SEALED NICKEL-CADMIUM BATTERIES FOR AIRCRAFT-ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS
Gerald H. Miller
Aerospace Power Division
Air Force Aero Propulsion Laboratory
Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio
SUMMARY
Vented secondary-storage batteries supply
reserve electrical power to operate certain,
essential aircraft equipment if primary power is
not available. These vented batteries, however,
are prone to premature failure. Spewed elec-
trolyte and expelled hydrogen gas promoted by
malmaintenance such as overfilling and under-
filling the cells and by improper voltage regu-
lation during charging lead to battery and equip-
ment damage and failure and result in flight
safety hazards and economic losses. Sealed
batteries show promise of avoiding the short-
comings and maintenance aspects of the vented
batteries. This paper concerns the efforts of
the Air Force to apply sealed-battery technology
to aircraft battery power needs. *
INTRODUCTION
Aircraft electrical systems, although dis-
tinct for particular types of aircraft, generally
consist of three types: primary systems for
electrical power generation, functional systems
such as flight equipment, and secondary systems
for warning and emergency. Pneumatic-driven
and engine-driven alternating-current anddirect-
current generators are sources of primary
electrical power. Transformer-rectifier units,
hydraulic pressure-driven generators, invert-
ers, and batteries provide secondary and
reserve power.
Typical voltage and capacity ratings of the
vented lead-acid, nickel-cadmium, and silver-
zinc batteries used aboard Air Force aircraft
range from 12 volts, 11 ampere-hours to 24
volts, 100 ampere-hours. The nickel-cadmium,
silver-cadmium, and silver-zinc battery sys-
tems have been sealed and operated success-
The U. S. Government reserves the right to
reproduce this paper for its use in any number
and in any manner.
** Acknowledgement of valued assistance in the
preparation of this paper is extended to
James E. Cooper of the A.ir Force Aero Propul-
sion Laboratory.
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fully. Performance and cycle-life data on these
systems are available, however, only for space-
craft conditions of operation. The major obsta-
cle facing sealed batteries for aircraft appli-
cations is the ability to deliver and accept
unscheduled high-rate discharges and charges.
GENERAL AIRCRAFT-ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS
Primary power supplies aboard aircraft are
pneumatic-driven alternators and engine-driven
alternating-current and direct-current genera-
tors. Transformer-rectifier units and batteries
supply direct-current power on aircraft having
alternating-current primary power. Inverters
power alternating-current electrical loads on
aircraft having primary direct-current power.
Emergency alternating-current power require-
ments are met with pressure-driven alternating-
current generators and battery-inverter units.
Table 1 lists the main characteristics of various
aircraft electrical-power systems.
The primary power system is capable of
operating all essential loads for normal flight
and landing operati4ons. Reserve-current
capacity, usually twice the average continuous
load, is provided by paralleling the primary
sources. Battery-powered starter-generators
and cartridge-activated pneumatic starters ful-
fill the emergency requirements for air-starting
of aircraft engines. Ground operation of all
systems is possible with external power sources.
Alternating-current electrical power nor-
mally is distributed by a three-wire system
with a neutral wire grounded to the aircraft
structure. Aircraft direct-current electrical
power distribution systems are usually single-
wire bus systems with ground serving as the
negative return.
Battery power normally is distributed
through two buses. The hot bus is connected
permanently to the battery. The other bus is
connected to the battery through relay circuits
and is activated through a switch on the instru-
ment panel. A fuse and relay system permits
the automatic transfer of power between the bat-
tery and transformer-rectifier sources. In nor-
mal operation, the battery is maintained at the
floating aircraft-ground potential of approxi-
mately 28 volts direct current. When the battery
VOL. AES-2, NO. 4 JULY, 1966
 switch is placed in the emergency position as Batteries are housed in enclosures shielded
shown in Figure 1, the essential direct-current to prevent radiation from interfering with oper-
loads are powered by the battery through the ation of the aircraft radio system. Sump jars
relay system. These loads are powered nor- containing saturated pads of sodium bicarbonate
mally by the transformer-rectifier. solution for lead-acid batteries and boric acid
solutions for alkaline (Ni-Cd, Ag-Zn) batteries
are connected integrally with the battery-vent
AIRCRAFT AC ELECTRICAL POWER DC E
MOEL SOURCE RATINS
system to neutralize gases and electrolyte solu-
SOURCE RATING TYPE tions.
ENGINE IEN IOOv, 3s, ENgINE D EGV DC LEAD-ACID
ALrERMTRS 400 CPS STARTER-HE oR
B47 40E0,G2 3 GEACH N L-
INVERTER, 1ID20GIC 30
rsas^. *X, 400CPS
RBATTENES 12V, 34Al
2 EACH
PNEUMTIC OR 400 TRENSFOCI ER EV
o DC LEAD -ACID
ENGINE DRIVEN 400ocl
C ETFEJO 24 ,2EC
a ID ALTERNATORS AMP, 7 GRI10'I-CONGaA
GO1N 4EACH EACH ACH
.________ "ATTERIES I.a 24Y- ELECTRICAL-BATTERY SUBSYSTEM
_NW DNI
j ENERASOR.HO WVDUS Nt
H0CEPS TrRANSFORME
REORIN.
LEAD-ACID
ABOARD THE T-39B AIRCRAFT
3C DEmCH AN, 2 EACH V O
ECCIG HYDRAULIC II OI 3O0 ,Ht4Y-AH
* DRI NEN. 400CPS PATTERT I EACH

A*ALTERATOR ..ZW4
DINNE OtIVEL
3 EUNNS DRrYV DC SILVER-ZINC
400CPS GENERATOR, NHV 100 AO
Floe i0 EVA.1IEACH
-DSC DRIVEN
400 A1IlEA EACH Sources of electrical power aboard the
A VRITE0 RATTEEWY
TON
ENONE DRIVU
*: IEOACR
HSENAGf VON DRIVN
CHS1
EGYOC ACISEL-C T-39B aircraft are two engine-driven, 30 volt-
400CPS 2AHA
.
KA EAC
10
DECDR
4

NON" 11 StDS 30 Y BATTERES

24V.
2 EACH 300 ampere starter-generators; two nickel-
RIVERTERIIRA
ALENR.1
S T ___
IhCF TL.RICAL POER SYSTEMS cadmium, 24 volt-22 ampere hour batteries; a
hydraulic pressure-driven, 10 kilovolt-ampere,
alternating-current generator; and a 1. 5 kilovolt-
ampere inverter. The direct-current generators
under normal engine operation supply power to
all direct-current loads and, with the exception
of the starter bus, energize all direct-current
distribution buses. If one generator fails, the
DC POWER C)RCUWT buses are energized automatically by the opera-
DompSDo tional generator; if both fail, all buses are
disconnected automatically from the paralleling
bus and only the essential bus remains connected
to the battery bus.
The battery subsystem as shown in Figure 2
consists of the two batteries, a separate battery
bus, and a battery start relay. Battery No. 1 is
connected to the battery bus at all times and
provides power for engine ignition. Battery No.2
is connected in series with Battery No. 1 to
provide the higher engine-starting voltage. The
initial 1000-ampere starting load reduces the
48 volts direct current to about 20 volts direct
current. When 35 per cent of the normal engine
speed is attained, the battery start relay is
de-energized and the starter generator begins to
function. The batteries then are reconnected
automatically in parallel.
6ATTERY SYSTEM ICWUATIC
OATTFRY MY X
I
-
-- rw 46VscC
STASTER CONVENTIONAL AIRCRAFT BATTERIEES

+-. The basic energy conversion and construction

l0ERY _I Ii S -! ATY principles of lead-acid, nickel-cadmium, and
silver-zinc batteries are described in the liter-
C (%gf) ature and apply to aircraft batteries. 1 The
1. C. K. Morehouse, R. Glicksman, and G. S.
Lozier, "Batteries, II Proceeding of the IRE,
August 1958, pp. 1462-1483.

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 major components of these battery systems are
shown in Figure 3.
Lead-acid batteries are used widely in Air
Force aircraft, but the nickel-cadmium and
silver-zinc types are better suited for certain
aircraft electrical loading and operating con-
ditions. For instance, low temperature to
-40°F (-40°C), steady uniform voltage during
discharge, and short recharge time require-
ments find the performance of the nickel-
cadmium battery to be superior. Silver-zinc
batteries, having the highest energy yield/
weight of the three batteries plus the capability
of delivering high rate discharges with a vir-
tually flat voltage curve, are adapted especially
for fighter-type aircraft.
C¢OQ NNTS Cf STAAGE 0ATTIRIS
Po* LtC¶mul1-
(IA5CIKN INA).t PITI'V3 ONS n
M.
fully charged leads to direct electrical shorting
because of the overflow situation of the battery
fully charged; and servicing of lead- acid and
nickel-cadmium batteries in the same imme-
diate area leads to contamination of the respec-
tive systems. 2
SEALED SECONDARY ALKALINE BATTERIES
Significant advances in battery technology
have been realized as a result of solving space-
craft power requirements. Sealed nickel-
cadmium, silver-cadmium, and silver-zinc
batteries successfully have met the-designed-
for demands. Data on the operating characteris-
tics and cycle-life capabilities of these sealed
systems have resulted from various battery
evaluation programs.
3
Table 3 summarizes
the performance data of state-of-the-art of
±| Ewrwe Ecrol these batteries. Carefully controlled charge
(ILTCTfMO
4- , ACE
V
and discharge operations were exercised in
obtaining this data.

tiI.ACIVA *0 IMICoI@oIf AOOP

W%2 f4 # IIzo ILl 1-5OM0I" LEAVeLu
NM
I

O 0
I. FAS

K
T.I SA4IPIIAM J

kLN0

1AEJt C9LOAN?4 NAlE%,3 STATIE Of ART fEAtWE 0ATTETN)

FIG. NR. 3 Tkr^ltgf WIF MYCLE LIFE CAVASILIFY
COUPLE UM OE o% 0% 7

Ni "Cd 110'l i§s" NM 5 00 love

NVCd ItioF 1Wf 0oo0 I0 loo
Ai-44 It fL 2000 400 i

AICRAFT OA~TTiY 51!RVICE OTA'

LIAO-A CI 140f Requirements for the Sealed-Cell Approach

NC1(SCADN, 401 -0 4 0 wMM*ca cyCo) UPAM VAYSj
S11'R-710C 414SF SVF 14 AMOt ('A$(f CYCV) CACITY
v Oj AY5 Aircraft batteries are subjected to wide
tAftl Ng, 2 operating conditions and loading operations.
Sealed spacecraft batteries normally are opera-
ted only under exactly programmed conditions of
operation. In addition to demonstrating success-
ful operation under the wide conditions imposed
The average service life of aircraft bat- by aircraft, sealed cells must provide improved
teries can be expected if the proper operating
conditions and maintenance actions are fulfilled. 2. S. Beach, "Juice on Tap, " Aerospace
These data are listed in Table 2. Examples of Maintenance Safety, 1964, Vol. XIX, No. 5,
improper operating and maintenance actions pp 2-7.
promoting premature battery failures include:
excessive charging rates and prolonged charging 3. W. W. Clark et al., Alkaline Battery
causes shedding of the active plate material; Evaluation, AFAPL-TDR-64-65, May 1964;
adding electrolyte to the alkaline batteries not AFAPL-TDR-64-76, June 1964;
AFAPL-TR-65-42, May 1965.

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 performance before replacing the vented-cell while maintaining leak-tight operation
batteries. Operational requirements for the during normal conditions.
sealed-cell batteries are:

(1) Temperature: Approaches to Problem Solution

-40 to +140°F (-40 to +600C)
(2) Altitude:
100, 000 feet (30. 48 kilometers) Cell performance during high-rate charging/
(3) Vibration: discharging and operation at the temperature
Military Specification Mil-E-5272 extremes is being improved by removing the
(4) Shock: present limiting factors of high internal resis-
Military Specification Mil-E-5272, tance, high concentration polarization, and
Procedures I and II nonuniform charge-discharge voltage behavior.
(5) High-rate, short-duration discharge: Modified plate geometries, hydroxide electro-
20 x rated capacity current rate, lyte additives, thinner active-material layers,
1 minute discharge duration, 60 per and heavier plate-backing or current-carrying
cent rated voltage substrates are under investigation. Impreg-
(6) Rapid recharge: nation of the active plate mate ials with acetate
70 per cent of rated capacity in salts of nickel and cadmium is being sought as
5 minutes, constant potential charge a means of improving cell charge retention and
(7) Charge retention: storage capabilities.
75 per cent of rated charge over a six- Methods under consideration for suppression
month stand time of the high internal cell pressures associated
(8) Uniform discharge voltages: with high-rate charging/ discharging include:
90 per cent rated voltage during
moderate discharge durations, (1) Catalytical surfaces and auxiliary
60 per cent rated voltage during electrodes to provide reaction sites for
high-rate discharge durations recombination of hydrogen and oxygen
(9) Operation: gases
All positions. (2) Coulometers and pressure-sensing
devices to detect full charge or dis-
The sealed-cell batteries also must be self- charge and excessive pressure
contained units; provided with fail-safe, (3) Pressure switches to disconnect
explosion-proof features; directly dimensionally automatically the charging/discharging
interchangeable with existing vented batteries; source at onset of explosive situatious.
and capable of three to five years of mainte-
nance-free operation. Power conditioning controls and circuits are
being examined to regulate better the frequent
occurrences of fluctuating aircraft direct-
Problem Areas current bus potential of 26 to 32 volts and to
provide controllable, high-charging bus voltages
for rapid recharging of the batteries. The
The stringent operational requirements three charge-conditioning methods examined
present some particularly difficult problems are booster battery, voltage doubler, and
for the development of sealed-cell batteries. direct-current to direct-current inverter; the
The major problems include: latter appears most promising.

(1) Improvement of cell electrochemical per-

formance for successful operation at the
specified temperature extremes and
discharge-recharge routines
(2) Development of battery-control devices
compatible with aircraft direct-current
bus systems to provide proper voltage
and current values for rapid recharge
and to prevent excessive application of
voltage and unnecessary charging
(3) Development of fail-safe features to
reduce possible explosive pressures
Progress on Problem Solution
Reduction of cell internal resistance and
concentration polarization has b een achieved
with the use of thinner plates and heavier
plate-backing support. Thinner plates allow
an increase in the number used and their use
has resulted in more uniform current drains
at lower current densities. Improved plate-
backing support has reduced power losses.

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 These factors have increased discharge voltages
and energy output. Figure 4 illustrates the
improved performance at room temperature.
A beneficial effect on cell high- rate
performance has been achieved by adding cesium
hydroxide (CsOH) and rubidium hydroxide
(RbOH) to the electrolyte. As shown in
Figure 5, a lower cell charge voltage curve is
obtained and is attributed to improved ion
transferral during charge. Current efforts
are to determine the optimum concentration of
these additives. A ten mole percent addition
was used in the reported data.
Charge-retention experiments involving
impregnation of the active plate materials with
1U
CELL (NICKEI1
0.6
%
MSM44 MEU
~~~~~~~(5TEE
MINO)
0.4
IO
v
o 1 O 30
N,".'RI4 X"M TMP DO WE F;UIVALINT Tr 0; "
T.I0
1. ;.,
2 3
MAI WAR AZ lI'wEQPYMNT To A 3N AMVPW! NOR
76 SUPPLEMENT TO IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON AEROSPACE AND ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS
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acetate, nitrate, and chloride salts of nickel
and cadmium have been conducted. A three-
fold improvement in charge retention was
realized in cells impregnated with acetate salts
over cells impregnated with standard nitrate
salts. Experiments to verify and improve the
observed benefits of acetate salts are underway.
Experiments on the extent of gassing in
sealed, 20 ampere-hour, nickel-cadmium cells
subjected to high-rate, constant-potential
charging indicated that gassing, primarily the
evolution of oxygen, is not severe until rated
capacity is exceeded. Under constant-potential-
charge conditions of 2. 57 volts-230 amperes/
cell, the internal cell pressure rose to approxi-
mately 15 pounds per square inch at the 0. 9
rated-capacity mark of 18 ampere7hours. At
rated capacity the pressure was essentially
unchanged. Once rated capacity was exceeded,
the pressure rose irnmediately to 250 pounds
per square inch; the equilibrium pressure at
A SIFIEE RMT*Y
6E,>E CELL (NICEL BUNG)
1. 4 rated capacity or 28 ampere hours was
estimated to be over 300 pounds per square
inch. 4
NU)
Charge control circuits have been designed
and operated successfully with coulometers,
auxiliary electrodes, and pressure switches
to terminate charging when full charge and/or
excessive pressure are attained. The opera-
ting principle and characteristics of auxiliary
electrodes, coulometers, and other individual
40 50 60 To 90 cell-control techniques are discussed in the
literature. 5, 6, 7 The control circuit is to be
integrated with a charge- conditioning circuit
to provide proper current-voltage values and
protection.
A diagram of a tentative charge-control/
charge-conditioning system is shown in
Figure 6. The system functions as follows:
the comparator circuit receives the aircraft
bus voltage of 26 to 32 volts and supplies the
4. P. E. Peko, Determination of Rates of
-n Amwntv
Gas Evolution in Alkaline Cells, AFAPL-APIP-
TM-64-10, April 1964.
To TNE ILEC TYTE
5. W. N. Carson, Jr. and R. L. Hadley,
"Auxiliary Electrode Space Cells, " AIAA
CisIU.HYUMQ1WE Bulletin, 1964, Vol. 1, No. 7, Paper 64-752.
Ti reIE!UCTOMYT
6. R. C. Shair and H. N. Seiger, 'Operating
Characteristics of Sealed Nickel- Cadmium and
Silver-Cadmium Batteries, Fourth Inter-
"
4 5 C national Symposium on Batteries, Brighton,
England, October 1964, pp. 8/1-8/11.
7. W. S. Bishop, 'Investigation of Semicon-
ductor Equalizer Diodes for Secondary Cells,
11th Annual Air Force Science and Engineering
Symposium, Brooks Air Force Base, San
Antonio, Texas, October 1964.
VOL. AES-2, NO. 4 JULY, 1966

pil D)bWAM TIfokN C~a l~ C9OKL OffNIK I59'IM
phase control circuit, which in turn controls
the phase angle between the square wave
voltages of the inverters. When aircraft bus
voltage is 32 volts, the inverter voltages are
1800 out-of-phase and result in zero input to
the transformer-rectifier unit. This zero-
error condition of 32 volts charging potential
was determined necessary to meet the recharge
requirements of 70 per cent rated capacity in
five minutes. If the sealed battery is found
incapable of accepting charging at 32 volts over
the entire temperature range, a bucking
voltage will be introduced. When aircraft bus
voltage is 26 volts, the phase angle between
voltages of inverters 1 and 2 is zero degrees
and the maximum input to the transformer-
rectifier is realized. This is the maximum-
error condition. The magnitude of the input
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voltage to the transformer- rectifier is
controlled by the magnitude of the error signal.
The direct-current output of the transformer-
rectifier is added to the aircraft bus voltage,
and the total will charge the battery if the
charge-control switch is closed. The battery
will discharge to the bus if the discharge-
control switch is closed. This switch is closed
only when the bus voltage is less than the
battery voltage and the battery is not being
charged. Detailed electrical analysis of this
charge-control/charge-conditioning system is
in process.
The above investigations are being per-
formed by Gulton industries, Inc. under Air
Force Contract AF33(615)-2087. Quarterly
Technical Progress Reports Nr. 1 through
Nr. 5 dated November, 1964 through November,
1965 detail the technical activities and accom-
plishments of the contract.
CONCLUSIONS
Adapting sealed batteries to aircraft
electrical systems is feasible. The major
problem to be solved is the development of a
suitable charge conditioner to operate with the
battery and the aircraft electrical system.
The interchanging of vented-cell, nickel-
cadmium aircraft batteries with. sealed-cell,
nickel- cadmium aircraft batteries is
considered possible by mid-1968. The major
advantages of sealed-cell aircraft batteries
are improved flight safety, maintenance-free
operation, and improved perforrmance in terms
of life and reliability.
VOL. AES-2, NO. 4 JULY, 1966 77