Dasari Shashikumar F

ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT
CHAPTER -1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Objectives Of Highway Pavements

The surface of the roadway should be stable and non-yielding, to allow the heavy wheel loads
of road traffic to move with least possible rolling resistance. The road surface should also be
even along the longitudinal profile to enable the fast vehicles to move safely and comfortably
at the design speed. At high moisture contents, the soil becomes weaker and soft and starts
yielding under heavy wheel loads, thus increasing the resistance to traction. The earth road
may not be able to fulfil any of the above requirements, especially during the varying
conditions of and the weather changes. Therefore a pavement consisting of superior and
stronger materials is laid over the prepared earth surface which could fulfil the above
requirements. The objective of laying a pavement is to support the wheel loads and to transfer
the load stresses through a wider area on the soil subgrade below. the magnitude of stresses to
the subgrade soil through the pavement layers are considerably lower than the contact
pressure or compressive stresses directly under the wheel load applied on the pavement
surface. The reduction in the wheel load stress due to the pavement depends both on its
thickness and the characteristics of the materials used in the different pavement layers placed
over the soil subgrade. A pavement layer material is considered more effective or superior, if
it is able to distribute the wheel load stress through a larger area per unit thickness of the
layer.
Depending on the vertical alignment and the environmental conditions of the site, the
pavement may be constructed over an embankment, cut or almost at the ground level itself. It
is always desirable to construct the pavement well above the maximum level of the ground
water or the highest water table, to keep the subgrade soil relatively dry even during
monsoon season.
1.2 Requirements of Highway Pavements

The highway pavements are designed and constructed such that road vehicles an able to
travel at the design speed without undue discomfort to the occupants and also the pavement
structure remains stable. The highway pavements have to fulfil major requirements, namely:
✓ Functional requirements from the point of view of road users.
✓ Structural requirements from the point of view of the highway engineer.
B.TECH(CIVIL) 1 KCEA
1.2.1 Functional requirements of road pavements
From the point of view of users of road vehicles, the functional requirement of
roadway pavement is generally limited to the roadway surface condition. The surface:
(a)should be firm and non-yielding under the wheel load (b) should have good 'riding
quality' (c) should be slippery.In fact the common road users are not keen to know
about the structural aspects of the roadway pavements. From their point of view, one
of the most essential requirements of roadway surface is good and comfortable riding
surface. The surface should be even and not be undulated along the longitudinal
profile to enable the fast vehicles to move safely and comfortably at the design speed.
Presence of depressions, pot-holes and cross ruts on the road surface causes
discomfort and fatigue to the drivers and passengers, and increases the travel time and
vehicle operation cost.
The unevenness or undulations along the roadway surface or along the longitudinal
profile of the road causes vertical oscillations in the fast moving automobiles and
result in increase in fuel consumption. Also there is increase in wear of the vehicle
components including the tyres. All these result in increase in the travel time and
consequently considerable increase in 'vehicle operation cost'.
Another important functional requirement is that the roadway surface should be stable
and non-yielding to sustain the heavy wheel loads of commercial and other heavy
road vehicles. The deformation of roadway surface under the heavy wheel loads
should be as low as possible in order to minimize the rolling resistance and operation
cost of these heavy vehicles.
Other functional requirement of the pavement surface is to provide non-slippery

Surface having sufficient skid resistance or friction under wet weather conditions.
From road safety point of view when the fast moving vehicles have to slow down or
stop by applying brakes, the vehicle may skid if the surface has inadequate friction or
skid resistance under wet condition.
1.2.2 Structural requirements of road pavements
The pavement structure of the road is designed, constructed and maintained by the
highway engineer from structural point of view. The pavement structure is to be
designed so as to sustain the heavy wheel loads and their repeated applications due to
the moving traffic. The structural design of the pavement is to be carried out
considering the various design factors related to the traffic, soil type, drainage,
climatic and environmental factors and the desirable design life.
The pavement structure generally consists of few layers of selected superior pavement
materials laid over a prepared soil subgrade. Each pavement layer is laid evenly and is
well-compacted over a compacted soil subgrade' to serve as the highway pavement or
the carriageway for the movement of road vehicles. Thus, the compacted subgrade
and the pavement layers form the 'pavement structure' which has to be appropriately
designed and constructed. The factors to be taken into account during the design of
the pavement structure are loads due to road traffic and other variable factors related
to the type of the local soil, topography, drainage conditions and climatic factors of
the locality through which the road passes.
The pavement structure (from bottom to top) typically consists of the following
layers:
(a) prepared soil subgrade

b) granular sub-base course, which also serves as a drainage layer within the
pavement structure
(c) base course
(d) surface course.
1.3 PAVEMENT
A highway pavement is a structure consisting of superimposed layers of processed materials
above the natural soil sub-grade, whose primary function is to distribute the applied vehicle
loads to the sub-grade. The pavement structure should be able to provide a surface of acceptable
riding quality, adequate skid resistance, favorable light reacting characteristics, and low noise
pollution. The ultimate aim is to ensure that the transmitted stresses due to wheel load are
sufficiently reduced, so that they will not exceed bearing capacity of the subgrade.
There are three types of pavements ;
1. Rigid pavement.
2. semi flexible Pavement.
3. Flexible pavement.
1.3.1 Rigid Pavement

Rigid pavements are those which possess noteworthy flexural strength or flexural rigidity.
The rigid pavements are generally made of Portland cement concrete (CC) and are therefore
called 'CC pavements'. Plain cement concrete pavement slabs made of specified strength
characteristics are laid, with or without steel reinforcement at the joints. Most common material
used for the design and construction of rigid pavements is high quality plain cement concrete
meant for the pavement, generally called Pavement Quality Concrete (PQC). The CC pavement
slabs made of PQC are generally expected to sustain up to 45 kg/cm² of flexural stresses.
In rigid pavements the stresses are not transferred from grain to grain to the lower layers as
in the case of flexible pavement layers. The rigid pavement has the 'slab action and is capable
of transmitting the wheel load stresses through a much wider area below the pavement slab.
The rigid pavement does not get deformed to the shape of the supporting layer below, as the
pavement slab can 'bridge' the gap or minor variations of the surface of the supporting layer
below.
The main point of difference in the structural behaviour of rigid pavement as compared
to the flexible pavement is that the critical condition of stresses in the rigid pavement is the
maximum flexural stress occurring at certain critical locations of the CC slab due to the
combined action of wheel load and the temperature changes. Flexural stresses are developed at
different locations of the CC pavement slab depending on the relative location of the wheel
load with respect to its of position on the CC slab and the also the effect of temperature changes
at the location at that point of time of the day or night.
The stresses in rigid pavements are analyzed using the elastic theory, assuming the pavement
as an elastic plate resting over an elastic or a viscous foundation. Tensile stresses are developed
at the bottom or top of the CC slab, depending on the location due to the bending of the slab
under wheel load and the temperature variations at the specific location and time of
observation. Thus, the types of stresses developed and their distribution within the cement
concrete pavement slab are quite different when compared to the stresses that are developed in
the flexible pavement layers.
The cement concrete pavement slab made of PQC can very well serve as a good wearing
surface as well an effective base course. The cement concrete pavement slab is not laid directly
over the soil subgrade, considering the desirable long life of CC pavements.
A good base or sub-base course laid under the CC pavement slab along with a good drainage
layer underneath increases the life pavement considerably of the and therefore works out more
economical in the long run.
Therefore, the rigid pavement structure of major roads catering for heavy traffic loads
consists of (from bottom towards the top):
(a) soil subgrade
(b) drainage layer
(c) lean cement concrete or 'dry lean concrete' (DLC) base course or a good granular sub-base
course
(d) CC pavement slab.
The CC pavements are usually designed and constructed for a design life of 30 years or even
higher period. Generally a well designed and constructed CC pavement structure will not
require major maintenance work except maintenance of the drainage system and the joints of
the CC pavement.
Fig-1: Composition and structure of rigid pavement
Fig-2: Rigid pavement
1.3.2 Semi rigid composite pavement

At times, bonded materials like the 'pozzolanic concrete (lime-flyash-aggregate mix), lean
cement concrete or soil-cement are used in the sub-base course of the pavement layer. Some
chemicals that are being used/marketed for soil stabilization also form a semi-rigid layer. These
bonded materials have significant flexural strength in comparison to the common materials
used in the sub-base or base course of flexible pavement. However these bonded materials do
not possess as much flexural strength as the CC pavements. Therefore when this intermediate
class of "semi-rigid' materials are used in the sub-base or base course layer of the pavements,
they are called 'semi- rigid' pavements. The pavements consisting of both flexible pavement
layers and one or more semi-rigid pavement layers are called 'composite pavements". These
semi-rigid pavement materials generally have low resistance to impact and abrasion and
therefore are not used in the surface course. There is a need to provide a bituminous surface
course or a granular base and bituminous surface course over the semi-rigid layer. The
composite pavements are generally designed as flexible pavements with some empirical
modifications to find the revised thickness requirements, based on the properties of the semi-
rigid material used and the field performance studies Alternatively it is possible to develop
analytical solution after subjecting the pavement layer materials to the required tests and
analysis; accelerated load tests and other field performance studies are required to validate the
analytical method.
Fig-3: Semi rigid and composite pavement
1.3.3 FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT

Flexible pavements are those, which on the whole have low or negligible flexural strength
and are rather flexible in their structural action under the loads. The flexible pavement layers
may reflect the non-recoverable as well as recoverable deformations of the lower layers
including the subgrade on to the upper layers and also to the pavement surface. Thus if the
lower layer of the pavement or soil subgrade gets deformed or undulated due to permanent
deformation, the flexible pavement layers and also the pavement surface may get undulated
to somewhat similar pattern.
The vertical compressive stress is maximum on the pavement surface directly under the
wheel load and is equal to the contact pressure under the wheel. Due to the ability of the
flexible pavement layers to distribute the compressive stresses to a larger area in the shape of
a truncated cone, the compressive stresses get decreased at the lower layers. Therefore by
taking advantage of the stress distribution characteristics of the flexible pavement layers, the
'pavement layer system concept was developed. According to this, the flexible pavement may
be constructed consisting of a number of layers and the top layer has to be the strongest as the
highest compressive stresses are to be sustained by this layer, in addition to the wear and tear
due to the moving traffic and the varying factors due to the weather.
Fig-4: Flexible Pavement

The lower layers of the pavement have to take up only lesser magnitudes of stresses and there
is no direct wearing action due to traffic loads and weathering action due to environmental
factors and therefore inferior materials with lower cost can be used in the lower layers. The
lowest layer consists of selected soil which is compacted to the required thickness and density
and is called the 'subgrade' which is laid over prepared/compacted local soil or fill.
A typical flexible pavement structure and the component layers are shown in Fig 5 This
consists of a wearing surface at the top, the base course followed by the sub- base course cum
drainage layer below.
The lowest layer is the compacted soil subgrade which has also the lowest stability among the
four typical flexible pavement components. Each of the flexible pavement layers above the
subgrade, viz., sub-base, base course and the surface course may consist of one or more
number of layers of the same or slightly different materials and specifications.
Fig-5: layers of flexible pavements
flexible pavement structure is usually designed for a life of 15 years or more, but will need
re-surfacing or strengthening layers to be added/laid periodically on the surface depending on
the functional and structural deterioration or damages caused due to the combined effect of
traffic and weather.
CHAPTER- 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
Rakaraddi, P. G., &Gomarsi, V. (2015)The CBR value of the sub-grade is used as a

strength metric since it is thought to be the best layer in flexible pavements for withstanding
wheel load. The CBR test is not only time-consuming and expensive, but it also presents
significant challenges when trying to achieve an insitu density while moulding the sample in
the lab. Moreover, if the available soil is of low quality, suitable additives are combined with
it, and the resulting strength of the soil is evaluated using a time-consuming metric called the
CBR value.
In this investigation, we employ alternative techniques, such as regression-based models
(both basic and multivariate). Soil from several locations in the Bagalkot district is analyzed
to establish parameters for predicting the soaked CBR value, including the liquid limit,
plastic limit, plasticity index, optimal moisture level, maximum dry density, and % fineness
of the soil (passing a 75-micron sieve).
Gill, S., & Maharaj, D. K. (2015) Different approaches to creating design charts have been
discussed. The Group Index Method measures the combined thickness of the pavement's
surface, base, and sub base. The depth of the sub-base is measured as well. When it comes to
flexible pavement design, the CBR method is by far the most used. Given that it takes the
material's strength parameter into account, the CBR approach is more reasonable than the
Group Index Method. The North Dakota Approach is comparable to the CBR strategy. Design
curve between pavement thickness and cone bearing ratio is used to determine pavement
thickness.
Burmister's Design Method is predicated on the idea of a two-layer system, with the top
layer (which includes the road surface, base course, and sub-base) having a thickness of h and
the bottom layer (the sub-grade) having an unlimited depth. Burmister suggests a pavement
thickness of 5 mm deflection for this technique. Additionally, Burmister's two-layer
hypothesis is the foundation for the U.S. Navy's plate bearing testing procedure. Base course
and subgrade modulus of elasticity are used in this technique.
Khatti, E. J., Jangid, E. A. K. et al, (2018) Flexible pavements are designed using the sub
grade’s California bearing ratio (CBR) value per IRC recommendation. The choice of
pavement material could have an effect on the final design. Black cotton soil is an expansive
soil; its expansion upon contact with water is a primary contributor to the collapse of black
cotton soil layers. Material such as fiber, ash, lime, sludge, etc. can take advantage of the
black cotton soil's engineering potential. The maximum dry density, optimum moisture
content, shrinkage, swelling pressure, degree of expansiveness, and permeability, as well as
the liquid limit (Wl) and plastic limit (Wp) of the soil or mix specimen, all influence the CBR
value.
Goud, G. N., Ramu, B. et al, (2022) One way to measure the worth of pavement
reinforcement is through the Layer Coefficient Ratio (LCR). LCRs for unreinforced and
geogrid-reinforced base layers on soft to stiff sub grades were determined by a series of
Large-Scale Model Experiments (LSMEs) in this study. The LCR values for the reinforced
foundation layers ranged from 1.01 to 1.33 as determined by careful LSME testing.
Saha, D. C., & Mandal, J. N. (2017) It is common practice to propose grade-separated

structures such as flyovers, vehicular underpasses (VUPs), pedestrian underpasses (PUPs),
and cattle underpasses (CUPs) at regular intervals when expanding the carrying capacity of
an existing National Highway (NH) Project. As a result, the approaches to these constructions
necessitate that the present road levels be increased, rendering the current pavement materials
obsolete. Milling the pavement surface prior to placing an overlay for reinforcement is
Harshit Saxena.
The purpose of this research is to evaluate the viability of Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement
(RAP) as a subbase/base course material for flexible pavement. From a review of the relevant
literature, it was determined that 100% recycled asphalt pavement (RAP) does not meet
Indian Standards for use as a flexible pavement base with a California bearing ratio (CBR) of
3.5 or above (IRC). Accordingly, crushed stone aggregates, cement stabilization, and a
mixture of the two were all tried to increase the CBR of RAP. CBR experiments were
performed in the lab on recycled asphalt pavement (RAP).
Goud, G. N., &Umashankar, B. (2017) If they want to build roadway pavements to the
appropriate quality and quantity, contractors often have to source aggregates from great
distances. To both reduce waste and keep up with rising construction demands, it is necessary
to find sustainable alternatives to the materials that are currently in high demand. If the layer
is thick enough, it will be able to withstand the necessary axle load passes without reaching
terminal rut depth and fatigue cracking, allowing for the use of lower quality materials.
According to the Indian Road Congress guidebook [16] on design of flexible pavement
structure covering sub grade, the percentage of crushed aggregates for granular base and sub
base layers alone varies from 75% to 88%, equal to 150 million standard axles (MSA) to 2
MSA of traffic, respectively. It is essential to utilize as little aggregates as possible when
constructing a flexible pavement base/sub base layer and this is especially true for low-
volume pavements.
CHAPTER-3
PROPOSED METHODOLOGY
California bearing ratio (CBR):

The California bearing ratio (CBR) is an empirical test used to design flexible pavement all
over the world. The California Highway Department devised this method of operation in
1928 and 1929. During WWII, CBR test data were initially used to design roadways in the
United States. They were then adopted as a standard design method in other regions of the
world. However, because of how imperialistic this method is, some industrialised countries
are now discouraging its usage (Brown, 1996). The California bearing ratio (CBR) test is
frequently used to analyse granular materials in the base, subbase, and subgrade layers of
road and airport pavements. The California State Highway Department was the first to
incorporate the CBR test. It was then used by the Army Corps of Engineers to design flexible
pavements. It has become so widespread around the world that it is included in several
international standards, such as ASTM 2000.
The CBR test is significant for two reasons: almost all pavement design charts use unbound
material CBR values when they are compacted in pavement layers, and the CBR value has
been linked to some of the most important soil properties, such as plasticity indices, grain-
size distribution, bearing capacity, modulus of subgrade reaction, modulus of resilience, shear
strength, density, and moulding moistness.
Design Traffic :
The method considers traffic in terms of the cumulative number of standard axles (8160 kg)
to be carried by the pavement during the design life. This requires the following information:
1. Initial traffic in terms of CVPD
2. Traffic growth rate during the design life
3. Design life in number of years
4. Vehicle damage factor (VDF)
5. Distribution of commercial traffic over the carriage way
The Codes for designing of flexible pavement used are IRC 37:2001 – (Guidelines for the
Design of Flexible), IS: 20:2007.
CHAPTER-4
COMPONENTS OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT
4.1 Typical Layers Of Flexible Pavements

The flexible pavement structure consist of a number of layers. The top surface of the
pavement has to sustain the highest magnitude of stresses and wear and tear due to the moving
traffic loads. The surface course has also to withstand the adverse effects of rain fall, flow of
surface water and the resultant adverse effects of variations in water content and temperature
due to climatic conditions of the locality. Therefore the highest quality materials are made use
of in the top layers. As the lower layers of the pavement are subjected to less severe stress and
other adverse conditions, inferior and cheaper materials may be made use of. The components
of a typical flexible pavement structure (from the bottom to the top) consist of:
(a) prepared soil subgrade
(b) granular sub-base cum drainage layer
(c) granular base course
(d) bituminous binder and/or surface course
Fig-6 Cross Section Of Flexible Pavement
4.2 Functions Flexible Pavement Components Layers

4.2.1 Soil Subgrade :
The soil subgrade is a layer of natural or selected soil from identified borrow pits fulfilling
the specified requirements and well compacted in layers to the desired density to required
thickness. The subgrade is the lowest layer of the pavement layer system which ultimately
supports all other pavement component layers and the traffic loads. It is essential that at no
time, the soil subgrade is over-stressed.
This means that the pressure or vertical stress transmitted on the top of the subgrade is such
that the vertical strain produced is well within the desired limit. The minimum thickness of
compacted subgrade is 500 mm on National and State Highways and major arterial roads and
300 mm for rural roads which carry low volume of traffic, in India. It is also necessary to keep
the subgrade and other pavement layers well drained so as to retain maximum possible strength
of this soil to provide adequate subgrade support to the pavement structure throughout the year.
This helps the designer to adopt the suitable values of the strength parameter for
design purposes.
Fig-7: soil subgrade

Several tests are known for evaluating the strength properties of the subgrade Most of the tests
are empirical and are useful for assessing the strength property soil with respect to the
respective pavement design method adopted. Some of the tests have been standardized in
different countries. The strength tests commonly adopted for the evaluation of
soil subgrade are:
• California Bearing Ratio (CBR) test
• Dynamic Cone Penetrometer (DCP) test
• Triaxial compression or direct shear test
• Plate bearing test
California Bearing Ratio (CBR) test is an empirical penetration test, evolved for the
empirical method of flexible pavement design. This test has been standardized by the Bureau
of Indian Standards (BIS) and has been recommended for evaluation of subgrade soil by the
Indian Roads Congress (IRC). The CBR test is carried out in the laboratory on soil specimens
compacted to desired density and soaked in water. This test is also carried out to evaluate the
strength of other flexible pavement component materials.
Dynamic Cone Penetrometer (DCP) test is used to evaluate the strength characteristics of a
subgrade soil in-situ and is essentially a field test. However it is necessary to know the
limitations of this test and the necessary precautions before interpreting the test results.
Triaxial compression test is considered an important test to assess the strength
characteristics of soil for determination of the basic strength properties such as cohesion and
friction coefficient of the soil. However this test is not commonly carried out for evaluation of
strength property of subgrade soil or for structural design of flexible pavements.
The plate bearing test is carried out using a relatively large diameter plate to evaluate the load
supporting capacity of the subgrade and the modulus of subgrade reaction in rigid pavement
analysis by Westergaard's approach. Plate bearing test is also used for determining the elastic
modulus of subgrade and other flexible pavement layers and the results are used in flexible
pavement design approach based on layer system analysis developed by Burmister.
4.2.2 Sub base :

It is also called as drainage layer. The granular sub-base (GSB) course has to serve as an
effective drainage layer of the pavements and also has to sustain lower magnitude of
compressive stresses than the base course. Therefore aggregates of lower strength Functions
having good permeability may be used in the GSB layer. Crushed stone aggregates are often
used in the GSB layer of important highways as this material has high permeability and serves
as an effective drainage layer. Coarse graded aggregates with low percentage of fines (less than
5.0 % finer than 0.075 mm size) will serve as a good drainage layer.
Fig-8: Sub Base

The GSB-cum-drainage layer is laid above the subgrade covering the full width of the
formation between the longitudinal drains. The part of the rain water which may enter into the
pavement layers through the shoulders or the pavement surface will get drained out quickly
into the longitudinal or road-side drains. Thus it is possible to retain the subgrade and other
pavement layers in relatively dry condition.
The old practice of laying 'boulder soling', water bound Macadam grade - I and bricks on
edge over the subgrade or in the sub-base course layer in some regions have now been
discontinued, as these types of sub-base courses were found to result in poor pavement
performance with undulated pavement surface.
4.2.3 Base course:

The granular base course is considered as the most important component of flexible
pavement layer which sustains the wheel load stresses and disperses through larger area on to
the GSB layer below. A good base course enhances the load carrying capacity of the flexible
pavement structure.
Good quality coarse aggregates are generally used in the granular base course of flexible
pavements. As per the specifications laid down by the Ministry of Road Transport and
Highways, Govt. of India (MORTH), the aggregates used in the base course should have low
Aggregate Impact value (less than 30%) and low Los Angeles abrasion value (less than 40%).
Fig-9: Base Course
4.2.4 Binder course:

The thin bituminous surface course prevents the entry of surface water into the pavement
layers during the rains and thus protects the base course and other pavement layers below. With
a good surfacing and an effective drainage layer, it is possible to keep the soil subgrade in
relatively dry condition and retain its stability.
Fig-10: Binder Course
The bituminous surfacing serves as a wearing course for the traffic and provides a dust-free
pavement surface under dry weather. Bituminous surface courses of different types and
specifications are in use in India. Thin bituminous layers such as Surface Dressing, 20 mm
thick Pre-mixed Bituminous Carpet with Seal Coat and 20 mm thick Mixed Seal Surface are
commonly adopted in the wearing course of roads with low traffic volume with less proportion
of heavy commercial vehicles.
4.2.5 Surface course:

Thicker layers of dense graded bituminous surface course along with a dense graded
bituminous binder course are generally adopted on stretches of Expressways, National and
State Highways and other arterial roads which cater for heavy to very heavy traffic volume
with a high proportion of heavy commercial vehicles. Mix design of these dense bituminous
mixes used in these thick layers of binder and surface courses of flexible pavements are to be
carried out to fulfil the specified mix design criteria. Marshall stability test and mix design
method has been recommended by the IRC for designing the dense bituminous mixes such as
Dense Bituminous Macadam (DBM) binder course and Bituminous Concrete (BC) surface
course in India
Fig-11: Surface Course
These dense bituminous binder and surface courses are relatively stiff and therefore possess
noteworthy tensile strength. These stiff bituminous layers of the flexible pavement resist the
tensile stresses developed due to the movement of heavy wheel load of vehicles Fatigue
failures in the form of cracking of the bituminous pavement is resisted by these stiff
bituminous layers at the top.
The strength characteristics of these dense bituminous mixes are to be taken care of during
the mix design.
The thickness requirement of this stiff bituminous layer is designed considering the
permissible tensile strain and the fatigue life or the anticipated number of load repetitions
causing this strain value during the design life of this layer.
4.2.6 Seal coat:

Seal coat is a thin surface treatment used to water- proof the surface and to provide skid
resistance.
Fig-12: Seal Coat
4.2.7 Tack coat:

Tack coat is a very light application of asphalt emulsion diluted with water. And It provides
bonding between two layers of binder course.
Fig-13: Track Coat
4.2.8 Prime coat:

Prime coat is an application of low viscous cutback bitumen to an absorbent surface like
granular bases on which binder layer is placed and provides bonding between two layers.
Fig-14: Prime coat
CHAPTER-5
FACTORS AFFECTING DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT
The various factors to be considered for the design of flexible pavement as per IRC 37-2001
is the Indian Road Congress code that provides guidelines for the design of flexible pavement.
1.Design wheel load
• Traffic load
• wheel load and contact pressure
• Axle configuration
• ESWL
• Repetition of loads
2.Climatic factor
3. pavement component materials in different layers
5.1Design wheel load

5.1.1Traffic load:
The thickness design of flexible pavement primarily depends upon the various factors
associated with wheel loads of heavy vehicles. Higher magnitude of wheel load obviously need
thicker pavement, provided other design factors are the same. The various wheel load factors
to be considered in pavement design are, maximum wheel load, contact pressure, wheel load
configuration such as dual or multiple wheel load assembly and the repetition of these loads
during the design life of the pavement. Dynamic effects of transient loads due to moving
vehicles may also be considered.
It is essential to estimate the total traffic volume consisting of all the categories of vehicles
that are expected to flow on any stretch of road at the planning stage itself in order decide the
requirement of number of lanes and the total width of the carriageway. There are a number of
small vehicles such as passenger cars and two wheelers with insignificant weight which utilize
the roads in very large proportions on our roads. It is important to understand that the design
and performance of a flexible pavement structure are not at all dependent on these.
Fig-15: traffic load
5.1.2Wheel load and Contact pressure

The magnitude of the wheel load (P) and the loaded area (A) or the contact pressure (p) are to
be taken into account for the analysis of stresses and the stress distribution within the pavement.
Contact pressure can be measured by the relationship:
Contact pressure (p)=Load on wheel/contact area =P/A
If the loaded area or the contact area, A of the wheel load is assumed to be circular in shape
of radius 'a', then the relationship between the load P, loaded area A and contact pressure p
may be expressed as:
P=Ap=ℼa2p
Of the four factors representing a circular wheel load namely: P, p, a and A, if any two are
known, the others can be determined.
The distribution of vertical stress with depth due to uniform circular load applied on the
top of a homogeneous elastic single layer was analytically worked out by Boussinesq. The
equation for vertical stress computations under a uniformly distributed circular load as per
Boussineq's theory is given by:
σz = vertical stress at depth, z

p=contact pressure of tyre
z= depth at which σz is computed
a=radius of loaded area
Using the above equation the variation of vertical stress with depth is plotted. that the
influence of contact pressure, p of the tyre is predominant in the upper layers. At a greater depth
the effect of contact pressure diminishes and the magnitude of the load, P exhibits a major
influence on the magnitude of vertical stress distribution.
Tyre pressure of high magnitudes therefore demand high quality of materials in upper layers of
flexible pavements or on the surface course. However the contact pressure under wheels of
heavy vehicles with pneumatic tyres are generally in the range of 7.0 to 9.5 kg/cm² and seldom
exceeds 10 kg/cm².
Fig-16: Wheel Load Distribution

The total depth of pavement is not influenced by the tyre pressure. With constant tyre pressure,
the total load governs the stress on the top of subgrade. Therefore the total pavement thickness
of flexible pavement will be governed by the magnitude P of the wheel load in order to limit
the compressive stress transmitted on the subgrade or the vertical strain on the subgrade within
allowable limits.
Fig-17: Variation in vertical stress, σz with depth ,z in single layer
5.1.3Axle configuration
It is important to know the wheel load configurations or the manner in which the wheel loads
a heavy vehicles are applied on the pavement surface. This of a heavy is because the total
thickness of flexible pavement structure is influenced by the effective magnitude of load due
to the wheel load assembly.
The maximum legal axle load of heavy vehicles plying on highways in India was earlier
specified as 8.17 tonnes (18,000 pounds), the total wheel load on dual wheels on either end of
the single rear axle being 4.085 t or 4085 kg (9,000 pounds). However this legal load limit was
later revised.
At present the maximum legal axle load on single axle of heavy commercial vehicles
(HCV) is 10.2 tonnes. Therefore the design axle load of two axle heavy vehicles for
flexible pavement design in India is taken as 10.2 t and the design wheel load on each
dual wheel assembly is taken as 5.1 t or 5,100 kg.
Fig-18: Axle Configuration
The maximum total legal load on the tandem axles of HCV (single unit with rigid
body) at present is 19 t and thus the maximum legal load on each axle of tandem axles
is 9.50 t. The inflation pressure and contact pressure, p of most of the heavy vehicles
in India is found to be in the range of 6.5 to 9.5 kg/cm.
It may be mentioned here that 8.16 or 8.17 t is being considered as the standard axle
load for the determination of equivalency factors of axle loads of other magnitudes in
India and various other countries. The load equivalency factors and damaging power
of different axle loads considered as per IRC: 37-2001 Guidelines for the Design of
Flexible Pavements' (Second Revision) are with respect to standard axle load of 8.16 t
or 8,160 kg. The standard axle load for the design of flexible pavement overlay over
existing flexible pavement in India using Benkelman beam rebound deflection method
(vide IRC: 81-1981) is taken as 8.17 t or 8,170 kg.
5.1.3 Equivalent single wheel load (ESWL)
In order to limit the maximum load on single wheel within the specified limit and to
carry greater load it is necessary to provide dual wheel assembly on the rear axles of
heavy road vehicles. Equivalent Single Wheel Load (ESWL) of the dual wheel load
assembly at a depth, 'z' may be defined as the single wheel load replacement of the dual
wheel load assembly which will cause the same magnitude of vertical deflection or
same value of compressive stress at that depth, z. Thus ESWL at any selected depth, z
may be determined based on either equivalent deflection or equivalent stress criterion.
Suppose a dual wheel load assembly causes a certain value of maximum deflection
A at a particular depth z (say, depth z equal to the thickness T of the pavement). As per
deflection criterion the ESWL is that single wheel load having the same contact
pressure, p which produces the same value of maximum deflection A at the depth
Similarly as per stress criterion, the ESWL is the single wheel load producing the same value
of maximum stress at the desired depth z as the dual wheel load assembly.
Fig-19: Stress overlap due to dual wheels

This is also illustrates the stress overlap on a single layer due to the dual wheels. Let the spacing
between the centres of the two wheels be 'S'. the clear gap between the inner sides of the two
wheels be 'd'.In order to simplify the analysis, the load dispersion is assumed to be at an angle
of 45°. Let 'a' be the radius of the equivalent circular contact area of each wheel.
Then S = (d+2a).
Up to the depth zd/2, each wheel load P acts independently. At depths greater than d/2, the
compressive stresses within the pavement due to each load begins to overlap. At depth z 2S
and above, the overlapped area of compressive stress considerably high when compared to the
total area covered due to the dual wheel loads. Therefore the total stress due to the dual wheels
at any depth greater than 25 or the ESWL is considered to be equivalent to magnitude 2P.
In order to simplify determination of stresses due to dual wheel load at any desired depth or to
carry out pavement design, the ESWL value is often made use of. The ESWL is usually
determined by the equivalent stress criterion using a simple graphical method. The value of
ESWL varies depending upon the total pavement thickness, which is yet to be designed.
Therefore the determination of design value of ESWL requires trial and error method and the
simple graphical method is a very useful tool. In the simple graphical method, a straight line
relationship is assumed between ESWL and depth on log-log scales.
Fig-20 Graphical Method For Determination Of ESWL
Two points A and B are plotted on the log-log graph with coordinates of A being (P,d/2) and
of B being (2P,2S) The straight line AB is considered to be the locus of points where any single
wheel load is equivalent to a certain set of dual wheels. In order to design the pavement
thickness due to dual wheel load assembly by the simplified approach, it is necessary to
determine the ESWL at the depth z which is equal to the pavement thickness T, which is yet to
be determined. Therefore to calculate the ESWL for a dual assembly, it is necessary to assume
or estimate a trial pavement design thickness, say z1. Thus ESWL is obtained at this assumed
or trial thickness ness from this graph.
If the design thickness so obtained is equal to the assumed thickness, then the ESWL
calculations could be considered as correct for the design of flexible pavement. Otherwise
additional trials are made by assuming another trial thickness or depth 22. The trials are
continued until the assumed thickness z for the determination of ESWL is almost equal to the
designed thickness of the pavement using this particular value of ESWL and this value is
accepted as the design value of ESWL of the dual wheel load assembly.
This ESWL value is made use of for the design of flexible pavement. Any number of trial
thickness values can easily be made using this log-log chart. For pavement thickness values
exceeding 2S, ESWL is taken as 2P.
➢ Dual-Tandem Wheel Load Assembly
In heavy trucks and trailer units, the total load carrying capacity of each unit may further be
increased by providing another set of rear axle in tandem, with two pairs of dual wheels. Such
an arrangement with two dual wheels (total four wheels) on each side of the tandem axles is
called dual-tandem wheel load assembly. It is an arrangement of dual-tandem wheel load
assembly on tandem axles. Thus the increased total load is distributed on four wheels on either
side of the vehicle. Thus there is no increase in the damaging effects on the pavement structure.
It is possible to determine ESWL for such loading arrangements also by using the simple
graphical method as explained.
Let the load on each wheel bc=P, the clear gap between each dual wheel be-d Consider one set
of four wheels of a dual-tandem wheel load assembly on one side of the vehicle. The diagonal
distance between the centre of the outer wheel of the dual wheels of the first tandem axle and
the centre of the inner dual wheel of the second tandem axle is taken as St. In the graphical
method, the point A is taken as (P,d/2) and B as (4P,2S_{1}) The line AB is drawn. The ESWL
of dual-tandem wheel load assembly is obtained for any desired depth between d/2 and 2S_{1}
by the same approach The ESWL for depths greater than 2S_{1} is assumed to be 4P.
5.1.4 Wheel load repetition
The effects of load repetitions that are likely during the design-life of the flexible pavement
and the dynamic effects due to the moving wheel loads are to be taken into account. Higher
number of load repetitions during the design life of the pavement will require higher
thickness of flexible pavement structure. The deformation of pavement or subgrade due to
a single application of wheel load may be small. But due to repeated application of the
heavy wheel loads, there would be increased magnitude of both plastic and elastic
deformations.
The rate of increase in the elastic or recoverable deformation with the load repetitions
will be at a very slow rate for strong flexible pavements, but will be at a rather faster rate
in the case of weak pavements. The plastic or non-recoverable deformations will get
accumulated and this rate will also depend on the thickness of the pavement structure. The
accumulated unrecovered or permanent deformations result in pavement failure in the form
of 'rutting' along the wheel paths of heavy vehicles.
• Effect of number of repetition of different magnitudes of loads
Extensive traffic studies and analysis have been carried out for taking into account the
effect of repetition of different magnitudes of wheel loads in pavement design. The axle
loads (or wheel loads) of different magnitudes are converted in terms of repetition of a
standard axle load or standard wheel load as explained in the subsequent paragraphs.
Traffic composition in India is of mixed type and it is essential to convert the various wheel
loads to one single standard wheel load for the structural design of flexible pavements.
• Equivalent wheel load factors (EWLF)
If a particular pavement structure fails with N1 number of repetitions of load P1 kg and

similarly if N2 number of repetitions of load P2 kg can also cause failure of the same
pavement structure, then P1 N1 and P2 N2 are considered equivalent. Extensive Road Test
studies were carried out by the then 'American Association of State Highways Officials
(AASHO) allowing controlled movement of wheel loads of different magnitudes on
experimental pavement stretches of different thickness.
Generally accepted approach for the conversion of axle loads of different magnitudes in
terms of a standard axle is by the 'Fourth Power Law'. This may be presented as:
Equivalent Wheel Load Factor = (given wheel load, P₁/Standard wheel load, P)4
= (given axle load/standard axle load)4
i.e., EWLF = (P1/P)4
➢ Application of EWL Factors
The EWLF of a wheel or axle load indicates its possible damaging effects on a flexible
pavement structure with respect to the standard wheel or axle load. For single axle, the standard
axle load is taken as 8,160 kg or standard wheel load P = 4,080 kg. It be may noted that while
calculating the EWLF values using the fourth power equation, the EWLF of the standard wheel
or axle load is taken as 1.0.
The loads of magnitudes higher than the standard load have very severe damaging effects. 4
For example if (P₁/P) = 2, the EWLF= (2) 16. This means that if the overloading is double that
of the standard load, the EWLF or the damaging effect will be 16 times that of the standard
load. In other words, one passage of an over loaded vehicle with double the standard load will
cause damage equivalent to 16 passages of standard load.
The axle loads of magnitudes lower than the standard axle load have much lesser damaging
effect in comparison to the standard axle load. For example if (P1/P) = 0.5, 4 the EWLF =
(0.5)=0.0625.
Equivalent wheel or axle load factors are made use of to convert daily traffic count of each
category of axle or wheel load for the purpose of flexible pavement design From the EWLF
concept explained above it is important to note that the light vehicles such as passenger cars
and two wheelers with very low or insignificant axle loads/wheel loads do not practically affect
the structural design of flexible pavements even if they form large proportion of the traffic
flow.
For example if the rear axle load of a passenger car is 0.5 t, then the EWLF- (0.5/8.16)4=
0.0000141. This is such an insignificantly small value to affect the design of the flexible
pavement structure.
The EWLF values are termed as 'Equivalency Factors and Damaging Power of different
Axle Loads' or 'Vehicle Damage Factors' or VDF values in India. A Table giving a few selected
values of 'Equivalency Factors and Damaging Power of Different Magnitudes of Single and
Tandem Axles' (vide, IRC: 37-2001) are presented.
Axle/Wheel load distribution studies:
Traffic engineering studies:
For the design of flexible pavements of all major highway projects, it is necessary to carry
out appropriate traffic engineering studies Generally there are two typical types of such
highway projects: (ⅰ) upgrading an existing highway, such as widening an existing two-lane
undivided road to a four or six lane divided highway and (ⅱ) construction of a new highway to
provide direct link between two important locations In the case of upgrading an existing
highway, traffic engineering studies are carried out at important junctions along the existing
road. When a new highway is being planned, it is necessary to estimate the different types of
traffic that are likely to flow along the new facility and their growth rate. Therefore in such
cases, appropriate types of traffic and economic studies and analysis are judiciously planned
and carried out.
It is necessary to determine the EWLF values or VDF values of heavier groups of vehicles
which could affect the design of the flexible pavement structure on the specified sample size.
The sample size is decided based on the total volume of different types of the commercial
vehicles. Therefore it is desirable to carry out direction wise classified traffic counts of all
heavy vehicles (including the number of axles in each heavy vehicle) and also carry out axle
load or wheel load studies on the specified sample size of heavy vehicles.
❖ Classified traffic volume studies
Classified traffic volume studies are carried out simultaneously covering direction- wise
flow of each vehicle class continuously for a minimum period of 48 hours as per the details
given in Chapter 5, 'Traffic Engineering'. The study period should be Judiciously chosen
covering typical days of the week considering fluctuations in traffic flow in the project area.
Generally, the heavy commercial vehicles (HCV), buses, medium and light commercial
vehicles of gross weight greater than 3.0 t are covered during the study. It is necessary to further
classify the HCV as those with
(i) two axles

(ii) tandem axles or three axles on rigid body and
(iii) multi-axle types of tractor-trailer units, noting the number of axles per vehicle.
It is also necessary to estimate:
(i) the additional traffic which may be attracted after upgrading the old road or
after the construction of the new road link and
(ii) rate of growth of each vehicle class with the help of past data and other growth
factors in the region.
❖ Wheel/Axle load studies
Wheel or axle load distribution studies are carried out in order to determine the EWLF or VDF
values of the heavy vehicle classes. The actual load of each set of wheels or each axle is
measured in the selected sample of each vehicle class (as in the classified traffic volume studies
mentioned above). It is desirable to decide the sample size based on the number of heavy
vehicles in each classified group of heavy vehicles so that even small number of vehicles of
any class is not left out in the sampling process. However in order to simplify the process,
generally the sample size is decided based on the total number of all the heavy vehicles per
day. The recommended minimum sample sizes for carrying out axle or wheel load distribution
studies in major highway projects are:
20% if the number of the vehicle class is less than 3000 per day
15% if the number of the vehicle class is 3000 to 6000 per day
10% if the number of the vehicle class is greater than 6000 per day
Appropriate type of measuring device such as portable 'wheel weigh bridge' or 'weigh pad'
or 'weigh-in-motion sensors for the axle loads' may be made use of for this purpose. It is also
possible to make use of the fixed type of weigh bridges available at specified locations.
One of the simple methods is to determine the weight of each wheel or each set of dual-wheels
of each axle of the selected vehicle using a portable wheel weigh bridge placed on the edge of
the carriageway or on the shoulder. The driver of the selected vehicle is directed to divert the
vehicle such that the single or dual wheels are placed over the portable wheel weigh bridge.
5.2 Climatic Factors:
Among the climatic factors, rain fall affects the moisture conditions in the subgrade and the
pavement layers. The daily and seasonal variations in temperature has significant effect in the
design and performance of bituminous pavement layers of flexible pavements; at high
pavement temperatures, the bituminous binders as well as the mixes become softer whereas at
very low temperatures, they become stiffer resulting in vast changes in fatigue characteristics
under repeated application of the wheel loads. Where freezing temperatures are prevalent
during winter, the possibility of frost action in the subgrade and the damaging effects should
be considered at the design stage itself. Roads passing through locations with adverse climatic
conditions will need higher thickness of flexible pavement structure. The climatic variations
cause the following major effects on the road pavements:
(i) Variation in moisture condition

(ii) Frost action
(iii) Variation in temperature
5.2.1 Variation in moisture content:
Considerable variations in moisture condition of subgrade soil is likely during the year,
depending on climatic conditions, soil type, ground water level and its variations, drainage
conditions, type of pavement and shoulders. The surface water during rains may enter the
subgrade either through the pavement edges or through the pavement itself, if it is porous. The
subgrade moisture variations depend on fluctuations of ground water table. The moisture
movement in subgrade is also caused by capillary action and vapour movement. However, high
moisture variations could be controlled by providing suitable surface and sub-surface drainage
system. The stability of most of the subgrade soils are decreased under adverse meinture
conditions. Presence of soil fraction with high plasticity will result in variations volume
(swelling and shrinkage) with variation in water content. As the more content of subgrade
below the centre is often different from that at the pavement edges, there can be differential
rise or fall of the pavement edges with respect to the centre, due to swelling and shrinkage of
the subgrade soil. These effects are likely to cause considerable damages to the pavements and
will also be progressive and cumulative.
5.2.2 Frost action:
Frost action refers to the adverse effects due to frost heave, frost melting or thaw and the
alternate cycles of freezing and thawing. The frost action in general includes all effects
associated with freezing temperature on pavement performance .
The freezing and thawing which occur alternately due to the variation in weather, causes
undulations and considerable damages to the pavement. Hence the overall effects due to frost
heave, frost melting and alternate freeze-thaw cycles is called the 'frost action. The various
factors on which frost action depends may be broadly classified as:
(a) Frost susceptible soil
(b) Depressed temperature below freezing point
(c) Supply of water
(d) Cover
Fig-20 :Frost Action
4.3 Pavement Component Materials :
The soil subgrade plays the most important role as this has to ultimately support all the
pavement layers laid above along with the anticipated traffic loads. The stress distribution
characteristics through the granular pavement component layers (laid in the sub-base and base
course layer) depend on characteristics of the materials used in these layers. The type of
aggregates used, their shape factors and gradation play important role in load dispersion
characteristics of the granular base and sub-base courses.
The stone aggregates are broken down to smaller size such that each of the 75 mm layer has
two layers of coarse aggregates, illustrating that the load applied on one aggregate on the top
is distributed illustrated. The stone aggregates are broken down to smaller size such that each
of the 75 mm layer has two layers of coarse aggregates, illustrating that the load applied on one
aggregate on the top is distributed through four aggregates at the bottom.
If the stones are crushed to form a fairly well graded coarse aggregates, the compacted granular
pavement layer will be still more effective in load dispersion due to additional interlocking
action between the adjoining smaller aggregates Thus the dispersion of compressive stress will
be through a larger area below in the form of a truncated cone.
Fig-21:Pressure Distribution Through Granular Layers
The properties and structural behaviour of bituminous pavement layers depend upon several
factors such as,
(a) type of bituminous binder used.
(b) the gradation and properties of aggregates used in the bituminous mix.
(c) mix design factors including density of compaction.
(d) thickness of the bituminous pavement layers.
The type and grade of bituminous binder used also affect the fatigue characteristics of the
bituminous mix and thus affect the pavement performance under different climatic conditions.
CHAPTER-6
DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT

Different approaches and methods of flexible pavements design General approaches
Various approaches of flexible pavement design may be classified into three beat groups.
a. Emprical Method
b. Semi-Emprical Or Semi Theoretical Methods
c. Theoretical methods
6.1 EMPRICAL METHODS
Empirical methods are either based on physical properties or strength parameters

of soil sub grade. Empirical methods and design charts developed based on some properties of
the subgrade soil and pavement layers and past experience or performance studies of the
flexible pavements under a set of conditions .
Several empirical methods of flexible pavements and design charts were developed in the past
in different countries. Some of the older methods were based on some or the index properties
of the subgrade soil. Most of the empirical methods of flexible pavement design are based on
one of the strength properties of subgrade soil. However while developing the empirical design
charts, some of the requirements pertaining to the country or region such as traffic, climatic
factors, etc. were taken into account.
During the recent past in some of the countries, mechanistic design approach based on the
strength characteristics of the pavement materials are being adopted after incorporating
appropriate empirical modifications considering the past performance studies. In India flexible
pavement design method based on CBR value of subgrade soil is being followed.
Advantages and limitations of empirical design methods
An empirical method of flexible pavement design and the set of design charts are generally
developed based on vast experience and performance studies carried out under actual set of
conditions prevalent in the region or locality. The final form of the design charts are generally
presented in a simple form and are easy to be used. However it may not be desirable to make
use of the same set of design charts in another region if there is variation in any of the design
factors (such as soil properties ,traffic characteristics, climatic and environmental factors)
which were not covered while developing the empirical design method and charts. Therefore
utmost caution is to be exercised while making use of the design charts in the new location.
6.2 SEMI EMPRICAL OR SEMI THEORITICAL METHODS
When the design is based on stress-strain function and modified based on experience, it may
be called semi-empirical or semi-theoretical. The design approaches have also been developed
based on theoretical analysis and mathematical computations. However some of the idealised
assumptions are questionable.
In the design of flexible pavements, it has yet not been possible to have a rational design method
wherein design process and service behaviour of the pavement can be expressed or predicted
theoretically by mathematical laws. Each one of the approaches has its own advantages
and limitations.
6.3Theoritical Methods
The Theoretical methods of design of flexible pavement as recommended by IRC is the CBR
methodtheoretical analysis and mathematical computations. Out of the flexible pavement
design method available is
i. Group index method

ii. California R value (or) stabiliometer method
iii. Triaxial test method
iv. Mcleod method
v. Burmister method
vi. California bearing ratio test method
(i) Group Index Method
D.J. Steel in 1945 suggested the thickness requirement of pavement on the basis of Group
Index values. It is just an arbitrary index assigned to the soil depending on the percent fines,
liquid limit and plasticity index.
The higher value Group Index represents the weaker soil subgrade, the greater will be the
thickness of pavement. The group index values of soils vary from 0 to 20.
Limitations Of Group Index Method:
(i) This method does not consider the strength characteristics of the subgrade soil.
(ii) Quality of pavement is not considered, same thickness is required even better GI
quality material is used.
GI is a function of
a. Percentage of material passing through 0.075 mm sieve
b. Liquid limit
c. Plasticity index
By sieve analysis test we can determine Group index value of soil subgrade from
below equation
GI = 0.2a + 0.005ac + 0.01bd
Where,
a = portion of material passing 0.075mm sieve greater than 35 and not exceeding
75% (0 to 40)
b = portion of material passing 0.075mm sieve greater than 15 and not exceeding
35% (0 to 20)
c = the value of liquid limit in excess of 40 and less than 60 (0 to 20)
d = the value of plasticity index exceeding 10 and not more than 30 (0 to 20)
➢ Group Index Method Of Flexible Pavement Design
Data Required for Flexible Pavement Design
1.Group index of soil subgrade
Group index value range of different soils is given below
• For good soil – 0 to 1
• For fair soil – 2 to 4
• For poor soil – 5 to 9
• For very poor soil – 10 to 20
Group index value is an arbitrary index assigned to the soil type in numerical
equations base on the percent fines liquid limit and plasticity index. The design chart
for group index method for determining the pavement thickness.
• Minimum CBR value of 20% for cumulative traffic upto 2 msa and 30% exceeding
2 msa.
2. Traffic volume
It is the measure of Annual average daily traffic, peak-hour traffic. It is denominated

by commercial vehicles/day or CVPD. It is classified in three categories. Based on
number of vehicles per day.
Table-1: Traffic Volume
TRAFFIC VOLUME NO OF VEHICLES PERDAY

LIGHT LESS THAN 50
MEDIUM 50 TO300
HEAVY OVER 300
• GI vary in the range of 0 to 20.
• Higher the value of GI, poorer is the soil as sub-grade material.
• For sub-grade, minimum CBR value=10% • For granular sub-base, Liquid limit: not
more than 25% Plasticity index: not more than 6%
Fig-22: Design Chart By Group Index Value
The Design Of The Pavement thickness by this method, first the GI value of the soil
is found the anticipated traffic is estimated and is designated as light, medium or
heavy as indicated. The GI method of pavement design is essentially an empirical
method based on physical properties of the subgrade soil. This method does not
consider the strength characteristics of the subgrade soil and therefore is open to
question regarding the reliability of the design based on the index properties of the
soil only.
(ⅱ).California Resistance Value Method
F.M. Hakeem and R.M. Carmany in 1948 provided design method based on
stabilometer Rvalue and cohesiometer Computer- value.
Based on performance data it was established by Hveem and Carmany that

pavements thickness varies directly with R value and logarithm of load repetitions. It
varies inversely with fifth root of Computer value.
The expression for pavement thickness is given as by the empirical equation.
𝑲(𝑻𝑰)(𝟗𝟎 − 𝑹)
𝑻=
𝐂 𝟏⁄𝟓
Where,
T = Total thickness of pavement, cm
K = Numerical constant=0.166
TI = Traffic index = 1.35(EWL) 0.11
R = Stabilometer resistance value
C = Cohesiometer value
Here, equivalent wheel load (EWL) is the accumulated sum of the products of the constants
and the number of axle loads. The yearly EWL is obtained by using the data of annual
average daily traffic volumes (AADT).
Table-2: Different Number Of Axles And Their Ewl Constant
NUMBER OF AXLES EWL CONSTANT (YEARLY BASIS)

2 330
3 1070
4 2460
5 4620
6 3040
In the design of flexible pavements based on California resistance value method for the
following data are needed:
• R-value of soil subgrade
• TI value
• Equivalent C-value
(ⅲ). Triaxial Test Method

L.A. Palmer and E.S. Barber in 1910 proposed the design method based on Boussinesq’s
displacement equation for homogeneous elastic single layer. The expression for pavement
thickness is given as
𝟑𝑷𝑿𝒀
The thickness of pavement TS =√( ) − 𝒂𝟐
𝟐ℼ𝑬𝑺∆ℼ
Where,
Ts = Pavement thickness,
P= wheel load (kg),
Es = Modulus of elasticity of sub grade from triaxial test result, Kg/cm2
a = Radius of contact area
 = Design deflection (taken equal to 0.25 cm)
X = Traffic coefficient
Y = Saturation coefficient
(ⅳ ). Mcleod Method
This method was developed by Norman W. Mcleod. He performed repetitive plate bearing
test on various sizes of plates and gave an empirical design equation. The expression for
pavement thickness is given as
𝐏
T =K log10
𝐒
Where,
T = Required thickness of gravel base in cm
P = Gross wheel load in kg
K = Base course constant
S = Total subgrade support in kg
(ⅴ). Burmister Method
This method is based on young’s modulus of elasticity of different layer of pavement. As

flexible pavement composed of layers and elastic modulus of top most layer is maximum.
E b >E sb >E s (layered analysis)
Boussinesq’s analysis is a special case of Burmister’s layered system analysis. He considered

E b = E sb = E s (Bousinesq’s analysis)
Assumptions Involved In Burmister’s Analysis
• Materials in the pavement layers are isotropic, homogenous and elastic.

• Pavement forms a stiffer reinforcing layer having modulus of elasticity higher than
the underlying subgrade.
• Surface layer is infinite in horizontal direction but finite in vertical direction.
• The underlying layer in two layered system is considered infinite in both directions.
(ⅵ) CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO (CBR) TEST
The California Bearing Ratio (CBR) test was developed by the California State Highway
Department as a method for evaluating the strength of sub grade soil and other pavement
materials for the design and construction of flexible pavements. The CBR test results have been
correlated with flexible pavement thickness requirements for highways and air fields. Being an
empirical test method, CBR test results cannot be related accurately with any fundamental
property of the soil or pavement material tested. The CBR method of test has also been
standardized by the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS).The CBR test denotes a measure of
resistance to penetration of a soil or flexible pavement material, of standard plunger under
controlled test conditions. The CBR test may be conducted in the laboratory generally on re-
mould-ed specimens; the test may also be conducted on undisturbed soil specimens. The
laboratory test procedure should be strictly adhered if high degree of reprehensibility is desired.
Procedure for field determination of CBR value of soil in-place or in-situ has also been
developed and standardized by different agencies including the BIS.
6.4 BASIC PRINCIPLE
The basic principle in CBR test is by causing a cylindrical plunger of 50 mm diameter to

penetrate into the specimen of soil or pavement component material at a rate of 1.25 mm per
minute. The loads required for 2.5 mm and 5.0 mm penetration of the plunger into the
soil/material tested are recorded. The CBR value of the material tested is expressed as a
percentage of standard load value in a standard material. The standard load values have been
established based on a large number of tests on standard crushed stone aggregates at the
respective penetration levels of 2.5 and 50 mm. These standard load values given below may
directly be used to compute the CBR value of the test material.
STANDARD VALUES ON CRUSHED STINE AGGREGATES FOR

SPECIFIED PENETRATION VALUES.
Table-3 : standard load values for CBR
Penetration in mm Standard load in kg Unit
standard load,kg/cm2
2.5 1370 70
5.0 2055 105
6.5 DETERMINATION OF CBR VALUE IN THE LABARATORY
The laboratory CBR apparatus consists of a mould 150 mm diameter plate and a collar, a
loading frame with the cylindrical plunger of 50 mm diameter and dial gauges for measuring
the expansion on soaking and the penetration values.
Fig-23: CBR Test Set-Up
The specimen in the mould is compacted to a dry density corresponding to the minime state of
compaction likely to be achieved in practice. In the absence of information the specimens may
be compacted to maximum dry density at the Optimum Moisture Contem (OMC). IS heavy
compaction as per IS: 2720 Part VIII is preferred for high trafficked roads like expressways
and national and state highways; however IS light compaction as per IS: 2720 Part-VII may be
adopted for low volume roads. The specimen is subjected to four days soaking and the swelling
and water absorption values are noted. The surcharge weight is placed on the top of the
specimen in the mould and the assembly is placed under the plunger of the loading frame as
shown in Figure. The load values are noted corresponding to penetration values of 0.0, 0.5, 1.0,
1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0, 7.5, 10.0 and 12.5 mm. The load - penetration graph is plotted as
shown in Fig. Alternatively the load values may be converted to pressure values and plotted
against the penetration values.
Two typical types of lond - curves may be obtained as shown in Fig 611. The normal curve is
with convexity upwards as for specimen no. 1 and the loads corresponding to 2.5 and 5.0 mm
penetration values are noted. Sometimes a curve with initial upward concavity is obtained,
indicating the necessity of correction as can he seen for specimen no. 2 in the graph. In this
case, the 'corrected origin' is established by a tangent from the steepest point on the curve, to
obtain the ennected origin as shown in Fig. 6.11. The load values corresponding to 2.5 and
5.0 mum penetration values from the corrected origin are noted.
Fig-24:Load-penetration curves of CBR test
THE CBR Value is calculated using the relation :
𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝒔𝒖𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒄𝒊𝒎𝒆𝒏 𝒂𝒕 𝟐.𝟓 𝒐𝒓 𝟓.𝟎 𝒎𝒎 𝒑𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

CBR% =𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝒔𝒖𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒂𝒓𝒂𝒅 𝒂𝒈𝒈𝒓𝒆𝒈𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒔 𝒂𝒕 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒑𝒐𝒎𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒑𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 ×100
The causes for the initial concavity of the load-penetration curve calling for the correction in
origin are due to: (i) the top layer of the soaked soil is too soft or slushy after soaking in water
(ii) top surface of the soil specimen is not even and (iii) the penetration plunger of the loading
machine is not vertical; therefore the bottom surface of the plunger is not horizontal and is not
fully in contact with the top surface of the specimen.
Normally the CBR value at 2.5 mm penetration is higher than that at 5.0 mm and the higher
value is reported as the CBR value of the material. However if the CBR value obtained at
5.0mm penetration is higher than that obtained at 2.5 mm, then the test is to be repeated for
checking.
6.6 IRC Recommendations For CBR Test
Indian road congress (IRC: 37-1970) has recommended some important aspects to be
considered while using the design chart. Following are the recommendations/ Steps
involved in the IRC method of design of flexible pavements:
• The specimen to be tested CBR should be remoulded specimen prepared preferably

by static compaction wherever possible or dynamic compaction. The standard test
procedure should be strictly followed.
• In situ test specimens are not recommended.
• For new roads the sub grade soil specimen should be compacted to proctor density
at OMC. If the compaction equipment is not available in the field, the specimen may
be compacted to the expected field density.
• For the existing roads the specimen should be compacted to field density of sub grade
soil at water content equal to OMC or field moisture content.
• For all new constructions the specimen should be soaked for four days prior to testing.
This condition is not mandatory for arid climatic regions or regions with annual rainfall
is less than 50cm or the water table is very deep or when thickness of impermeable
bituminous surfacing is provided.
• At least three specimens should be tested with identical specimens. If the variation is
maximum beyond the norms, then average of six specimens CBR values should be
taken.
• The top 50 cm of sub grade should be compacted at least up to 95 to 100 percent of

proctor density.
• An estimate of the traffic should be carried by the road pavements at the end of
expected in view the existing traffic and probable growth rate of traffic.
• The traffic for the design is considered in units of heavy vehicles per day in both
directions and is divided into seven categories A to G. The design thickness is
considered applicable for single axle loads up to 8200 kg and tandom axle loads up to
14,500 kg.
• When subbase course materials contain substantial proportion of aggregates of size

above 20mm, the CBR value of these materials would not be valid for the design of
subsequent layers above them.
Fig-25: Collection And Preparation Of Soil Sample
Fig-26: Compacting The Soil Sample
Fig-27: Conduction Of CBR Test
6.7 Observations And Calculations:
Table-4: observation of CBR test
S.NO. Penetration (mm) Load (kg)

1 0.0 0.0
2 0.5 4.8
3 1.0 15.2
4 1.5 28.2
5 2.0 41.0
6 2.5 47.5
8 3.0 56
9 4.0 67.5
10 5.0 74.9
11 7.5 89.1
12 10.0 98.5
13 12.5 105.5
CALCULATIONS :
Area of plunger dia 5cm =19.62 cm2
𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 54
pressure at 2.5 mm penetration(p)= = =2.75kg/cm2
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 19.6
𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 77
pressure at 5 mm penetration(p) = = =3.9kg/cm2
𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 90
pressure at 7.5 mm penetration(p) = = =4.58kg/cm2
𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 98.5
pressure at 10 mm penetration(p) = = =5.02kg/cm2
𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 105.5
pressure at 12.5 mm penetration(p) = = =5.37kg/cm2
𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒐𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒍𝒖𝒏𝒈𝒆𝒓 𝒂𝒕 𝟐.𝟓 𝒎𝒎 𝒑𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

CBR value of soil at 2.5 mm = ×100
𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒂𝒔 𝒂𝒃𝒐𝒗𝒆 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒂𝒓𝒅 𝒄𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒉𝒆𝒅 𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒏𝒆𝒔
𝟓𝟒
= 𝟏𝟑𝟕𝟐 × 100 =3.93%
𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒐𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒍𝒖𝒏𝒈𝒆𝒓 𝒂𝒕 𝟓 𝒎𝒎 𝒑𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

CBR value of soil at 5 mm = ×100
𝟕𝟕
= 𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟓 × 100 =3.74%
𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒐𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒍𝒖𝒏𝒈𝒆𝒓 𝒂𝒕 𝟕.𝟓 𝒎𝒎 𝒑𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

CBR value of soil at 7.5 mm = ×100
90
= 2630 × 100 =3.42%
𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒐𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒍𝒖𝒏𝒈𝒆𝒓 𝒂𝒕 𝟐.𝟓 𝒎𝒎 𝒑𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

CBR value of soil at 10 mm = ×100
98.5
= 3180 × 100 =3.09%
𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒐𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒍𝒖𝒏𝒈𝒆𝒓 𝒂𝒕 𝟏𝟐.𝟓 𝒎𝒎 𝒑𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
CBR value of soil at 12.5 mm= ×100
𝟏𝟎𝟓.𝟓
= × 100 =2.93%
𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎
So, CBR value of subgrade = 3.93%.
LOAD VS PENETRATION
120
105.5
98.5
100
89.1
80 74.9
67.15
Load (Kg)
60 56
47.5
41
40
28.22
20 15.2
4.8
0
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Penetration (mm)
Fig-28: graph of penetration VS load by CBR test
6.8 Limitations of CBR Method
(i) It does not take fully into account the damaging effects of heavier wheel loads and the
their frequency in the wheel load spectrum.
(ii) This method does not consider whether the road is for multi or single lane and single
or dual carriageway.
(iii) The CBR method gives the total thickness requirements of the pavement above a
subgrade and this thickness requirement of the pavement above a subgrade would
remain some irrespective of the quality of material.
Note: When a sub base course material contain substantial proportion of aggregates of
size above 20 mm, then the CBR value of material would not be valid for the design
of subsequent layer above them.
The CBR method of pavement design gives the total thickness requirement of the
pavement above a sub grade and thickness value would remain the same quality of
materials used in component layers
6.9 Precautions of CBR test
(a).The CBR tests should be performed on remoulded soils in the laboratory. In- situ tests are
not recommended for design purposes. The specimens should be prepared by static compaction
at desired density or by dynamic compaction. The standard test procedure should be strictly
adhered to.
(b).For the design of new roads for National and State Highways, the top 500 mm ofsubgrade
soil sample should be compacted at OMC to the specified dry density.The thickness of the top
layer of the subgrade can be 300 mm for low volume ruralme CBR test itself on subgrade for
assessing the strength sent any of the basic strength roads. As per the 'Specifications for Road
and Bridge Works' by the MORTH, the specified density of compaction is 97% of density by
Heavy Compaction. Otherwise the soil sample may be compacted to the dry density expected
to be achieved in the field. In the case of existing roads, the sample should be compacted to
field density of subgrade soil (at OMC or at a field moisture content).
(C). In new constructions the CBR test samples may be soaked in water for four days period
before testing. However in areas with arid climate or when the annual rainfall is less than 500
mm and the water table is too deep to affect the subgrade adversely and when thick and
impermeable bituminous surfacing isprovided, it is not necessary to soak the soil specimen
before carrying out Cas prot Wherever possible the most adverse moisture condition of the
subgrate should be determined from the field study at identical locations
(d). When sub-base course materials contain substantial proportion of aggregates of size above
20 mm, the CBR value of these materials would not be valid for the design of subsequent layers
above them,
(e). Thin layers of bituminous wearing course such as surface dressing or open graded premixed
carpet up to 25 mm thickness should not be counted towards the tou thickness as they do not
increase the structural capacity as the pavement
CHAPTER-7
DESIGN TRAFFIC
The method considers traffic in terms of the cumulative number of standard axles (8160 kg)
to be carried by the pavement during the design life. This requires the following information:
1. Initial traffic in terms of CVPD
2. Traffic growth rate during the design life
3. Design life in number of years
4. Vehicle damage factor (VDF)
5.Lane Distribution of commercial traffic over the carriage way
7.1 Initial traffic
Initial traffic is determined in terms of commercial vehicles per day (CVPD). For the
structural design of the pavement only commercial vehicles are considered assuming laden
weight of three tones or more and their axle loading will be considered. Estimate of the initial
daily average traffic flow for any road should normally be based on 7-day 24-hour classified
traffic counts (ADT). In case of new roads, traffic estimates can be made on the basis of
potential land use and traffic on existing routes in the area.
The field investigations including traffic and axle load studies are often carried out haring the
feasibility studies and preparation of detailed project report. All the heavy and commercial
vehicles of gross loads greater than 3.0 t are considered. Axle load dies are carried out on a
minimum sample size of 20% of each classified vehicle class. The data are grouped into
different ranges of axle loads and also number of les per vehicle. There is often a delay of 2
to 4 years after the studies before obtaining the approvals, award of the work contract and
completing the road construction. The traffic growth during this intermediate period, m years
has to be considered in the design. The initial traffic N is taken as the estimated traffic after
completion of the road construction and opening to traffic.
7.2Traffic growth rate of vehicles
r % per year Traffic growth rates can be estimated by studying the past trends of traffic
growth, By establishing econometric models. The average growth rate of each vehicle class
is to be determined making use of the past data and analysis and the growth rate is to be taken
into account, both during the initial period during construction and during the design life. If
the actual growth rate could not be determined, an average growth rate of 7.5% may be
assumed as a very rough approximation.
7.3 Design Life

Flexible pavements are generally designed for a design life of 15 years for all important
highways such as national and state highways. In the case of expressways, whan arterial and
sub-arterial roads longer design period of 20 years is preferable. In all other roads, the design
life of 10 to 15 years are generally adopted in India. In case due to financial constraints, it is
not possible to provide the full thickness requirement, iis possible to resort to stage
construction technique; in this case the full thickness requirement is first designed for 15
years design life and the required thicknesses of granular sub-base and base courses are
constructed in the first stage. However instead of thick layers of bituminous binder and
surface courses, in the first stage the bituminous layers are designed and constructed for a
design life of about five years only and before the expiry of this period, pavement evaluation
studies are carried out and the overlay thickness requirement is designed and constructed for
a further design life of 5 to 10 years, as required in the second stage.
For the purpose of the pavement design, the design life is defined in terms of the cumulative
number of standard axles that can be carried before strengthening of the pavement is
necessary. It is recommended that pavements for arterial roads like NH, SH should be
designed for a life of 15 years, EH and urban roads for 20 years and other categories of roads
for 10 to 15 years.
7.4Vehicle Damage Factor
The vehicle damage factor (VDF) is a multiplier for converting the number of commercial
vehicles of different axle loads and axle configurations to the number of standard axle-load
repetitions. It is defined as equivalent number of standard axles per commercial vehicle. The
VDF varies with the axle configuration, axle loading, terrain, type of road, and from region to
region. The axle load equivalency factors are used to convert different axle load repetitions
into equivalent standard axle load repetitions. For these equivalency factors refer IRC: 37
2001. The exact VDF values are arrived after extensive field surveys.
The axle loads and the number axles per heavy vehicle are converted in terms number of
standard axle loads per vehicle, known as vehicle damage factor or VDF The standard axle
load is taken as 8.16 or 8.17 t and However for the design of pavements of less important
when the average number of commercial vehicles are 150 to 1500 per day the VDF values are
assumed as 3.5 on rolling and plain terrains and 1.5 on hilly terrain Similarly for number of
CV more than 1500 per day, the VDF values are assumed4.5 on rolling and plain terrains
and 2.5 on hilly terrain.
7.5 Lane Distribution Factor
A realistic assessment of distribution of commercial traffic by direction and by lane is

necessary as it directly affects the total equivalent standard axle load application used in the
design. Until reliable data is available, the following distribution may be assumed.
Single lane roads: Traffic tends to be more channelized on single roads than two lane roads
and to allow for this concentration of wheel load repetitions, the design should be based on
total number of commercial vehicles in both directions.
Two-lane single carriageway roads: The design should be based on 75 % of the

commercial vehicles in both directions.
Four-lane single carriageway roads: The design should be based on 40 % of the total
number of commercial vehicles in both directions.
Dual carriageway roads: For the design of dual two-lane carriageway roads should be
based on 75 % of the number of commercial vehicles in each direction. For dual three-lane
carriageway and dual four-lane carriageway the distribution factor will be 60 % and 45 %
respectively.
The transverse distribution of heavy vehicles across the width of the carriageway along both
directions (in the case of two way traffic movement)is to be taken into account. In case this
cannot be assessed from actual field studies, the following recommended guidelines on lane
distribution factors, D may be followed:
(a) On undivided roads with single lane carriageway the total number of hear vehicles along
both the directions are taken or the lane distribution factor D=1.0
(b) On undivided roads with two-lane carriageway, D 0.75 and the total number of heavy
vehicles along both the directions is to be considered
(c) On undivided roads with four-lane carriageway, D = 0.40 and the total number of heavy
vehicles along both the directions is to be considered
(d) On roads with divided carriageway with two lanes each, D = 0.75 and the number of
heavy vehicles along each direction is considered
(e) On roads with divided carriageway with three lanes each, D = 0.60 and the number of
heavy vehicles along each direction is considered
(f) On roads with divided carriageway with four lanes each, D 0.45 and the number of heavy
vehicles along each direction is considered.
7.6 Traffic Volume Study
The term traffic volume study can be termed as traffic flow survey or simply the traffic
survey. It is defined as the procedure to determine mainly volume of traffic moving on the
roads at a particular section during a particular time. It is measured in vehicle per minute,
vehicle per hour and vehicle per day. In order to express the traffic flow on a road per unit
time, it is necessary to convert the flow of the different vehicle classes into a standard vehicle
class known as passenger car unit. The traffic volume is dynamic and varies during 24 hours
of the day. Daily traffic volume varies on different days of a week and different months and
seasons of the years.
7.6.1 Methods for volume survey
There are two major methods of counting vehicle for volume survey. They are
a. Manual Counting Method
b. Automatic counting method.
(a). Manual Counting Method
This method employs a field team to record traffic volume on the prescribed record sheets.
By this method it is possible to obtain data which is not be collected by mechanical counters,
such as vehicle classification, turning movements and counts where the loading condition or
number of occupants are required. But it is not practicable to have manual count for all the 24
hours of the day. Hence it is necessary to resort to statically sampling techniques in order to
cut down the manual hours involved in talking complete counts, First the fluctuation of traffic
volume during the hours of day and the daily variations are observed. Then by selecting
typical short count period, the traffic volume study is made by manual counting. Then by
statistical analysis the peak hourly traffic volumes as well as the average daily traffic volumes
are calculated.
(b). Automatic counting method

In this method, vehicles are counted automatically without any human involvement. The
automatic count method provides a means for gathering large amounts of traffic data.
Automatic counts are usually taken in 1-hour intervals for each 24-hour period. The counts
may extend for a week, month, or year. When the counts are recorded for each 24-hour time
period, the peak flow period can be identified.
7.7 Data Collection
7.7.1 Date and time :
The survey took place on may 6, & may 14 2024 (kshatriya college of engineering,armoor),It
was monday & Tuesday.Data was collected for peak hours.
7.7.2 Weather Condition:
Sky was clear; It was a sunny morning.
7.7.3 Location:
The data was collected at NH16 near kshatriya college of engineering
Fig-29: NH16 At Kshatriya College Of Engineering ARMOOR
Fig-30:Traffic Volume Survey AT NH16 On May 6, 2024
Fig-31:Traffic Volume Survey at NH16 On May14,2024
TABLE -6 VEHICLE COMPOSITION AT NH16 (CASE 1)
TIME BUS LORRY TRACTOR JCB TRUCK CAR AUTO BIKE TOTAL
9:00AM TO 28 33 23 10 20 50 32 80 276
10:00AM
10:00AM 25 34 24 10 27 45 23 77 265
TO11:00AM
2:00PM 33 24 43 9 45 33 56 65 308
TO3:00PM
4:00PM 28 33 39 4 34 49 34 53 274
TO5:00PM
5:00PMTO 33 44 27 2 30 43 43 95 275
6:00PM
1398
TABLE -7 VEHICLE COMPOSITION AT NH16 (CASE 2)
TIME BUS LORRY TRACTOR JCB TRUCK CAR AUTO BIKE TOTAL
9:00AM 33 23 20 12 23 44 33 87 289
TO10:00AM
10:00AM 27 26 32 6 32 32 43 65 387
TO11:00AM
2:00PM TO3:00PM 36 38 34 15 23 23 34 55 450
4:00PM TO5:00PM 43 42 26 20 43 42 36 43 295
5:00PMTO 6:00PM 34 43 21 17 32 21 40 32 240
1889
CALCULATIONS:
NO OF VEHICLES FOR DESIGN (A) =P(1+r)(n+10)
A=Number Of Vehicles For Design
P=Average Daily Traffic
n=Time Taken For Pavement Construction
r=Anuual Rate Growth Of Traffic
CASE-1
Here,
Average daily traffic(ADT)=1398
Time Taken For Pavement Construction(n)=1year
Anuual Rate Growth Of Traffic(r)=7.5%
No. of vehicles for design (A) =P(1+r)(n+10)
=1398[1+(7.5/100)](1+10)
=3098 vehicles/day
Therefore number of vehicles for design (A) =3098 Vehicles/day.
CASE-2
Here,
Average daily traffic(ADT)=1889
Time Taken For Pavement Construction(n)=1year
Anuual Rate Growth Of Traffic(r)=7.5%
No. of vehicles for design (A) =P(1+r)(n+10)
=1889[1+(7.5/100)](1+10)
=4186 vehicles/day
Therefore number of vehicles for design (A) =4186 vehicles/ day.
Fig-32: Calculation Of Total Thickness By CBR method
Here,
we consider CBR(%) =3.94% from the California bearing ratio test
➢ Number of vehicles exceeding 30KN in case (ⅰ)3098 vehicles/day,

(ⅱ)4186 vehicles/day.
➢ From above graph we concluded that depth of pavement of construction is 57cm by

using California bearing ratio & design traffic.
CONCLUSION
The main observation and conclusion drawn are summarized below:
Our project naming ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMNT we design a

flexible pavement by using IRC 37-2012 guidelines, by theortical method. conducted
California bearing ratio test and percentage CBR is 3.94% and conducted traffic volume
survey for compution of design traffic for design of flexible pavement. During traffic volume
survey vehicles are more in peak hours. we computed pavement thickness is 57cm.
As per the traffic of the road and its loading conditions value of average daily traffic(ADT) is
3098,4186 vehicles. Also the value from CBR test is 3.94%. So, the Flexible Pavement The
road will have less maintenance as proper design considerations have been adopted by
efficient practical performance standards and suitable calculations as per defined in standard
IRC
The design and analysis of flexible pavement are critical processes that involve considering
various factors such as traffic loads, environmental conditions, materials properties, and
construction techniques. By employing advanced engineering principles and tools,and
performance modeling, engineers can create resilient and cost-effective flexible pavement
structures that withstand the rigors of daily traffic and maintain functionality over their
design life. However, ongoing maintenance and periodic evaluation remain essential to
ensure optimal performance and longevity of flexible pavements, ultimately contributing to
safer and
more efficient transportation networks.
REFERENCE
1.IRC 37:2012 - Guidelines for the Design of Flexible.
2. IS: 20:2007 Codes for the rural roads & standard designing of a pavement.
3. Khanna & Justo, Highway Engineering Provisions & general data obtained for soil tests,
designing of flexible pavement & traffic survey study.
4. B.N Dutta, Cost Estimation, Estimation procedures & format obtained by this book.
5. K R Arora, Soil Mechanics & Foundation Engineering Soil tests & their details are
obtained.
6. B.C Punmia, Soil Mechanics, Soil tests & their applications are preferred from this book.
7. www.wikipedia.org
8. www.civil.org
9. www.civilworks.org
10. www.nptel.co.in

Dasari Shashikumar F

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Dasari Shashikumar F

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT

1.1 Objectives Of Highway Pavements

1.2 Requirements of Highway Pavements

1.2.1 Functional requirements of road pavements

Other functional requirement of the pavement surface is to provide non-slippery

1.2.2 Structural requirements of road pavements

(a) prepared soil subgrade

1.3.1 Rigid Pavement

Fig-1: Composition and structure of rigid pavement

Fig-2: Rigid pavement

1.3.2 Semi rigid composite pavement

Fig-3: Semi rigid and composite pavement

1.3.3 FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT

Fig-4: Flexible Pavement

Fig-5: layers of flexible pavements

Rakaraddi, P. G., &Gomarsi, V. (2015)The CBR value of the sub-grade is used as a

Saha, D. C., & Mandal, J. N. (2017) It is common practice to propose grade-separated

California bearing ratio (CBR):

4.1 Typical Layers Of Flexible Pavements

Fig-6 Cross Section Of Flexible Pavement

4.2 Functions Flexible Pavement Components Layers

Fig-7: soil subgrade

4.2.2 Sub base :

Fig-8: Sub Base

4.2.3 Base course:

Fig-9: Base Course

4.2.4 Binder course:

Fig-10: Binder Course

4.2.5 Surface course:

Fig-11: Surface Course

4.2.6 Seal coat:

Fig-12: Seal Coat

4.2.7 Tack coat:

Fig-13: Track Coat

4.2.8 Prime coat:

Fig-14: Prime coat

5.1Design wheel load

Fig-15: traffic load

5.1.2Wheel load and Contact pressure

σz = vertical stress at depth, z

Fig-16: Wheel Load Distribution

Fig-17: Variation in vertical stress, σz with depth ,z in single layer

Fig-18: Axle Configuration

5.1.3 Equivalent single wheel load (ESWL)

Fig-19: Stress overlap due to dual wheels

Fig-20 Graphical Method For Determination Of ESWL

➢ Dual-Tandem Wheel Load Assembly

5.1.4 Wheel load repetition

• Effect of number of repetition of different magnitudes of loads

• Equivalent wheel load factors (EWLF)

If a particular pavement structure fails with N1 number of repetitions of load P1 kg and

= (given axle load/standard axle load)4

i.e., EWLF = (P1/P)4

➢ Application of EWL Factors

Axle/Wheel load distribution studies:

Traffic engineering studies:

❖ Classified traffic volume studies

(i) two axles

It is also necessary to estimate:

❖ Wheel/Axle load studies

5.2 Climatic Factors:

(i) Variation in moisture condition

5.2.1 Variation in moisture content: