WELL NEVER CEASE FROM EXPLORATION

AND THE END OF ALL EXPLORING

WILL BE TO ARRIVE WHERE WE STARTED
AND KNOW THE PLACE FOR THE FIRST TIME
COSMOLOGY FROM THE GREEK FROM, COSMOS MEANING "ORDER" AND
GONOS MEANING "OFFSPRING", WHICH IN TURN , COMES FROM THE ROOT
MEANING "TO BE BORN". IT IS THE STUDY OF THE UNIVERSE AS AN ORDERED
SYSTEM, WHICH THE GREEK ASSUMED I TO BE.THE GREEKS WERE STRUCK BY THE
GENERAL REGULARITY OF THE MOTION OF THE STARS. EVEN IF THEY OBSERVED
CERTAIN "STARS" THAT WERE NOT SO REGULAR I THEIR PATHS (THEY
EVENTUALLY CALLED THEM THE "SKY WANDERERS" OR PLANETS), THEY STILL
TRIED TO FIT THESE INTO THE UNIVERSAL ORDER THAT PREVAILED. THIS INSIGHT
INTO THE WORKING OF NATURE- THAT IT OBEYS NATURAL "LAWS" GAVE RISE, IN
DUE COURSE, TO SCIENCE, AS WE KNOW IT, AND ITS PRESUPPOSITIONTHAT
THERE EXIST LAWS IN THE WORKINGS OF THE NATURAL WORLD.
RETURNING TO THE BEGINNING, HOWEVER, IS BY NO MEANS THE FULL STORY. IN FACT,
EVEN TO RETURN WE MUST START RIGHT AT THE PRESENT, AT NOW OF TODAY. YES, WE
DO BUILD ON THE WORK OF THOSE WHO HAVE GONE BEFORE US, AS IN ANY AREA OF
SCHOLARSHIP, BUT WE MUST ALSO LOOK AT THE UNIVERSE. WE MUST DISCERN FOR
OURSELVES THE ORDER OR LACK OF IT. SUCH A STUDY ALSO HAS A GREEK NAME:

COSMOLOGY. FROM THE PRESENT COSMOS TO THE ORIGIN OF THE COSMOS.

 THE STORY BEGINS WITH THE GREEKS; THAT IS NOT TO SAY THEY DID NOT
HAVE FORERUNNERS. THEIR KNOWLEDGE OF THE SKY CAME FROM THOSE CAREFUL
WATCHERS PROCEDED THEM, THE BABYLONIANS, BUT, THE GREEKS WERE THE FIRST
ONES WHO CONSIDERED WHAT THEY SAW IN THE LIGHT OF MORE BASIC
ASSUMPTIONS – THAT HUMAN BEINGS CAN KNOW THE HEAVENS, CHART THE STARS
FOLLOW REGULAR MOTIONS, THAT THEY FOLLOW LAWS THAT CAN BE
COMPREHENDED BY THE HUMAN BRAIN. TO US, THIS MAY SEEM TRIVIAL, BUT WHEN
WE REFLECT THAT SINCE TIME IMMEMORIAL THE STARS HAVE LOOOKED DOWN ON THE
HUMAN SCENE OF LIFE AND DEATH, TRAGEDY AND REJOICING , BIRTH AND DYING ,
WITH THE SAME IMPERSONAL INTERNAL SHINING , WE CAN BEGIN TO REALIZE
THE SIGINIFICANCE OF WHAT GREEKS DID. NO LONGER WERE WE THINK OF
THE HEAVENS AS CONTROLLING OUR FATE. THEY WERE IMPERSONAL AND RIGHTLY
SO. AS PARTS OF NATURE, THEY OBEYED THE SAME LAWS OF NATURE AS HUMAN
BEINGS. THE COSMOS WAS ORDERLY AND HUMAN REASON COULD REASON OUT THIS
ORDER. I T HAS NO LONGER AT THE WHIM OF THE GODS AND THIUS CAPRICIOUS AND
ULTIMATELY SCARY , UNCERTAIN ARENA INTO WHICH THE HUMAN BEING WAS THRUST
AT BIRTH. WE MAY NOT UNDERSTAND AT ANY ONE MOMENT ITS WORKING BUT IN
PRINCIPLE THE UNIVERSED CAN BE UNDERSTOOD
WHEN THE GREEK WAS REDISCOVERED IN CHRISTIAN EUROPE CENTURIES
LATER,IT FOUND A VERY FERTILE FIELD IN WHICH TO BE PLANTED AND BEAR
FRUIT, THAT THE HUMAN BRAIN COULD UNDERSTAND THE UNIVERSE WAS NOT
A SURPRISED TO A CULTURE THAT CELEBRATED THE HUMAN SON OF GOD
EVERY YEAR. IN FACT, MUCH HAS BEEN WRITTEN ABOUT THE RELIGIOSITY OF
THE FOUNDERS OF THE HUMAN SCIENCE, THE FIRST SCIENTIST. MEN SUCH AS
ISAAC NEWTON AND WERE NO STRANGERS TO RELIGION AND IN FACT
WOULD FIND IT STRANGE WERE WE TO ASK HOW THEY CULD BE BOTH
SCIENTISTS AND RELIGIOUS IN THEIR WORLD VIEW. THERE EARLY WORK WAS
ESSENTIALLY ASTRONOMICAL IN NATURE AND IT IS UPON THESE FOUNDATIONS
THAT MODERN COSMOLOGY STANDS. WHEN NEWTON REASONED THAT THE
SAME FORCE OF GRAVITY THAT HE DISCOVERED TO BE OPERATIVE ON EARTH
– AND EXPRESSED OF THE SCIENCE OF THE COSMOS. INVESTIGATE THE
HEAVENS, ASSUMING IT OBEYS THE SAME PHYSICS AND CHESMISTRY AS A
PLANET EARTH, AND MUCH CAN BE DISCOVERED ABOUT THE COSMOS. SUCH
A VOYAGE OF DISCOVERY HAS PROVEN REMARKABLY SUCCESSFUL.
IN TH BEGINNING, NEWTON USED PENCIL AND PAPER AS HIS SCIENTIFIC
"INSTRUMENTS". EVENTUALLY, HE BUILT HIS OWN TELESCOPE, ACCORDING TO
HIS OWN DESIGN. SINCE THEN, MANY AND VARIOUS INTSRUMENTS HAVE BEEN
BUILT TO STUDY THE HEAVENS, SIMPLY DRAWING ON THE DATE FROM THE
STARSAN AND OTHER HEAVENLY BODIES. THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
CAN GIVE OTHER INFORMATION IF IT CAN BE CAPTURED AND ANALYZED.
THUS ASTRONOMERS HAV BEEN ALWAYS INTERESTED IN NEW WAYS OF
CAPTURING THESE SPECTRUM RANGES AND HAVE DESIGNED VARIOUS
DEVICES TO DO JUST THAT. WE REFER THESE DEVICES AS "TELESCOPES,
"THROUGH WE, IN FACT, MAY NOT BE ABLE TO "SEE" ANYTHING SINCE WE ARE
"VIEWING" THE SPECTRUM RANGES THAT ARE NOT VISIBLE TO OUR EYES.
"TELESCOPE" THAT GATHERED INFORMATION BEYON RANGED OF VISIBLE
LIGHT . FIRST, THERE WAS THE RADIO TELESCOPE, TO BE FOLLOWED IN THE
LATTER PART OF THE CENTURY BY THE ULTRAVIOLET, X-RAY, AND GAMMA RAY
TELESCOPES. ALL OF THESE TELL US SOMETHING MORE, AND OFTEN
SOMETHING NEW ABOUT THE HEAVENLY BODIES THAT EMIT THESE RAYS. FROM
SUCH DATA, THE STARS ARE BETTER UNDERSTOOD (CHAISSON AND MCMILLAN
IN 1996)
EDWIN HUBBLE WAS AN ASTRONOMER WHO WANTED TO RESOLVE A
CONUNDRIM ABOUT PUFFS OF CLOUDLY MATERIAL SEE IN THE TELESCOPES OF
HIS DAY AND THE DECADES BEFORE. AFTER A YEARS OF WATCHING THESE
OBJECTS AND RECORDING HIS INVESTIGATIONS ON FILM, USING NOT ONLY
THE TRADITIONAL TELESCOPES BUT ALSO SPECIALIZED INSTRUMENTS. HE
ANNOUNCE TO THE WORLD THAT THESE OBJECTS WERE NOT CLOUDS BUT
GALAXIES, CLUSTERS OF STARS. THEY DID NOT EXIST ON OUR OWN GALAXY,
BUT WERE SISTER GALAXIES TO OUR OWN , MILLION OF LIGHT- YEARS AWAY.
HUBBLE WENT ON TO EXPLAIN THAT HIS OBSERVATION S INDICATED THAT NOT
ONLY WERE THOUSANDS OF SUCH GALAXIES WHEREVER HE LOOKED
THROUGH TELESCOPE BUT THAT ALMOST ALL OF THEM WERE MOVING AWAY
FROM THE EARTH. HE STATED MATHEMATICAL LAW THAT SUMMED UP HIS
DATA. THIS BECAME KNOWN AS HUBBLE'S LAW AND IS CORNERSTONE OF
MODERN COSMOLOGY (DAVIS 1991)
 ➢ WHAT ABOUT COSMOS?
NEW WAYS OF GETTING DATA AND NEW WAVELENGHTS TO USE AS
PROBES OF STELLAR STRUCTURE ARE HELPFUL FOR SPECIFIC OBJECTS OF
INVESTIGATION.

WHAT DO THESE TELL US ABOUT THE BIG PICTURE THE WHOLE COSMOS?
RADIO ASTRONOMY HAS HELPED THE SCIENTIST TO FIND OUT A GREAT
DEAL MORE ABOUT THE HEAVENLY BODIES.

HOW COULD THIS BE?

THEY SOON THEY REPORTED THERE FINDINGS AND IT WAS REALIZED BY THE
ANOTHER GROUP OF SCIENTISTS SOME ONE HUNDRED KILOMETERS AWAY.
FURTHER, THEY REALIZED THAT THE STRENGHT OF THESE RADIO WAVES WAS
VERY LOW, MEANING THE SOURCE WAS WEAK. SO THE THEORY CALLED,
THE STANDARD COSMOLOGICAL MODEL ( PEEBLES 1993) WAS BORN.
THE BEGINNING OF SPACE AND TIME

BY THE TIME OF PENZIAS AND WILSON DISCOVERED THAT COSMIC

RADIATION CAME INTO THE EARTH FROM ALL DIRECTIONS AND THAT
WAS VERY WEAK IN NATURE, THE IMPLICATIONS OF HUBBLE'S LAW HAD
LED ASTRONOMERS TO SPECULATE THAT THE LAW SUGGESTED A TIME,
LONG AGO, WHEN ALL THE GALAXIES WERE TOGETHER IN SPACE. TO
EXPLAINED GREAT VELOCITIES FOR THE GALAXIES FURTHER AWAY, AND
THEREFORE, THOSE THAT WERE FORMED THE EARLIEST, THEY USED A
TERM COINED BY SIR FRED HOYLE, A BRITISH ASTRONOMER. THEY
REFERRED TO THIS AS THE "BIG BANG" THIS WOULD EXPLAINED WHAT
PENZIAS AND WILSON RECEIVING IN THEIR RADIO TELESCOPE FROM
THAT INITIAL EVEN THE ENERGY HAD BEEN FILLING SPACE TIME AS IT HAS
BEEN EXAPNDING IN THE BILLIONS OF YEARS SINCE THE "BIG BANG"
THE HUBBLE TELESCOPE AND IT'S SISTER, X – RAY TELESCOPE, WERE NOT BE LEFT
BEHIND. THEY TOO LOOKED OUT INTO COSMOS AND BACK IN TIME, AS THEY
PROBED THEY NOT ONLY CONFIRMED WHAT WAS NOW BECOMING THE
STANDARD THEORY OF COSMOLOGY BU THEY ALSO SIGINIFICANTLY ADDED
TO IT. THERE EXIST SOME KIND OF "DARK ENERGY" ACCELERATING THE
GALAXIES SO THAT EVEN AS THE INITIAL ENERGY OF THE BIG BANG IS
DISSIPATED IN TIME, THE GALAXIES WERE NOT SLOWING DOWN BUT ACTUALLY
SPEEDING UP. THE TERM "DARK" IS AN OLD ONE IN COSMOLOGY ALL WE
KNOW ABOUT STARS CAME FROM THEIR LIGHT, THEIR RADIATION THEY EMIT
RADIATION OF ALL KINDS AND BY INVESTIGATING THESE DIFFERENT KIND OF
RADIATION WE HAVE BEEN ABLE TO PIECE TOGETHER THE STANDARD THEORY
IF EMITS RADIATION WHICH WE CAN DETECT, WE HAVE NEVER BEEN IN TO
A STAR WE LEARN FROM WHAT THEY SEND TO US.
➢ WHY SHOULD THE UNIVERSE BE SO EVEN AT THIS LEVEL OF INSPECTION,
GIVEN THAT IT ALL STARTED IN THE BOILING CAULDRON OF THE
ENERGY OF THE BIGBANG?

POSTULATE THAT THE COSMOS SHOULD BE FLAT IS CALLED INFLATION

THEORY. THE MAIN PROPONENT GUTH OF MASSACHUSSETS INSTITUTE OF
TECHNOLOGY IN CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSSETS (LEMLY 2002) HE
BELIEVES THAT THE UNIVERSE EXPANDED EXTREMELY QUICKLY NEAR ITS
BEGINNING AND THEN SETTLED DOWN THERE AFTER

THE CLASSIC EXAMPLE OF THIS UNIVERSE IS GIVEN BY SIR ARTHUR

EDDINGTON: HE USED THE IDEA OF THE SKIN OF AN EXPANDING BALLOON.
THE SKIN OF THE BALLOON REPRESENT SPACE TIME.

TO DO THESE TESTING, THEY GAINED TURNED TO NEW TECHNOLOGY, NEW

WAYS OF VIEWING THE UNIVERSE.
THE TERM "SPACE TIME" REFERS TO THE MATHEMATICAL FORMULATION OF THE
THEORY OF GENERAL RELATIVELY OF ALBERT EINSTEIN. IN THAT THEORY,
EINSTEIN MODEL SPACE AS A KIND OF MATHEMATICAL FABRIC, WHICH IS
TWISTED AND BENT IN ACCORD WITH THE AMOUNT OF MATTER AND ENERGY
THAT T CONTAINS. THIS FABRIC IS NOT MADE UP OF SPACE COORDINATES
ONLY, BUT ALSO THAT OF TIME. IT IS FOUR DIMENSIONAL "SPACE" WHICH WE
CALL MANIFOLD HOW TO TWIST. THE GENERAL THEORY IF RELATIVILITY,
ESTABLISHED THAT ONLY THREE POSSIBLE SHAPES FOR THE SPACE TIME
MANIFOLD. EITHER THE AMOUNT OF ENERGY-MATTER SUFFICIENT TO BEND THE
MANIFOLD BACK ON ITSELF, AS IT WERE, AND WE HAVE A SPHERICAL
UNIVERSE; OR IT IS TOO LITTLE, AND WE HAVE A SHADDLE SHAPED UNIVERSE.
THE THIRD OPTION LIES BETWEEN THERE IS JUST ENOUGH ENERGY MATTER TO
AS IT WERE MATCHED TO EXPANSION RATE OF THE MANIFOLD GIVEN BY
INITIAL BIG BANG, AND SO UNIVERSE IS FLAT, GEOMETRICALLY SPEAKING.
SEEING THE UNIVERSE IN A NEW LIGHT
X – RAYS HAD BEEN KNOWN FOR ALMOST A CENTURY WHEN THEY WERE HARNESSED
TO TELL US ABOUT UNIVERSE UNLIKE THE X- RAYS OF THE MEDICAL PROFESSION, THESE
X- RAY TELESCOPES DID NOT SEND OUT X – RAYS BUT RAHTHER COLLECTED THE X –
RAYS COMING FROM THE STARS. TO DO SO, X – RAY TELESCOPES HAD TO BE
PLACED ABOVE THE EARTH 'S ATMOSPHERE, WHICH WOULD OTHERWISE HAVE
ABSORBED THE X – RAYS. THIS NEW X- RAY THE ASTRONOMY WAS ONLY POSSIBLE
WHEN SATELLITE TECHNOLOGY HAD DEVELOPED FAR ENOUGH TO ALLOW SUCH
LARGE TELESCOPES TO BE PLACED IN SPACE . X- RAY ARE MORE POWERFUL THAN
VISIBLE LIGHT, THE X – RAYS DETECTED BY THESE TELESCOPES WERE COMING SOURCES
FROM MORE ENERGETIC THAN ORDINARY STARS .
IN THE LATE 1990'S THE TYPICAL " WAY OF PROCEEDING" OF SCIENCE. THE HUBBLE
SPACE TELESCOPE AND THE X – RAY SPACE TELESCOPE WERE USED. THIS
WAS THE BOOMERANG INFRARED DEVICE, MADE TO TAKE U MUCH CLOSER LOOK AT
THE BIG BANG RADIATION OFFUCIALLY CALLED COSMIC BACKGROUND RADIATION
(CBR) 300, 000-400,000 CAN TELL US THE STRUCTURE OF THE COSMOS AT THAT
TIME. THE BOOMERANG DEVICE ALSO SAW THE MATCHES THE PREDICTION OF THE
INFLATION THEORY. THE UNIVERSE IS FLAT AND HOMOGENEOUS.
THE CONCEPT OF "DARK MATTER" HAS ENTERED IN ASTRONOMY. WE KNOW
FROM SEEING THE MOTION OF DIFFERENT STARS AROUND EACH OTHER, OR
DIFFERENT GALAXIES AROUN EACH OTHER THAT THERE SOMETHIG WE
CANNOT BUT PRESENT IN THE UNIVERSE. IT EFFECTS CAN DETECT GRAVITY AND
IT IS THIS GRAVITATIONAL PULL THAT KEEPS ONE GALAXY, FOR EXAMPLE: IN
ORBIT ABOUT ANOTHER BUT THE MATTER WE SEE GLOWING IN THE CENTRAL
GALAXY IS NOT ENOUGH TO ACCOUNT FOR THIS PULL OF GRAVITY ON THE
OTHER GALAXY, ALSO THERE SOME KIND OF "DARK MATTER" SUPPLYING THE
EXTRA GRAVITATIONAL PULL. THE CONCEPT OF "DARK WAS NOT UNKNOWN
TO ASTRONOMERS IN FACT THE NECESSITY OF "DARK MATTER HAD BEEN
KNOWN FOR DECADES, BUT THE LATE 1990'S GAVE US A NEW DARKNESS
"DARK ENERGY".
WILKINSON MICROWAVE ANISOTROPY PROBE (WMAP) OF NASA
LAUNCHED IN JUNE 2001, DETERMINED THAT THE "DARK MATTER" AND
"DARK ENERGY" MAKE UP 23. 3 % AND 72. 1% OF THE UNIVERSE,
RESPECTIVELY. IT FURTHER DETERMINED THE AGE OF THE UNIVERSE TO
13. 73 BILLION YEARS (NASA 2010). THE ATTEMPTS TO SEE THE UNIVERSE
IN A NEW LIGHT HAVE OPENED DOORS TO MORE OF THE UNKNOWN.
IT SEEMS THAT IT WILL TAKE HUMANKIND A LOT MORE "TO ARRIVE
WHERE WE STARTED AND KNOW THE (COSMOS) FOR THE FIRST TIME"
THE END OF PRESENTATION

THANK YOU...