
2. Education: - Computers are a very effective tool which can be used for teaching and learning,
result processing, student data processing, notes preparation, etc.
3. Entertainment: - Different types of entertainment modes such as multimedia, film-making with
animation, graphics, audio and visual design are done with the help of computers.
4. Offices: - Computers are used for preparing reports, storing/deleting reports, updating reports,
etc. in the office, and much more.
What is Data?
Data can be referred to as something that can be recorded in the form of text or pictorial representation.
It is defined as a representation of facts, concepts, or instructions in a formalized manner, which should
be suitable for communication, interpretation, or processing, by human or electronic machine.
Data is generally represented by (A-Z), (a-z) and (0-9) sets. It also includes special characters, +,-
,/,*,<,>,= and so on.


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What is information?
Information is organized or classified data, which has some meaningful values for the receiver.
Information is the processed data on which decisions and actions are based.
For the decision to be meaningful, the processed data must qualify for the following characteristics:
● Timely − Information should be available when required.
● Accuracy − Information should be accurate.

● Completeness − Information should be complete.
What is instruction?
It is a command given to a computer in the language only understood to the computer by the user.
What is a program?
It is a set of instructions given to a computer in order to perform some task.
DATA PROCESSING CYCLE
Data processing is the re-structuring or re-ordering of data by people or machines to increase their
usefulness and add values for a particular purpose. Data processing consists of the following basic
steps - input, processing, and output. These three steps constitute the data processing cycle.

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● Input – The input data is received in many forms, for example, when electronic computers are
used, the input data can be recorded on any one of the several types of input medium, such as
magnetic disks, tapes, and so on.
● Processing −In this step, the input data is changed to produce data in a more useful form. For
example, pay-checks can be calculated from the time cards, or a summary of sales for the month
can be calculated from the sales orders.
● Output −In this stage, the result of the proceeding processing step is collected. The particular
form of the output data depends on the use of the data. For example, output data may be pay-
checks for employees.
Advantages of Computers

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Following are certain advantages of computers.
High Speed: -
● Computers are very fast devices.

● It is capable of performing calculations of very large amounts of data.
● The computer has units of speed in microsecond, nanosecond, and even the picosecond.
Accuracy
● In addition to being very fast, computers are very accurate. The calculations are 100% error free.
Storage Capability
● A computer can store large amounts of data and can store any type of data such as images,
videos, text, audio, etc.
Diligence
● Unlike human beings, a computer is free from monotony, tiredness, and lack of concentration.
● It can work continuously without any error and boredom.
● It can perform repeated tasks with the same speed and accuracy.
Versatility
● A computer is a very versatile machine.
● A computer is very flexible in performing the jobs to be done.

● This machine can be used to solve problems related to various fields.
● At one instance, it may be solving a complex scientific problem and the very next moment it may
be playing a card game.

Reliability

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● A computer is a reliable machine.
● Modern electronic components have long lives.

● Computers are designed to make maintenance easy.
Automation
● Computer is an automatic machine. Automation is the ability to perform a given task
automatically. Once the computer receives a program i.e., the program is stored in the computer
memory, then the program and instruction can control the program execution without human
interaction.
Reduced Paperwork
● The use of computers for data processing in an organization leads to reduction in paperwork and
results in speeding up the process. As data in digital form can be stored and accessed when
required.
Secrecy and Protection

● Leakage of information is reduced by creating a login system with password protection.
Plug and Play

● Computers have the ability to automatically configure a new hardware and software component.
Hence, it gives an on-the-go feature.
HISTORY OF COMPUTERS
Early computing devices included sticks and stones before computing devices were invented. With the
advancement of technology, and improved human intellect computing devices were getting produced.
Some of the early age computing devices were,

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Abacus: - It is referred to as a counting frame which aids in calculation. It was invented by the Chinese
4000 years ago. It is believed to be the very first computer. It consists of a wooden rack with metal rods
with beads attached to them.
Napier’s Bone: - Devised by John Napier, the Napier’s bones was a manually operated calculating
device. The instrument used 9 separate calculating strips marked with numbers to perform multiplication
and division.

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Pascaline: - Invented in the 1642 Biaise Pascal, a French mathematician Pascaline was thought to be
the first mechanical and automated calculator.
Stepped Reckoner or Leibniz wheel: - In 1673, a German mathematician Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz
made improvements to Pascal’s instrument. It used fluted drums instead of gears.
Difference Engine: - It was a mechanical computer that could do basic computing. It was invented by
Charles Babbage in the early 1820s.

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Analytical Engine: - In the 1830s, Charles Babbage created another calculating machine, the Analytical
Engine. It was a mechanical device that took inputs from users in the form of punch cards.
Tabulating machine: - Tabulating Machine was a punch card-based mechanical tabulator which was
invented by Herman Hollerith, in the 1890s. It had the capability of recording and sorting data along with
computing statistics.

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Differential Analyser: - Introduced in the 1930s by Vannevar Bush, the differential analyser was the first
electrical computer. The machine switches electrical impulses to do calculations.
Mark I: - The Mark I computer was constructed in 1944 as a collaboration between IBM and Harvard. It
could conduct massive calculations or calculations using enormous numbers.
GENERATION OF COMPUTERS
FIRST GENERATION (1940-1955):
This was from the period of 1940 to 1955. This was when machine language was developed for the use
of computers. They used vacuum tubes for the circuitry. For the purpose of memory, they used magnetic
drums. These machines were complicated, large, and expensive. They were mostly reliant on batch

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operating systems and punch cards. As output and input devices, magnetic tape and paper tape were
implemented. For example, ENIAC, UNIVAC-1, EDVAC, and so on.
Hardware:
The hardware used in the first generation of computers were:
● Vacuum Tubes
● Punch Cards.
Features:
Following are the features of first generation computers −
• It supported machine language.
• It had slow performance

• It occupied a large size due to the use of vacuum tubes.
• It had a poor storage capacity.
• It consumed a lot of electricity and generated a lot of heat.

Memory:
The memory was 4000 bits.

Data Input:
The input was only provided through hard-wired programs in the computer, mostly through punched
cards and paper tapes.
Examples

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The examples of first generation computers are −
o ENIAC
o UNIVACTBM 701
o IBM-701
o IBM-650
SECOND GENERATION (1957-1963):
The years 1957-1963 were referred to as the “second generation of computers” at the time. In second-
generation computers, COBOL and FORTRAN are employed as assembly languages and programming
languages. Here they advanced from vacuum tubes to transistors. This made the computers smaller,
faster and more energy-efficient. And they advanced from binary to assembly languages. For instance,
IBM 1620, IBM 7094, CDC 1604, CDC 3600, and so forth.
Hardware:
The hardware used in the second generation of computers were:

• Transistors
• Magnetic Tapes
Features
It had features like −

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• Batch operating system
• Faster and smaller in size

• Reliable and energy efficient than the previous generation
• Less costly than the previous generation
Memory
The capacity of the memory was 32,000 bits.
Data Input
The input was provided through punched cards.
Examples
The examples of second generation computers are −
o Honeywell 400
o CDC 1604
o IBM 7030
Third Generation (1964-1971)

The hallmark of this period (1964-1971) was the development of the integrated circuit. A single
integrated circuit (IC) is made up of many transistors, which increases the power of a computer while
simultaneously lowering its cost. These computers were quicker, smaller, more reliable, and less
expensive than their predecessors. High-level programming languages such as FORTRON-II to IV,
COBOL, and PASCAL PL/1 were utilized. For example, the IBM-360 series, the Honeywell-6000 series,
and the IBM-370/168.

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Hardware:
The hardware used in the third generation of computers were
• Integrated Circuits made from semiconductor materials

• Large capacity disks and magnetic tapes
Features
The features of the third generation computers are −
• Supports time-sharing OS
• Faster, smaller, more reliable and cheaper than the previous generations
• Easy to access
Memory
The capacity of the memory was 128,000 bits.
Data Input
The input was provided through keyboards and monitors.
Examples
The examples of third generation computers are −

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• IBM 360/370
• CDC 6600
• PDP 8/11
Fourth Generation (1971-1980):
The invention of the microprocessors brought along the fourth generation of computers. The years 1971-
1980 were dominated by fourth generation computers. C, C++ and Java were the programming
languages utilized in this generation of computers. For instance, the STAR 1000, PDP 11, CRAY-1,
CRAY-X-MP, and Apple II. This was when we started producing computers for home use.
Hardware
The Hardware used in the fourth generation of computers were −
• ICs with Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) technology

• Semiconductor memory
• Magnetic tapes and Floppy
Features
It supports features like −

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• Multiprocessing & distributed OS
• Object-oriented high level programs supported

• Small & easy to use; hand-held computers have evolved
• No external cooling required & affordable
• This generation saw the development of networks and the internet

• It saw the development of new trends in GUIs and mouse
Memory
The capacity of the memory was 100 million bits.

Data Input
The input was provided through improved hand held devices, keyboard and mouse.
Examples
The examples of fourth generation computers are −
• Apple II
• VAX 9000
• CRAY 1 (supercomputers)
• CRAY-X-MP(supercomputer)
Fifth Generation (1980-Present):
This is the present and the future of the computer world. The defining aspect of this generation is
artificial intelligence. The use of parallel processing and superconductors are making this a reality and
provide a lot of scope for the future. Fifth-generation computers use ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Integration)
technology. These are the most recent and sophisticated computers. C, C++, Java,.Net, and more
programming languages are used. For instance, IBM, Pentium, Desktop, Laptop, Notebook, Ultrabook,
and so on.

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Hardware
The Hardware used in the fifth generation of computers are −
▪ Integrated Circuits with VLSI and Nanotechnology

▪ Large capacity hard disk with RAID support
▪ Powerful servers, Internet, Cluster computing
Features
It supports features like −
• Powerful, cheap, reliable and easy to use.• Portable and faster due to use of parallel processors
and Super Large Scale Integrated
• Circuits.
• Rapid software development is possible.
Memory
The capacity of the memory is unlimited.
Data Input
The input is provided through CD ROM, Optical Disk and other touch and voice sensitive input devices.
Examples
The examples of fifth generation computers are −

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• IBM
• Pentium
• PARAM
COMPUTER HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE
Hardware
Computer hardware is the collection of physical parts of a computer system. This includes the computer
case, monitor, keyboard, and mouse. It also includes all the parts inside the computer case, such as the
hard disk drive, motherboard, video card, and many others.
Motherboard:
The motherboard serves as a single platform to connect all of the parts of a computer together. It
connects the CPU, memory, hard drives, optical drives, video card, sound card, and other ports and
expansion cards directly or via cables. It can be considered as the backbone of a computer.
Software:

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Software is a set of instructions, data or programs used to operate computers and execute specific
tasks.
Opposite of hardware, which describes the physical aspects of a computer, software is a generic term
used to refer to applications, scripts and programs that run on a device.
Software is of two types: system software and application software.
SYSTEM SOFTWARE
System software is the main software that runs the computer. When we turn on the computer it activates
the hardware and controls and coordinates their functioning. The application programs are also
controlled by system software. It is also known as background software.
Four types of system software are the following.
• Operating System
• Utility Programs
• Device drivers
• Language translators
APPLICATION SOFTWARE
Application software is a set of programs designed to perform a specific task. It does not control or
coordinate the working of computers. A computer can run without application software. Application
software can be easily installed or uninstalled as required.
Hardware Software
It is the physical component of a It is the programming language that

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computer system. makes hardware functional.
It has a permanent shape and structure, It can be modified and reused, as it has
which cannot be modified. no permanent shape and structure.
The external agents such as dust, heat

The external agents such as dust, heat
etc. can affect the hardware (as it is
etc. cannot affect (as it is not tangible).
tangible).
It functions with the help of high level

It takes in only machine language, i.e.,
language like
lower level language.
COBOL, BASIC, JAVA, etc.
Duplicate copy of hardware cannot be A user can create copies of a software as

created by the user. many as he wishes.
TYPES OF COMPUTERS
Based on Size
On the basis of size, computers are categorised as follows

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1. Microcomputers
These types of computers are the least powerful, yet the most widely used and are also called portable
computers.
Microcomputer consists of three basic categories, i.e. system unit, input/output unit and memory unit.
Some types are: -
a) Desktop Computer: - Based on the microprocessor technology (Integrated Circuit-IC), these are
small, relatively economical computers.
b) Laptop: - These computers are also known as notebooks. These are portable and light weighted
containing batteries, hence can work anywhere.

c) Palmtops: - These are the smallest and are designed to fit into the palm. So, these are also
known as Palmtop. They use the pen for input instead of the keyboard, for example, tablets.
d) Workstation Computer: - computers dedicated to a user or group of users .
2. Minicomputers – A minicomputer is a type of computer that has many of the same features and
capabilities as a larger computer but is smaller in size. Minicomputers, which were relatively small and
affordable, were often employed in a single department of an organization and were often dedicated to a
specific task or shared by a small group.
3. Mainframe computers – It is a computer that is generally utilized by large enterprises for mission-
critical activities such as massive data processing. Mainframe computers were distinguished by massive
storage capacities, quick components, and powerful computational capabilities. Because they were
complicated systems, they were managed by a team of systems programmers who had sole access to
the computer. These machines are now referred to as servers rather than mainframes. Mainframe
computers are IBM-370, IBM-S/390, UNIVAC-1110, etc

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4. Supercomputers – These are the fastest and most expensive machines. They have high processing
speed compared to other computers. Supercomputers are most powerful, large in size and memory. The
speed of supercomputers is measured in FLOPS (Floating Point Operations per Second). Example: -
CRAY-1, PARAM, PARAM ISHAN.
Based on Work
On the basis of work, computers are categorised as follows
Analog Computers: - Analog computers are built with various components such as gears and levers,
with no electrical components. One advantage of analogue computation is that designing and building
an analogue computer to tackle a specific problem can be quite straightforward.
Digital Computers: - Information in digital computers is represented in discrete form, typically as
sequences of 0s and 1s (binary digits, or bits). A digital computer is a system or gadget that can process
any type of information in a matter of seconds.
Hybrid Computer: - The hybrid computer is a different type of computer that has both features of digital
and analog computer. Main objective of designing this computer is to perform very complicated
calculations. Hybrid computers can be used in large scale organizations to solve logical and technical
calculations as well as offer great processing of differential equations.
Based on Purpose
On the basis of purpose, computers are categorised as follows
General Purpose Computer: - General purpose computers are those computers, which are used to solve
a variety of problems by changing the program or instructions. e.g. to make a small database,
calculations, accounting, etc.

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Special Purpose Computer: - Special purpose computers are those computers which are used for
solving dedicated problems. Example -Automatic aircraft landing, multimedia computer, etc.
OPERATIONS AND TASKS PERFORMED BY THE COMPUTER
INPUT UNIT
This unit contains devices with the help of which we enter data into the computer. This unit creates a link
between the user and the computer. The input devices translate the information into a form
understandable by the computer.
CPU (CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT)
CPU is considered as the brain of the computer. CPU performs all types of data processing operations.
It stores data, intermediate results, and instructions (program). It controls the operation of all parts of the
computer.

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OUTPUT UNIT
The output unit consists of devices with the help of which we get the information from the computer. This
unit is a link between the computer and the users. Output devices translate the computer's output into a
form understandable by the users.
CPU(CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT)
CPU is considered as the brain of the computer. It performs all types of data processing operations. It
stores data, intermediate results, and instructions (program). It controls the operation of all parts of the
computer.
The CPU itself has the following three components.
● Memory or Storage Unit

● Control Unit
● ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit)
Memory or Storage Unit
This unit can store instructions, data, and intermediate results. This unit supplies information to other
units of the computer when needed. It is also known as the internal storage unit or the main memory or
the primary storage or Random Access Memory (RAM).
Its size affects speed, power, and capability. Primary memory and secondary memory are two types of
memories in the computer. Functions of the memory unit are −
● It stores all the data and the instructions required for processing.
● It stores intermediate results of processing.
● It stores the final results of processing before these results are released to an output device.
● All inputs and outputs are transmitted through the main memory.

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Control Unit
This unit controls the operations of all parts of the computer but does not carry out any actual data
processing operations.
Functions of this unit are −
● It is responsible for controlling the transfer of data and instructions among other units of a
computer.
● It manages and coordinates all the units of the computer.

● It obtains the instructions from the memory, interprets them, and directs the operation of the
computer.
● It communicates with Input/Output devices for transfer of data or results from storage.
● It does not process or store data.
ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)
This unit consists of two subsections namely,
● Arithmetic Section
● Logic Section
Arithmetic Section
Function of the arithmetic section is to perform arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division. All complex operations are done by making repetitive use of the above
operations.
Logic Section

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Function of the logic section is to perform logic operations such as comparing, selecting, matching, and
merging of data.
INPUT AND OUTPUT DEVICES
List of Input Devices
Given below is the list of the most common input devices along with brief information about each of
them.
Keyboard
A simple device comprising keys and each key denotes either an alphabet, number or number
commands which can be given to a computer for various actions to be performed. Keyboard controller
stores the code of the pressed key in the keyboard buffer. There are different types of keyboard such as
QWERTY, DVORAK and AZERTY.
Mouse
A mouse is a pointing device. It helps us navigate the computer system by clicking and hovering the
cursor over files. A mouse comprises 3 buttons on the top and one trackball at the bottom which helps in
selecting and moving the mouse around, respectively. In case of laptops, the touchpad is given as a
replacement of the mouse which helps in the movement of the mouse pointer. There are three types of
mouse as follows
(i) Wireless mouse
(ii) Mechanical mouse
(iii) Optical mouse

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JoyStick
It is a device which comprises a stick which is attached at an angle to the base so that it can be moved
and controlled
Mostly used to control the movement in video games

Apart from a computer system, a joystick is also used in the cockpit of an aeroplane, wheelchairs,
cranes, trucks, etc. to operate them well.
Light Pen
It is a wand-like looking device which can directly be moved over the device’s screen. It is light-sensitive.
Microphone
Using a microphone, sound can be stored in a device in its digital form
It converts sound into an electrical signal
To record or reproduce a sound created using a microphone, it needs to be connected with an amplifier.
Scanner
This device can scan images or text and convert it into a digital signal
When we place any piece of a document on a scanner, it converts it into a digital signal and displays it
on the computer screen.
Optical Mark Reader (OMR)

OMR is also known as Optical Mark Recognition. It is the process of detecting the presence of intended
marked responses. OMR is mainly used to detect marks on a paper. It uses a beam of light that is
reflected on the paper with marks, to capture presence and absence of data.

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Optical Character Recognition (OCR): - OCR is a technique for the scanning of a printed page,
translating it and then using the OCR software to recognise the image as ASCII text that is editable. It
translates the array of dots into text that the computer can interpret as words and letters.
Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR): - MICR reads the characters by examining their shapes in
a matrix form and the information is then passed on to the computer. The characters are printed using a
special ink, which contains iron particles that can be magnetised. It is generally used in banks to process
the cheques for recognising the magnetic encoding numbers printed at the bottom of a cheque.
Barcode Reader
It is a kind of an optical scanner. It can read bar codes. A source of light is passed through a bar code,
and its aspects and details are displayed on the screen.
List of Output Device
The commonly used output devices have been listed below with a brief summary of what their function is
and how they can be used.
Monitor
The device which displays all the icons, text, images, etc. over a screen is called the Monitor
When we ask the computer to perform an action, the result of that action is displayed on the monitor
Various types of monitors have also been developed over the years.
Printer
A device which makes a copy of the pictorial or textual content, usually over a paper is called a printer.
The speed of a printer is measured in Characters Per Second (CPS), Lines Per Minute (LPM) and

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Pages Per Minute (PPM). The resolution of a printer is a numerical measure of print quality that is
measured in Dots Per Inch (DPI).

Printers are divided into two basic categories
1. Impact Printers:-
Dot Matrix Printer: - It forms characters using rows of pins which impact the ribbon on top of the
paper therefore also called pin printers.
Daisy Wheel Printer: - These printers produce high resolution output and are more reliable than
dot matrix.
Line Printer: - It is a high-speed printer capable of printing an entire line of text at once instead of
one or more characters at a time.
Drum Printer: - An old line printer technology that uses formed character images around a
cylindrical drum as its printing mechanism.
2. Non-Impact Printer:-
Inkjet Printer It is a printer that places extremely small droplets of ink onto paper to create an
image. It sprays ink onto paper to form characters and prints high quality text and graphics.
Thermal Printer It uses heat on chemically treated paper to form characters.

Laser Printer It provides the highest quality text and images for personal computers.
Electromagnetic Printer Electromagnetic printers are very fast printers and have been developed
from the paper copier technology.

Electrostatic Printers are generally used for large format printing.
Speakers
A device through which we can listen to a sound as an outcome of what we command a computer to do
is called a speaker.
Speakers are attached with a computer system and also are a hardware device which can be attached
separately.

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Projector
An optical device which presents an image or moving images onto a projection screen is called a
projector
Most commonly these projectors are used in auditoriums and movie theatres for the display of the
videos or lighting
If a projector is connected to a computer, then the image/video displayed on the screen is the same as
the one displayed on the computer screen
COMPUTER MEMORY AND MEMORY UNIT
Computer memory is the storage space in the computer, where data is to be processed and instructions
required for processing are stored.
The memory is divided into a large number of small parts called cells. Each location or cell has a unique
address, which varies from zero to memory size minus one.
Memory Hierarchy: - The hierarchical arrangement of storage incurrent computer architectures is called
the memory hierarchy. The computer uses a hierarchy of memory that is organised in a manner to
enable the fastest speed and largest capacity of memory as shown in figure. The memory is
characterised on the basis of two key factors; capacity and access time

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Memory is primarily of three types −
• Cache Memory
• Primary Memory/Main Memory
• Secondary Memory
Cache Memory
Cache memory is a very high speed semiconductor memory which can speed up the CPU. It acts as a
buffer between the CPU and the main memory. It is used to hold those parts of data and programs
which are most frequently used by the CPU. The parts of data and programs are transferred from the
disk to cache memory by the operating system, from where the CPU can access them.
Advantages

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The advantages of cache memory are as follows −
● Cache memory is faster than main memory.

● It consumes less access time as compared to main memory.
● It stores the program that can be executed within a short period of time.
● It stores data for temporary use.
Disadvantages
The disadvantages of cache memory are as follows −
● Cache memory has limited capacity.

● It is very expensive.
Primary Memory (Main Memory)
Primary memory holds only those data and instructions on which the computer is currently working. It
has a limited capacity and data is lost when power is switched off. It is generally made up of
semiconductor devices. These memories are not as fast as registers. The data and instruction required
to be processed resides in the main memory. It is divided into two subcategories RAM and ROM.
Characteristics of Main Memory

● These are semiconductor memories.
● It is known as the main memory.

● Usually volatile memory.
● Data is lost in case power is switched off.
● It is the working memory of the computer.

● Faster than secondary memories.
● A computer cannot run without the primary memory.

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Secondary Memory
This type of memory is also known as external memory or non-volatile. It is slower than the main
memory. These are used for storing data/information permanently. CPU directly does not access these
memories, instead they are accessed via input-output routines. The contents of secondary memories
are first transferred to the main memory, and then the CPU can access it. For example, disk, CD-ROM,
DVD, etc.
Characteristics of Secondary Memory

● These are magnetic and optical memories.
● It is known as the backup memory.

● It is a non-volatile memory.
● Data is permanently stored even if power is switched off.
● It is used for storage of data in a computer.

● Computers may run without the secondary memory.
● Slower than primary memories.
MEMORY UNIT

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Bit (Binary Digit) A binary digit is logical 0 and 1

representing a
passive or an active state of a

component in an
electric circuit
Nibble A group of 4 bits is called nibble.
Byte A group of 8 bits is called byte. A byte is

the smallest unit, which can represent a
data item or a character
Kilobyte (KB) 1 KB = 1024 Bytes
Megabyte (MB) 1 MB = 1024 KB
GigaByte (GB) 1 GB = 1024 MB
TeraByte (TB) 1 TB = 1024 GB
PetaByte (PB) 1 PB = 1024 TB
Exa Byte 1 EB = 1024 PB
Zetta Byte 1 ZB = 1024 EB
Yotta Byte 1 YB = 1024 ZB
Bronto Byte 1 BB = 1024 YB
Geop Byte 1 GB = 1024 BB

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Bit is the smallest memory measurement unit. GeopByte is the highest memory measurement unit. A
byte can represent 256 (0-255 or 28) distinct values.
RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY

RAM (Random Access Memory) is the internal memory of the CPU for storing data, program, and
program result. It is a read/write memory which stores data until the machine is working. As soon as the
machine is switched off, data is erased.

Access time in RAM is independent of the address, that is, each storage location inside the memory is
as easy to reach as other locations and takes the same amount of time. Data in the RAM can be
accessed randomly but it is very expensive.
RAM is volatile, i.e. data stored in it is lost when we switch off the computer or if there is a power failure.
Hence, a backup Uninterruptible Power System (UPS) is often used with computers. RAM is small, both
in terms of its physical size and in the amount of data it can hold.
RAM is of two types −
● Static RAM (SRAM): - It retains the data as long as power is provided to the memory chip. SRAM
needs not be refreshed periodically. It uses multiple transistors for each memory cell. It does not
use capacitors. SRAM is often used in cache memory due to its high speed. SRAM is more
expensive and faster than DRAM
● Dynamic RAM (DRAM): - It is made up of memory cells where each cell is composed of one
capacitor and one transistor. DRAM must be refreshed continually to store information. DRAM is
slower, less- expensive and occupies less space on the computer’s motherboard.

.
READ ONLY MEMORY
ROM stands for Read Only Memory. It is the memory from which we can only read but cannot write.
This type of memory is non-volatile. The information is stored permanently in such memories during
manufacture. A ROM stores such instructions that are required to start a computer. This operation is
referred to as bootstrap.
Various types of ROMs are: -

1. MROM (Masked ROM)
The very first ROMs were hard-wired devices that contained a pre-programmed set of data or
instructions. These kinds of ROMs are known as masked ROMs, which are inexpensive.
2. PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory)

PROM is read-only memory that can be modified only once by a user. The user buys a blank
PROM and enters the desired contents using a PROM program. Inside the PROM chip, there are
small fuses which are burnt open during programming. It can be programmed only once and is
not erasable.
3. EPROM (Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)

It is similar to PROM, but it can be erased by exposure to strong ultraviolet light, then rewritten.
So, it is also known as Ultraviolet Erasable Programmable ROM (UVEPROM)
4. EEPROM (Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)
It is similar to EPROM, but it can be erased electrically, then rewritten electrically and the burning
process is reversible by exposure to electric pulses.
Comparative study between RAM and ROM

.
RAM ROM
RAM stands for Random Access Memory ROM stands for Read Only Memory
RAM is expensive ROM is cheaper
The speed of Random Access Memory The speed of Read-only Memory (ROM)
(RAM) is higher when compared to ROM is slower when compared to RAM
Random Access Memory (RAM) has a ROM has a lower capacity compared to
higher capacity when compared to ROM RAM
Data in RAM can be modified, erased, or Data in ROM can only be read, it cannot
read. be modified or erased.
The data stored in RAM is used by the The data stored in ROM is used to
Central Processing Unit (CPU) to bootstrap the computer.
process current instructions
Data stored on RAM can be accessed by If the Central Processing Unit (CPU)
the Central Processing Unit. needs to access the data on ROM, first
the data must be transferred to RAM,

and then the Central Processing Unit
(CPU) will be able to access the data
Data of RAM is very volatile; it will exist Data present in Read-Only Memory
as long as there is no interruption in (ROM) is non-volatile, it is permanent.

power. Data will remain unchanged even when
there is a disruption in the power supply.
SECONDARY MEMORY

.
Secondary Memory: - Data in secondary memory cannot be processed directly by the CPU, it must first
be copied into primary memory, i.e. RAM. It is the slower of the two, but also cheaper of the two. It is
also non-volatile in nature. Due to this, the data remains in the secondary storage as long as it cannot
be overwritten or deleted by the user. It is permanent.
Hard Disk Drive (HDD): -It is a non-volatile and random access digital data
storage device. HDD is a data storage device used for storing and retrieving digital information using
rotating disks (platters) coated with magnetic material.
Compact Disc (CD): - It is the most popular and the least expensive type of optical disc. A CD is capable
of being used as a data storage device along with storing digital audio. The files are stored on this
particular contiguous sector.
Digital Video Disc (DVD): - Also known as or Digital Versatile Disc (DVD). It is an optical disc storage
media. DVDs offer higher storage capacity than CDs while having the same dimensions.
Blu-ray Disc: - The name Blu-ray disc refers to the blue laser used to read the disc, which allows
information to be stored at a greater density than the longer- wavelength red laser used in DVDs.
Flash drives: - Flash drives are a data storage device that consists of flash memory (key memory) with a
portable USB (Universal Serial Bus) interface. These are typically removable and re-writable.
COMPUTER PORTS
A computer is a device that transforms data into meaningful information. It processes the input
according to the set of instructions provided to it by the user and gives the desired output. As we know
that we can connect multiple external devices with the computer system. Now, these devices are
connected with the computer using Ports. The ports are the physical docking points present in the

.
computer through which the external devices are connected using cables. Or in other words, a port is an
interface between the motherboard and an external device of the computer. There are different types of
ports available:
● Serial port
● Parallel port
● USB port
● PS/2 port
● VGA port
● Modem port
● FireWire Port
● Sockets
● Infrared Port
● Game Port
● Digital Video Interface(DVI) Port
● Ethernet Port
1. Serial port (COM Port): -Serial port is also called a communication port and they are used for
connection of external devices like a modem, mouse, or keyboard . Serial cables are cheaper to make in
comparison to parallel cables and they are easier to shield from interference.
There are two versions of it, which are 9 pin models and 25 pin models. It transmits data at 115 KB/sec.
2. Parallel Port (LPT ports): - Also known as Printer Port or Line Printer Port, parallel ports are generally
used for connecting scanners and printers. It can send several bits at the same time as it uses parallel

.
communication. Its data transfer speed is much higher in comparison with the serial port. It is a 25 pin
model.
3. USB (Universal Serial Bus): - First introduced in 1997, an USB is a common interface that allows the
connection between devices and host controllers including a personal computer (PC). It connects
peripheral devices including digital cameras, mice, keyboards, printers, scanners, media devices,
external hard drives, and flash drives. USB operates at 12 Mbps with particular consideration for low-
cost peripherals. It provides up to 127 devices with both synchronous and asynchronous data transfers.
A USB cable has a rectangular “TYPE A” plug at the computer end and a square “TYPE B” plug at the
peripheral end.
4. PS/2 Port: - PS/2 ports are special ports used for connecting old computer keyboard and mouse. It
was invented by IBM. In old computers, there are a minimum of two PS/2 Ports, each for the keyboard
and the mouse. It is a 6 pin mini Din connector.

.
5. VGA Port (Video Graphics Array): - VGA ports also known as Video Graphic Array connector are
those which connect the monitor to a computer’s video card. VGA port has 15 holes and it is similar to
the serial port connector. But VGA Ports have holes in it and the serial port connector has pins in it.
6. Sockets: - Microphones and speakers are connected with the help of Sockets to the sound card of the
computer.

.
7. FireWire Port: -In simplest terms, FireWire enables high-speed communication between two separate
computers or between a computer and a peripheral, such as a keyboard or a digital camera. Having
multiple devices that all operate together at maximum efficiency is what FireWire is all about.
NOTE: - THE FIREWIRE PORT WAS NAMED BY APPLE. ORIGINALLY IT WAS CALLED IEEE 1394
interface.
8. Infrared Port: - An Infrared (IR) port is used to send and receive infrared signals from other devices. It
is a kind of wireless type port with a limited range of 5-10ft.
9. Game Port: - These ports are used previously to connect a joystick to a PC. But nowadays it is
replaced by USB ports.
10. Modem Port: - A Modem port is used to connect a PC’s modem to the telephone network.
11. Digital Video Interface (DVI) Port: - A video display interface used to connect a video source, such
as a video display controller, to a display device, such as a computer monitor. It was developed by the
Digital Display Working Group.

.
12. Ethernet Port: - Ethernet Port helps to connect to a network and high-speed Internet (provided by
LAN or other sources). It connects the network cable to a computer and resides in an Ethernet card. It
provides a data travel speed of 10 Mb to 1000 Mb (megabits) per second.
FEW IMPORTANT TOPICS AND ONE LINERS

.
● The theory of Punch Card was given by Jacquard Loom, but was invented by Herman Hollerith.
● The word Computer was first used in 1613, in the book The Young Man’s Gleanings penned by
Richard Braithwaite.
● Whirlwind Machine was the first Computer with RAM, introduced by MIT in 1955.
● Siddhartha was the first computer developed in India.

● Transistors were invented by Bell Laboratory.
● Quantum computer was first introduced by Richard Feynman. It uses quantum mechanical
phenomena. It is the fastest computer imitating brain working.

● Nano computer is a general team used to describe a computer smaller than a microcomputer,
usually about the size of a credit card. Ex. Raspberry Pi.
● Touch Screen is an example of POINTING DEVICE (input device) that accepts input when the
user places their fingertip on the screen. Touch screens have an infrared beam that criss-crosses
the surface of the screen.
The concept of Switched-Mode Power Supply
A switch mode power supply is a power converter that utilises switching devices such as MOSFETs, that
continuously turn on and off at high frequency; and energy storage devices such as the capacitors and
inductors to supply power during the non-conduction state of the switching device.
The basic switch mode power supplies (SMPS) are categorized based on supply input and output
voltage. The main four groups are:
● AC to DC – Off-line DC power supply
● DC to DC – Converter
● DC to AC – Inverter
● AC to AC – Cycloconverter of frequency changer

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INTRODUCTION TO FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTER

a computer program, such as arithmetic, logic, controlling, and input-output operations.

6. Speakers: - It is an output device that generates sound, when connected to a computer.

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be suitable for communication, interpretation, or processing, by human or electronic machine.

,/,*,<,>,= and so on.

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● Timely − Information should be available when required.

● Accuracy − Information should be accurate.

It is a set of instructions given to a computer in order to perform some task.

DATA PROCESSING CYCLE

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checks for employees.

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Following are certain advantages of computers.

● Computers are very fast devices.

● A computer is a very versatile machine.

● A computer is very flexible in performing the jobs to be done.

be playing a card game.

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● A computer is a reliable machine.

● Modern electronic components have long lives.

● Computer is an automatic machine. Automation is the ability to perform a given task

Secrecy and Protection

Plug and Play

Some of the early age computing devices were,

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GOAT Computer Awareness PDF - Introduction to Fundamentals of Computer

the first mechanical and automated calculator.

made improvements to Pascal’s instrument. It used fluted drums instead of gears.

Charles Babbage in the early 1820s.

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GOAT Computer Awareness PDF - Introduction to Fundamentals of Computer

electrical computer. The machine switches electrical impulses to do calculations.

FIRST GENERATION (1940-1955):

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implemented. For example, ENIAC, UNIVAC-1, EDVAC, and so on.

• It had slow performance

• It consumed a lot of electricity and generated a lot of heat.

The memory was 4000 bits.

cards and paper tapes.

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The examples of first generation computers are −

SECOND GENERATION (1957-1963):

The hardware used in the second generation of computers were:

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• Batch operating system