Const

it
uti
onal
LawI
I

By
: BelachewMek ur
ia
(LLB.Msc,
LLM)
June.2007
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 2

Modul
eI:For
ms/
Syst
ems,
str
uct
ureandOr
gansofGover
nment 5
Chapt
erI
.For
ms/
syst
emsofGover
nment 6
1.
1.ThePar
li
ament
arysy
stem ofgov
ernment 7
1.1.
1.Advantagesoft hePar l
i
amentar
ysyst
em ofgover
nment 9
a) Easier t
o Pass Legi
slat
ion
9 b) Bett
er i
n a mul
ti
-et
hnic soci
et y
10 c) Cont
inuous Control
10
1.1.
2. Di
sadv antages of t
he Par
li
amentar
y sy
stem
11
a)Nodi r
ectvotefortheHeadoft heExecut
ive 11
b)Uncontrol
ledLegislature 12
c)BeingUnstable 13
1.
2.ThePr
esi
dent
ial
syst
em ofgov
ernment 18
1.
2.1. Adv antages of the Presi
dential sy st
em
20 a) Di rect el ect
ion of the president by t
he people
20 b) Separ
ati
on of power s
21 c) Speed and Deci
siv eness
22 d) St abil
it
y
22
1.
2.2. Disadv antages of the Pr
esidenti
al sy st
em
23 a) Tendency towar ds author
it
ar iani
sm
23 b) Separ
ati
on of Power s
25 c) Impediments t
o l
eadership changes
26
1.
3.Di
ff
erencesbet
weent
hePar
li
ament
aryandPr
esi
dent
ial
syst
em 28
Chapt
erI
I.St
ruct
uresofGover
nment 33
2.
1.I
ntr
oduct
ion 33
2.
2.Uni
tar
yst
atest
ruct
ure 34
2.
3.Feder
alSt
ateSt
ruct
ure 36
2.
4.Conf
eder
ati
on 38
2.
5.Feder
acy 42
2.
6.Et
hiopi
a’
sFeder
alst
atest
ruct
urer
evi
si
ted 46
2.
6.1.
WhyFeder al
ism? 47
a) Federal
ism as a matter of Necessi t
y
47 b) Federali
sm as a matter of Desir
abilit
y
49
2.
6.2. How Federal St
ate str
ucture is formed?
54
2.
6.3. Common Features of Federal stat
e st
ructures
57 a) Two l
evel
s of Government
57 b) Writt
en and Supreme Consti
tution
61 c) Rigi
d Consti
tuti
on
61 c) An independent arbi
ter in case of dispute
62 d) Bicameral Parli
ament
63
2.
7.Concl
usi
onsandRev
iewQuest
ions 64
Suggest
ed answers to exercise I (
Chapt
er I
)
68
Suggest
edanswer
stoExer
ciseII(
ModuleIChapterI) 69
Suggest
edanswer
stoExer
ciseI(Modul
eIChapterII) 73
Suggest
edanswer
stoExer
ciseII(
ModuleIChapter2) 75
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 3

Modul
eII
:Fundament
alRi
ght
sandFr
eedomsundert
heFDREConst
it
uti
on
81
Chapt
erI
.Int
roduct
ion 81
1.
1.Modul
eInt
roduct
ion 81
1.
2.Thenat
ureoft
hef
undament
alr
ight
sandf
reedoms 82
1.
3.I
nter
pret
ati
onoft
hef
undament
alr
ight
sandf
reedoms 88
1.
4.Cl
assi
fi
cat
ionofFundament
alRi
ght
sandFr
eedoms 93
a)Ci
vil
andPolit
icalr
ight
svs.Economic,Soci
alandCul
tur
alr
ight
s 94b)
Fi
rst
,SecondandThirdGenerati
onri
ghts 96c)
NormsofAspir
ationandEnforceabl
eri
ghts 98d)
HumanRightsandDemocr at
icRight
s 98
1.
5.Der
ogat
ionsi
nSt
ateofEmer
gency 100
1.
6.Concl
usi
onsandRev
iewQuest
ions 118
Suggest
edanswer
stot
heRev
iewQuest
ions(
Modul
eIIChapt
erI
) 122

Chapt
erI
I:TheRi
ghtt
oLi
fe,
Liber
tyandSecur
it
yofPer
son 125
2.
1.I
ntr
oduct
ion 125
2.
2.Ther
ightt
oLi
fe 128
2.2.
1.TheState’sObl i
gati
onto‘respect’t
heri
ght 130
2.2.
2.TheState’sobl i
gati
onto‘protect
’ther
ight 132
2.2.
3.Lawfultakingsoflife 134
a)DeathPenalty 134
b)Lawfulki
ll
ingsot herthanthedeat hpenal
ty 140
c)Somecont roversialI
ssuesaboutt heri
ght 142

2.
3. Ther
ightt
osecur
it
yofper
sonandl
i
ber
ty 148
2.
3.1.
Ther
ightt
osecur
it
yofper
son 150
2.
3.2.
Ther
ightt
oLi
bert
y 151

ChapterI
II
:Pr
ohi
bit
ionofTor
tur
eandCr
uel
,I
nhumanorDegr
adi
ng
Treat
mentorPuni
shment 158
3.
1.I
ntr
oduct
ion 158
3.
2.Pr
ohi
bit
ionofTor
tur
eandot
heri
l
l-t
reat
ment
s 159
3.
3.Pr
ohi
bit
ionofSl
aver
yorSer
vit
udeandTr
aff
ick
ingi
nhumanbei
ngs 166
3.
4.Pr
ohi
bit
ionofFor
cedorCompul
sor
yLabour 172
Chapt
erI
V:Ther
ight
sofAr
rest
ed,
AccusedandPer
sonsi
nCust
ody 181
4.
1.Gener
alI
ntr
oduct
ion 181
4.
2.TheRi
ght
sofAr
rest
edPer
sons 182
4.
2.1.
Ther
ightt
obeinf ormed 184
4.
2.2.
Ther
ightt
o‘JudicialCont
rol
’ 186
4.
2.3.
Ther
ightt
ober eleasedonbail 197
4.
3.Ther
ight
sofPer
sonsAccused 202
4.
3.1.
Ther
ightt
ofai
rTr
ial 205
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 4

4.
3.2.
Ther
ightt
obepresumedi
nnocent 210
4.
3.3.
Ther
ightt
odef
endandtoappeal 213

4.
4.Ther
ight
sofper
sonsi
ncust
ody 216
Chapt
erV:TheRi
ghtt
oEqual
i
tyandnon-
discr
imi
nat
ion 225
5.
1.I
ntr
oduct
ion 225
5.
2.Ther
ightt
oequal
i
tybef
oret
hel
aw 229
5.
3.Ther
ightt
oequal
prot
ect
ionoft
hel
aw 232
5.
4.Ther
ightt
opr
otect
ionagai
nstnon-
discr
imi
nat
ion 232
5.
5.Equal
i
tyofmenandwomen 234
5.
6.Af
fi
rmat
iveAct
ion 235
Suggest
edanswer
sforExerciseI(
ChapterII
)
239
Suggest
edAnswer
stoexerciseII(
Chapter2)
241
Suggest
edAnswer
stoExerciseI(Chapt
erIII
)
242
Suggest
edAnswer
stoExerciseI(chapt
er4)
247
Suggest
edanswer
stoExerciseII(
ChapterI
V)
250
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 5

Modul
eI:
For
ms/
Syst
ems,
str
uct
ureandOr
gansof

Gov
ernment
Dearst
udent
,how i
syourst
udygoi
ngsof
ar?Wehav
ehad,Ihope,av
ery
f
rui
tf
uldi
scussi
oni
nrel
ati
ont
oConst
it
uti
onall
aw IandIdoal
sohopet
hat
t
hisonewi
l
lremai
nasf
rui
tf
ulasi
twaswi
tht
hepr
evi
ousdi
scussi
on.Wewi
l
l
bedeal
i
ngwi
tht
hemor
esensi
ti
vepar
toft
heconst
it
uti
on,especi
all
ytheone
r
elat
ing t
othe Fundament
alRi
ght
s and Fr
eedoms.For most of t
he
concept
sani
n-dept
htr
eat
mentwi
l
lbei
nor
derdur
ingy
ourHumanRi
ght
sand
Humani
tar
ian Law cour
se,t
hough we st
il
lhav
eto go t
hrough t
he mai
n
const
it
uti
onalhumanr
ight
sst
andar
dssoast
oenabl
eyoucompr
ehendt
he
mi
nimum nat
ional
humanr
ight
snor
ms.

Bef
orewego i
ntot
hatpar
toft
hecour
se,wewi
l
lbeconsi
der
ingf
orms,
sy
stems and or
gans ofgov
ernment
,whi
ch mi
ghthav
e adequat
elybeen
cov
eredi
nthef
ir
stpar
toft
hecour
sei
fitwer
enotf
ort
het
imeandspace
l
i
mit
sthatwehadencount
eredbyt
hen.I
fyour
ememberwehav
eest
abl
i
shed
t
hemai
npr
inci
plesonwhi
cht
heor
gansoft
hegov
ernmentshoul
doper
ate.
Thi
swi
l
lbeacont
inuat
ionoft
hosepr
inci
plesandhow t
hemachi
ner
yoft
he
gov
ernmentcoul
dbest
ruct
ured.

Asf
arast
heor
gani
sat
ionoft
hemat
eri
alofconcer
ned,y
ouhav
edet
ail
ed
expl
anat
ionsoft
he concept
sand f
oreasy access,each oft
he Ar
tsof
t
heconst
it
uti
ont
abl
edf
ordi
scussi
onhav
ebeenputi
mmedi
atel
ybef
oret
he
di
scussi
on.Whi
l
e put
ti
ng f
ew quer
ies f
ory
ou so t
haty
ou coul
dtr
yby
y
our
sel
fhowy
oucani
nter
prett
heconceptunderdi
scussi
on,Ihav
elef
tthr
ee
openl
i
nessot
haty
oucoul
dwr
it
eyourownt
hought
sbef
orer
eadi
ngwhatIwi
l
l
hav
eto say
.Mor
eov
er,each chapt
erhas atl
eastt
wo exer
cises whi
ch
agai
nyouwi
l
lhav
etot
ryandf
oreachex
erci
seIhav
etr
iedt
opr
ovi
dey
ou
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 6

wi
thsuggest
edanswer
satt
heendoft
hemodul
e.Butbewar
ethaty
ouar
e

expect
edt
otr
ytoanswert
heexer
cisequest
ionsbyy
our
sel
fbef
orechecki
ng
mysuggest
ionsandf
ort
hatt
oot
her
ear
ethr
eel
i
nedopenspaceswher
eyou
canwr
it
epr
efer
abl
ybyusi
ngapenci
lsot
haty
oucancor
recti
twhenev
ery
ou
t
hinkcor
rect
ioni
snecessar
y.I
naddi
ti
ont
othat
,Ihav
etr
iedt
odef
inesomeof
t
hewor
dswhi
chIconsi
dermi
ghtr
equi
rey
out
ocheckouty
ourdi
cti
onar
y.
Buti
tisnotpossi
blet
obeexhaust
iveandassuchy
oumi
ghtneedt
oti
meand
agai
n r
ely on y
our di
cti
onar
y whenev
er y
ou hav
e di
ff
icul
ti
es i
n
under
standi
ngawor
d,f
ort
hisi
stheonl
ywayt
opr
oper
lyf
oll
owt
hedi
scussi
on.
Iwi
shy
ougoodl
ucki
nyourst
udy
!

Modul
eObj
ect
ive:
Thel
ear
ningobj
ect
iveoft
hismodul
eist
o

 Acquai
ntt
hest
udent
swi
tht
hebasi
cideasoft
hepr
esi
dent
ialand
par
li
ament
arysy
stemsofgov
ernmentaswel
last
hei
rint
ermedi
ari
es,
 Enabl
ethest
udent
sunder
standt
hest
ate/
gov
ernmentst
ruct
uresuchas

uni
tar
y,conf
eder
alandf
eder
alf
ormsofgov
ernment

 I
ntr
oducet
hest
udent
stot
het
hreeor
gansofgov
ernmentandt
hei
r
f
unct
ionsi
nademocr
ati
csoci
ety
.

Chapt
erI
.For
ms/
syst
emsofGov
ernment
Dearst
udent
,whatdoy
ouknowaboutf
ormsorsy
stemsofgov
ernmentf
rom
y
ouri
ntui
ti
veknowl
edge?Thi
sisi
nAmhar
ict
ermedas'
Ser
ate-
Mengi
st’
.Andi
n
i
tsEngl
i
shusage,
for
m andsy
stem ar
eappl
i
edi
nter
changeabl
yinmostoft
he
const
it
uti
onalj
uri
spr
udence,t
hough f
orm ofgov
ernmentseems wi
deri
n
scope si
nce i
tis somet
imes used t
o denot
e‘r
egi
me t
ype’t
oo,such as
commonweal
th(
asusedbyAust
ral
i
a,t
heBahamas,andDomi
nica,eachof
whi
char
eof
fi
ci
all
ycommonweal
th)
,Domi
nions(
asusedbyNew Zeal
and
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 7

andCanada)
,Ki
ngdoms(
bywhi
ch17count
ri
es’r
egi
mesoft
hewor
ldar
e

namedatpr
esent
),andRepubl
i
c(whi
chi
susedby132st
atesoft
hewor
ldat
pr
esent
).Whenappl
i
edt
oaspeci
fi
cgov
ernment
,iti
susual
l
ysai
dsy
stem of
gov
ernment
,ev
eni
f‘f
orm ofgov
ernment
’woul
dhav
eof
fer
ednodi
ff
erent
meani
ng t
han does t
he f
ormer
.Ther
efor
e,f
orourpur
pose,we shal
lbe
r
efer
ri
ngt
o sy
stemsofgov
ernmentt
o dealwi
tht
het
wo mosti
mpor
tant
cat
egor
ies,
knownasPar
li
ament
aryandPr
esi
dent
ial
syst
emsofgov
ernment
.

1.
1.ThePar
li
ament
arysyst
em ofgover
nment
Our Const
it
uti
on under Ar
ti
cl
e 45 pr
ovi The Feder
des,‘ al Democr
ati
c
Republ
i
c ofEt
hiopi
a shal
lhave a par
li
ament
ari
an f
orm ofgover
nment
.’
Thus,unl
i
ket
heSout
hAf
ri
can,t
heNi
ger
ian,t
heMor
occanandmostot
her
Af
ri
canst
ates’const
it
uti
on,t
heFDREconst
it
uti
onpr
ovi
desanamef
ort
he
f
orm ofgov
ernmentt
hati
thasadopt
edt
hanj
ustl
eav
ingi
ttobei
nfer
redf
rom
i
ts oper
ati
onal pr
ovi
si
ons t
hat di
scuss t
he power st
ruct
ures of t
he
gov
ernment
.

Dearst
udent
,whatdoy
ouunder
standbyapar
li
ament
arysy
stem?Howdoy
ou
descr
ibet
hecur
rentsy
stem t
hatourcount
ryi
srunni
ngunder
?Puty
our
answer
sint
hef
oll
owi
ngf
ewl
i
nesandt
hencont
inuer
eadi
ng.

A par
li
ament
arysy
stem i
sasy
stem ofgov
ernmentwher
etheexecut
ive

br
anchoft
hegov
ernment(
abr
anchwhi
chi
sent
rust
edwi
tht
het
askofpol
i
cy
f
ormul
ati
on and execut
ion)i
s bei
ng dependenton t
he di
rectori
ndi
rect
suppor
tandsuper
visi
onoft
hel
egi
sl
ati
vebr
anchofgov
ernment
.Hence,t
he
separ
ati
onofpower
sisnotcl
earenoughbet
weent
heexecut
iveandt
he
l
egi
sl
ati
vebr
anches,unl
i
ket
hepr
esi
dent
ialsy
stem t
hatwewi
l
ldi
scussl
ater
.
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 8

Hav
eyounot
icedt
hati
noursy
stem ofgov
ernmentaMi
nist
ermi
ghtal
so

happent
obeapar
li
ament
ari
an,
wher
ebys/
hesi
tsi
ntheHouset
hatl
egi
sl
ates
aswel
lashappent
obei
ntheCounci
lofMi
nist
ers,
anor
gant
hatexecut
est
he
l
aws?Cany
oument
ionf
ormeaMi
nist
erwi
thsuchdoubl
erol
esf
rom t
he
pr
esentFeder
alPar
li
ament
?

Theot
herdi
sti
ngui
shi
ngf
eat
ureoft
hePar
li
ament
ari
ansy
stem i
sthatusual
l
y
i
thasacl
eardi
ff
erent
iat
ionbet
weent
heHeadofGov
ernmentandt
heHead
ofSt
ate,wi
tht
heHeadofGov
ernmentbei
ngt
hePr
imeMi
nist
erorPr
emi
er,
andt
heHeadofSt
ateof
tenbei
nganappoi
ntedf
igur
eheadorher
edi
tar
y
monar
chwi
thonl
ymi
nororcer
emoni
alpower
s.Thet
ermf
igur
eheadr
efer
s
t
oaper
sonwhohol
dsani
mpor
tantt
it
leorof
fi
cey
etexecut
esl
i
ttl
epower
.
Commonf
igur
eheadsi
ncl
udeconst
it
uti
onalmonar
chs,suchasEmper
orof
Japan,t
heQueenofEngl
and,andot
her36count
ri
esmonar
chsal
lov
ert
he
wor
ld.
1Fi
gur
eheadscanal
so bepr
esi
dent
sin par
li
ament
arydemocr
aci
es,
such as t
he Pr
esi
dentofEt
hiopi
a,t
he Pr
esi
dentofI
srael
,and ot
her35
count
ri
esal
lov
ert
hewor
ld.
2Iti
s,howev
er,goodt
onot
ethatt
her
ear
esome
count
ri
eswi
thPar
li
ament
aryr
epubl
i
candhav
ingt
hepower
soft
heHeadof
St
ateandHeadofGov
ernmenthel
dbyonepr
esi
dentwhoi
stobeel
ect
edby
t
hel
egi
sl
atur
easi
snor
mal
l
ydonei
npar
li
ament
arysy
stem.Sout
hAf
ri
caand
Bot
swanaar
etwoexampl
esi
nthi
scamp.St
il
lthenor
malt
rendi
stohav
e
t
hem separ
atel
y,whi
l
ethi
sist
ypi
calof t
he pr
esi
dent
ialsy
stem of
gov
ernment
.

1
Thesear eAndor ra,Ant iguaandBar buda,Australi
a,TheBahamas, Bahrain,Barbados,
Bel gium,Bel i
ze,Cambodi a, Canada, Denmar k,Grenada, Jamaica, Japan, Jor dan,Kuwai t
,
Lesot ho,Liechtenst ein,Lux embour g,Malaysia,Monaco, Morocco, Nepal ,Net herl
ands,New
Zeal and,Nor way, PapuaNewGui nea, Sai
ntKittsandNev i
s,SaintLuci a,SaintVi ncentand
Gr enadines, Sol
omonI slands, Spain, Sweden, Thail
and, Tonga,Tuv alu,UnitedAr abEmi r
ates,
Uni tedKingdom, and
Vat icanCity
2
Thesear eAl bania, Aust ri
a, Bangladesh,Bot swana, Bulgari
a,Croat ia,CzechRepubl i
c,Domi ni
ca,
EastTi mor ,Estonia, Ethiopia, Finl
and, Germany ,Greece,Hungar y,Iceland,Indi a,
Iraq,I
rel
and,
Israel,I
taly,Latvi
a, Lithuani a,Macedoni a,
Mal ta,Maur i
ti
us,Mont enegr o,Pol and,Por t
ugal,
Samoa, Singapor e,Sl ovakia, Slovenia,SouthAf r
ica,Switzerl
and, TrinidadandTobago, Turkey,
Vanuat u
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 9

Asi
str
uei
nanypol
i
tical
,soci
alorot
hersy
stems,t
hepar
li
ament
arysy
stem

hasi
tsownadv
ant
agesanddi
sadv
ant
ages.Ther
efor
e,whenopt
ingt
oadopt
t
hissy
stem,t
hosegi
vent
het
askoff
ormul
ati
ngt
heconst
it
uti
onalf
ramewor
k
wi
l
lhav
etomakeav
alue-
judgmentont
hoset
wocr
it
icalsi
desandt
hef
inal
deci
si
on mi
ghtnotl
ead t
o a sy
stem of gov
ernmentt
hati
s per
fect
.
Nonet
hel
ess,i
twi
l
lbet
heonet
hatof
fer
smor
eadv
ant
agesconsi
der
ingt
he
soci
al,pol
i
tical
,economi
c,as wel
las hi
stor
icalcont
ext
s oft
he count
ry
t
hatwi
l
lhav
eto bechosen.So,wenow br
ief
lyseet
headv
ant
agesand
di
sadv
ant
agesoft
hepar
li
ament
ari
ansy
stem ofgov
ernment
.

1.
1.1.
Adv
ant
agesoft
hePar
li
ament
arysy
stem ofgov
ernment

a)Easi
ert
oPassLegi
slat
ion

Somebel
i
evet
hati
t'
seasi
ert
opassl
egi
sl
ati
onwi
thi
napar
li
ament
arysy
stem.
Thi
sisbecauset
heexecut
ivebr
anchi
sdependentupont
hedi
rectori
ndi
rect
suppor
toft
he l
egi
sl
ati
ve br
anch and of
ten i
ncl
udes member
s oft
he
l
egi
sl
atur
e.I
napr
esi
dent
ialsy
stem,t
heex
ecut
ivei
sel
ect
edi
ndependent
ly
f
rom t
hel
egi
sl
atur
e.I
ftheexecut
iveandl
egi
sl
atur
einsuchasy
stem i
ncl
ude
member
sent
ir
elyorpr
edomi
nant
lyf
rom di
ff
erentpol
i
ticalpar
ti
es,t
hena
deadl
ockcanoccur
.For
merUSPr
esi
dentBi
l
lCl
i
ntonof
tenf
acedpr
obl
emsi
n
t
hisr
egar
d,si
ncet
heRepubl
i
canscont
rol
l
edCongr
essf
ormuchofhi
stenur
e
asPr
esi
dent
.Andi
nthecont
rar
y,t
hecur
rentPr
esi
dentBusht
hej
uni
ori
s
f
aci
ngsuchpr
obl
emssi
nceCongr
essofcont
rol
l
edbyt
heDemocr
ats.That
bei
ngsai
d,pr
esi
dent
scanal
sof
acepr
obl
emsf
rom t
hei
rownpar
ti
es,as
f
ormerUSPr
esi
dentJi
mmyCar
terdi
d.Butsuchacl
ashdoesnotexi
sti
nthe
par
li
ament
arysy
stem.

Sof
art
hisadv
ant
agehasbeenofgr
eatasseti
nEt
hiopi
asi
ncel
egi
sl
ati
onsar
e
bei
ngi
ssuedwi
thnoobser
vabl
echal
l
engesi
ntheHouse.
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 10

b)Bet
teri
namul
ti
-et
hni
csoci
ety

I
n addi
ti
on t
o qui
ckerl
egi
sl
ati
veact
ion,Par
li
ament
ari
ani
sm hasat
tract
ive
f
eat
uresf
ornat
ionst
hatar
eet
hni
cal
l
y,r
aci
all
y,ori
deol
ogi
cal
l
ydi
vi
ded.I
na
uni
per
sonalpr
esi
dent
ialsy
stem,al
lexecut
ivepoweri
sconcent
rat
edi
nthe
pr
esi
dent
.Inapar
li
ament
arysy
stem,wi
thacol
l
egi
alexecut
ive,poweri
s
mor
edi
vi
ded,
andof
fer
sthebet
teroppor
tuni
tyt
oaccommodat
edi
ff
erences.

c)Cont
inuousCont
rol

I
nthe par
li
ament
ari
an sy
stem t
her
e exi
sts a cont
inuous cont
roloft
he
execut
ive byt
he el
ect
ed l
egi
sl
atur
e.Accor
ding t
o Di
ceya par
li
ament
ary
execut
ive‘
must
,fr
om t
henecessi
tyoft
hecase,bei
ntensel
ysensi
ti
veand
amenabl
etot
hef
luct
uat
ionsofpar
li
ament
aryopi
nionandbeanxi
oust
omeet
t
hewi
shesoft
hebodyt
owhi
cht
heMi
nist
ryowesi
tsexi
stence.
’Thi
sisa
conceptknownas‘
vot
eofconf
idence’whi
chi
stomeant
hatt
heexecut
ive,
to
r
emai
nasapol
i
ticalpower
-hol
der
,mustatal
lti
memai
ntai
nthemaj
ori
ty’
s
suppor
t(conf
idencev
ote)i
ntheel
ect
ed assembl
y.Thi
ssameadv
ant
age
mi
ghtat t
imes be a di
sadv
ant
age because t
he execut
ivei
sli
kel
yto
become t
hecr
eat
ureoft
hepar
li
amentbywhi
chi
tiscr
eat
edandi
sli
kel
yto
shar
etheweaknesseswhi
char
einher
enti
nther
uleofanel
ect
edassembl
y.

Howev
erunl
i
ket
hepr
esi
dent
ialsy
stem,wher
etheexecut
ivei
saccount
abl
e
di
rect
lyt
otheel
ect
orat
eandwhowi
l
lbecont
rol
l
edoncehi
s/hert
erm ofof
fi
ce
hasbeencompl
eted,t
heexecut
ivei
nthepar
li
ament
arysy
stem wi
l
lhav
eto
accountcont
inuousl
ytot
hepeopl
es’r
epr
esent
ati
ves.Dearst
udent
,cany
ou
i
dent
if
yapr
ovi
si
onf
rom ourconst
it
uti
ont
hatspeaksaboutt
heCounci
lof
Mi
nist
ers bei
ng cont
inuousl
y checked by t
he House of Peopl
es’
Repr
esent
ati
ves?
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 11

1.
1.2.
Disadv
ant
agesoft
hePar
li
ament
arysy
stem

a)Nodi
rectv
otef
ort
heHeadoft
heExecut
ive

One mai
n cr
it
ici
sm ofmanypar
li
ament
arysy
stems i
sthatt
he head of
gov
ernmenti
sinal
mostal
lcasesnotdi
rect
lyv
otedon.Occasi
onal
l
y,an
el
ect
orat
ewi
l
lbesur
pri
sedj
ustbywhoi
sel
evat
edt
othepr
emi
ershi
p.I
na
pr
esi
dent
ialsy
stem,t
hepr
esi
denti
susual
l
ychosendi
rect
lybyt
heel
ect
orat
e,
orbyasetofel
ect
orsdi
rect
lychosenbyt
hepeopl
e,separ
atef
rom
t
hel
egi
sl
atur
e.Howev
er,i
napar
li
ament
arysy
stem t
hepr
imemi
nist
eri
s
el
ect
edbyt
hel
egi
sl
atur
e,of
tenundert
hest
rongi
nfl
uenceoft
hepar
ty
l
eader
shi
p.Thus,
apar
ty'
scandi
dat
efort
heheadofgov
ernmenti
susual
l
y
knownbef
oret
heel
ect
ion,
andt
hepar
twi
l
ltr
yit
sbestf
ort
hatcandi
dat
eto
succeedt
hrought
heel
ect
ionasmuchasi
tdoesf
ort
hepar
ty’
ssuccessasa
whol
e.Fori
nst
ance,
int
hel
ocal
i
tywher .Mel
eMr esZenawii
sexpect
ed
t
o go f
orar
ace,t
hecampai
gnmustbedonei
nawayt
hatensur
est
hathe
get
sthemaj
ori
tyv
ote.How ourPr
imeMi
nist
eri
sappoi
nted,accor
dingt
o
t
heFDREConst
it
uti
on,
any
way
?Hav
eyouseent
her
elev
antpr
ovi
si
oni
nthe
const
it
uti
onaboutt
hispoi
nt?Ihav
edupl
i
cat
edt
hatpr
ovi
si
onf
ory
ouher
e.
Ar
ti
cl
e73:Appoi
ntmentoft
hePr
imeMi
nist
er

1.ThePr
imeMi
nist
ershal
lbeelect
edf
rom amongmember
soft
he
Houseof
Peopl
es’
Repr
esent
ati
ves.
2.PowerofGover
nmentshal
lbeassumedbyt
hepol
i
ticalpar
tyora
coal
i
tionofpol
i
ticalpar
ti
est
hatconst
it
utesamaj
ori
tyi
ntheHouseof
Peopl
es’
Repr
esent
ati
ves.

Thi
spr
ovi
si
onsay
sthatPM ‘
shal
lbeel
ect
edf
rom amongmember
soft
he
HouseofPeopl
es’
Repr
esent
ati
ves’
wit
houtst
ati
ngt
her
equi
redv
otet
hats/
he
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 12

shoul
dgeti
nthef
rom t
heHouse.Thi
sist
omeanwhet
heri
thast
obet
wo-

t
hir
dmaj
ori
ty,si
mpl
emaj
ori
ty,orabsol
utemaj
ori
tyi
snotcl
earf
rom t
his
pr
ovi
si
on.I
nsuchci
rcumst
ances,Ar
ti
cl
e59wi
l
lbeofsomehel
pwhi
ch,under
i
tssubpar
agr
aph1st
ates‘
Unl
essot
her
wisepr
ovi
dedi
ntheConst
it
uti
on,al
l
deci
si
onsoft
heHouseshal
lbebyamaj
ori
tyv
oteoft
hemember
spr
esent
and v
oti
ng.
’Ther
efor
e,i
twi
l
lbe j
usta 51% v
otet
hata memberoft
he
Par
li
amentwi
l
lneedt
osecur
etoassumet
hePr
emi
er’
sposi
ti
on,andt
hisi
s
al
way
seasyt
osecur
efort
hepar
tyt
hathast
hemaj
ori
tyseati
nthePar
li
ament
.

Theconsequenceofabsenceofadi
rectel
ect
ionoft
hePM byt
hepeopl
eis
t
hatt
hePM hasnoanyr
est
ri
cti
onofapar
ti
cul
arper
sonf
rom bei
nganel
ect
ed
f
ort
hatposi
ti
onov
erandov
eragai
n.

b)Uncont
rol
l
edLegi
slat
ure

Anot
hermaj
orcr
it
ici
sm oft
he par
li
ament
arysy
stem l
i
es pr
eci
sel
yini
ts
pur
por
tedadv
ant
age:t
hatt
her
eisnot
rul
yindependentbodyt
oopposeand
v
etol
egi
sl
ati
onpassedbyt
hepar
li
ament
,andt
her
efor
enosubst
ant
ialcheck
on l
egi
sl
ati
vepower
.Int
hepr
esi
dent
ialsy
stem,t
hiscont
roli
sexer
cised
pr
imar
il
y by t
he pr
esi
dentt
hrough hi
s/herv
eto power
.Fori
nst
ance,i
f
Congr
ess passes a l
egi
sl
ati
on t
hatt
he US pr
esi
dentdoes notwantt
o
pass,t
henhecanv
etot
hatl
egi
sl
ati
onandr
etur
nitbackt
othel
egi
sl
ati
ve
or
gansot
hatt
her
ewoul
dbeconsi
der
edbyt
hej
ointsessi
onoft
het
wo
housesoft
hepar
li
ament
.Howev
er,
oncet
hepi
eceofl
egi
sl
ati
oni
sadopt
edby
t
hisj
ointsessi
on,t
hepr
esi
dentwi
l
lbeobl
i
gedt
osi
gnt
hebi
l
l.Thi
sfor
m of
cont
rol
doesnotexi
sti
nthepar
li
ament
arysy
stem.Fori
nst
ance,oncet
he
House ofPeopl
es’Repr
esent
ati
ves(
HPR)ofEt
hiopi
aappr
ovesacer
tai
nlaw,
ei
therasanew one,amendi
ngapr
evi
ousone,r
epeal
i
ngt
heol
done,orby
r
ati
fyi
ngani
nter
nat
ionalt
reat
y,‘
theSpeakeroft
hehouseshal
ltr
ansmi
tthe
dr
aftl
aw t
othe Pr
esi
dent of t
he Feder
al Gov
ernment f
or si
gnat
ure
suggest
ingt
hatt
he
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 13

househasdi
scussedandappr
ovedi
t.Ti
l
lthePr
esi
dentput
shi
ssi
gnat
ureon

t
hel
egi
sl
ati
on,i
tremai
nsasadr
aft
,butonl
yforamaxi
mum of15day
s.The
f
oll
owi
ngi
spr
ovi
dedi
nPr
ocl
amat
ionnumber470/
20053,Ar
ti
cl
e11(
b)whi
ch
i
sinconf
ormi
tywi
thAr
ti
cl
e57oft
heconst
it
uti
on;

The Pr
esi
dentshal
lsi
gn wi
thi
nfi
ft
een days.I
fthe Pr
esi
dent
doesn’
tsi
gnwi
thi
nfi
ft
eendays,t
hel
aw shal
ltakeef
fectwi
thout
hi
ssi
gnat
ure.TheSpeakeroft
heHouse,however
,mayunder
take
t
het
echni
calcor
rect
ion,wher
edeemed necessar
y,pr
iort
oit
s
publ
i
cat
ioni
ntheFeder
alNegar
itGazet
a.

Howev
er,somebel
i
evet
othecont
rar
ysay
ingt
hatt
hePar
li
ament
arysy
stem
r
athercr
eat
esapower
fulexecut
ivebr
anch,becauseoft
hel
ackofi
nher
ent
separ
ati
onofpower
sleadi
ngt
othef
eel
i
ngt
hatt
hel
egi
sl
atur
eorj
udi
ci
aryhas
l
i
ttl
escopet
oadmi
nist
erchecksorbal
ancesont
heexecut
ive.Si
ncet
he
execut
iveor
ganhast
hemaj
ori
ty’
svoi
cewi
thi
nthepar
li
amentandsi
ncet
he
t
wowi
l
lwor
khandi
nhandul
ti
mat
elymaki
ngt
heexecut
ivemor
epower
ful
.
Dearst
udenthowmuchdoy
ouagr
eewi
tht
hisasser
ti
on?Wheny
out
hinkof
y
ourr
esponset
hinki
nli
ghtoft
hecur
rentEt
hiopi
ansi
tuat
ion;dowehav
ea
power
full
egi
sl
ati
ve or
ganora power
fulexecut
ive br
anch?Whatdo y
ou
t
hinki
sthepossi
blesour
ceofsuchdi
stor
ti
onf
rom t
henor
mal
trend?

c)Bei
ngUnst
abl
e

Al
thoughi
tispossi
blet
ohav
eapower
fulpr
imemi
nist
er,asBr
it
ainhas,or
ev
enadomi
nantpar
tysy
stem,asJapanhas,par
li
ament
arysy
stemsar
eal
so
somet
imes unst
abl
e.Cr
it
ics poi
ntt
oIsr
ael
,It
alyand t
he Fr
ench Four
th
Republ
i
casexampl
esofpar
li
ament
arysy
stemswher
eunst
abl
ecoal
i
tions,
demandi
ng mi
nor
it
y par
ti
es,no conf
idence v
otes,and t
hreat
s of no

3
‘
Feder
alDemocrati
cRepubl
icofEt
hiopi
aHouseofPeopl
es’
Repr
esent
ati
vesWor
king
Pr
ocedureand
Members’CodeofConduct(
Amendment)Pr
oclamat
ion’
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 14

conf
idence v
otes,make orhav
e made ef
fect
ive gov
ernance i
mpossi
ble.
For

i
nst
ance,
ift
hosepar
ti
est
hatar
enon-
EPRDFcomet
oget
herandagr
eet
odeny
t
hev
oteofconf
idencet
other
uli
ngpar
tyt
hatwoul
dcausei
nst
abi
l
ity
.Howev
er,
def
ender
s ofpar
li
ament
ari
ani
sm say t
hatpar
li
ament
aryi
nst
abi
l
ityi
sthe
r
esul
tofpr
opor
ti
onalr
epr
esent
ati
on,pol
i
ticalcul
tur
e,andhi
ghl
ypol
ari
zed
el
ect
orat
es.

Readcar
eful
l
ythef
oll
owi
ngpr
ovi
si
onf
rom ourconst
it
uti
onandhow i
tcan
r
elat
ewi
tht
hispoi
ntofdi
scussi
onr
elat
ingt
ooneoft
hedi
sadv
ant
agesf
ort
he
par
li
ament
arysy
stem;
Ar
ti
cl
e60:Di
ssol
uti
onoft
heHouse
1. Wi
tht
he consentoft
he House,t
he Pr
ime Mi
nist
ermay
causet
hedi
ssol
uti
onoft
heHousebef
oret
heexpi
ryofi
tst
erm
i
nor
dert
ohol
dnewel
ect
ions.
2. The Pr
esi
dent may i
nvi
te pol
i
tical par
ti
es t
o f
orm a
coal
i
tiongover
nmentwi
thi
noneweek,i
ftheCounci
lofMi
nist
ers
ofapr
evi
ouscoal
i
tioni
sdi
ssol
vedbecauseoft
hel
ossofi
ts
maj
ori
tyi
ntheHouse.TheHouseshal
lbedi
ssol
vedandnew
el
ect
ionsshal
lbehel
dift
hepol
i
ticalpar
ti
escannotagr
eet
othe
cont
inuat
ionoft
hepr
evi
ouscoal
i
tionort
ofor
m anewmaj
ori
ty
coal
i
tion.
3.I
ftheHousei
sdi
ssol
vedpur
suantt
osub-
Art
icl
e1or2oft
hisAr
ti
cle,
newel
ect
ionsshal
lbehel
dwi
thi
nsi
xmont
hsofi
tsdi
ssol
uti
on.
4. The new House shal
lconvene wi
thi
nthi
rt
y days oft
he
concl
usi
onoft
heel
ect
ions.
5. Fol
l
owi
ngt
hedi
ssol
uti
onoft
heHouse,t
hepr
evi
ousgover
ning
par
ty ofcoal
i
tion ofpar
ti
es shal
lcont
inue as a car
etaker
gover
nment
.Beyond conduct
ing t
he day t
o day af
fai
rs of
gover
nmentandor
gani
zi
ngnewel
ect
ions,i
tmaynotenactnew
pr
ocl
amat
ions,r
egul
ati
ons ordecr
ees,normayi
trepealor
amendanyexi
sti
ngl
aw.
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 15

Whencant
hePM exer
cisehi
s/herpoweri
nAr
ti
cl
e60(
1)?Whatar
ethe

possi
ble gr
ounds f
or hi
s deci
si
on t
o di
ssol
vet
he House of Peopl
es’
Repr
esent
ati
vesbef
oret
heexpi
ryoft
he5y
ear
sper
iod?Andi
sther
eanyki
nd
ofcont
rolonhi
s/herexer
ciseoft
hispower
?Thesequest
ionsar
enotcl
ear
ly
addr
essed i
nthi
s pr
ovi
si
on and nei
therar
ethey addr
essed undert
he
subsequentl
egi
sl
ati
ons.

TheI
srael
’
spar
li
ament
ari
ansy
stem i
smor
eorl
esst
hesamewi
tht
hatofour
s
wi
thonl
ytheexcept
iont
hatt
hePM i
sdi
rect
lyel
ect
edbyt
hepubl
i
cont
he
samedayt
hatt
hemember
soft
hepar
li
amentar
etobeel
ect
ed.Andi
nthat
const
it
uti
on,
fort
heKnesset(
whi
chi
sthenamef
or‘
par
li
ament
’)t
her
ear
etwo
possi
bil
i
tiest
hati
tmi
ghtbedi
ssol
vedbef
oret
heexpi
ryofi
tst
erm andt
his
coul
dhappenei
therbyi
tsownwi
l
lfuldeci
si
onorbyt
hedeci
si
onoft
hePM.
Theconst
it
uti
onpr
ovi
dest
hegr
oundsf
oranear
lydi
ssol
uti
onoft
heKnesset
byt
hePM i
nsect
ion22;
Sect
ion22Di
sper
sionoft
heKnessetbyt
hePr
imeMi
nist
er

a. Shoul
dthePr
imeMi
nist
erascer
tai
nthatamaj
ori
tyoft
heKnesset
opposest
heGover
nment
,andt
hatt
heef
fect
ivef
unct
ioni
ngoft
he
Gover
nmenti
spr
event
edasar
esul
t,hemay,wi
tht
heappr
ovalof
t
hePr
esi
dentoft
heSt
ate,di
sper
se t
he Knessetby way ofan
or
der t
o be publ
i
shed i
nReshumot
;adeci
siont
odi
sper
set
he
Knessetwi
l
lber
egar
dedasadeci
si
onoft
heKnessett
odi
sper
se
pr
iort
othecompl
eti
onofi
tst
erm ofser
vice,andnewel
ect
ionsf
or
t
heKnessetandt
hePr
imeMi
nist
er,wi
l
lbeconduct
edont
he l
ast
Tuesdaybef
oret
he passage of60 days f
rom t
he dayoft
he
di
sper
sionoft
heKnesset
.
b.ThePr
imeMi
nist
ermaynotexer
cisehi
saut
hor
it
yaccor
dingt
o
t
hissect
ion:
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 16

1.From thebegi
nni
ngoft
heper
iodofser
viceoft
hei
ncomi
ng
Knesset
andunt
ilt
heest
abl
i
shmentoft
henewGover
nment
;
2. Fr
om t
he day on whi
ch t
he Knessetcommi
tt
ee oft
he
Knessetdeci
dedt
orecommendt
hatheber
emovedf
rom
ser
vice and unt
ilt
hedayt
heKnessetpl
enum r
ender
sit
s
deci
si
oni
nthemat
teri
naccor
dancewi
tht
hepr
ovi
sionsof
Sect
ions26and27.

Accor
dingt
othi
spr
ovi
si
on,t
hePM mayexer
cisehi
s/herpowert
odi
ssol
ve
t
hepar
li
amentwher
ethemaj
ori
tyofi
tsmember
sopposet
hegov
ernment
,
whi
chi
stheexecut
ivebr
anchheadedbyt
hePM.I
nthi
sci
rcumst
anceanew
el
ect
ionshal
lbehel
dfort
hepar
li
amentaswel
lasf
ort
hepostoft
hePM.Her
e
y
oucannot
icet
hatt
hePM’
sri
ghtt
odi
ssol
vet
hepar
li
amenti
scondi
ti
onedon
v
ari
ousr
est
ri
cti
ons.Fi
rsti
thast
obef
ort
her
easonofl
ossofconf
idencei
n
t
hepar
li
amentt
owar
dst
hegov
ernment
;thi
shast
obeascer
tai
nedbyt
hePM
andt
husi
tmaynotbeonanunf
oundedsuspi
ci
ont
hatt
hisr
ightcanbe
exer
cised;t
hir
d,t
hePM hast
ofur
therensur
ethatsuchopposi
ti
oni
ssogr
ave
t
hati
tpr
event
stheef
fect
ivef
unct
ioni
ngoft
hegov
ernment
;andf
inal
l
y,t
he
deci
si
ont
odi
ssol
vet
hepar
li
amenthast
obeappr
ovedbyt
hePr
esi
dent
.

Howev
er,Ar
ti
cl
e 60 ofFDRE const
it
uti
on does nothav
e such det
ail
ed
el
abor
ati
onont
hepower
soft
hePM t
odi
ssol
vet
hepar
li
ament
.Theonl
ycl
ue
i
sthedeci
si
on hast
o be‘
wit
htheconsentoft
heHouse.
’Dearst
udent
doest
hissi
gnalt
oyouany
thi
ngt
hatmi
ghtbeofhel
pinunder
standi
ngt
he
pr
ovi
si
on?I
fithast
obewi
tht
heconsentoft
heHouse,t
hent
hegr
oundhas
t
obesomet
hingot
hert
hanl
ackofsuppor
tint
heHouse,
andt
hisi
ssuppor
ted
bysubpar
agr
apht
wowhi
cht
alksaboutdi
ssol
uti
onduet
olackofv
oteof
conf
idencet
othegov
ernment
.Thesi
tuat
iont
hatf
ort
hef
ir
stt
imei
nhi
stor
y
t
heI
sraelPr
imeMi
nist
erexer
cisedhi
spowert
odi
ssol
vet
hepar
li
amenti
nthe
Fal
l2005coul
dbeofsomehel
p.Hel
ostsuppor
tfr
om hi
spar
t Li
y( kud)
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 17

member
sconcer
ningGaza’
spul
l
outpl
anandt
henhedeci
dedt
oleav
ehi
s

par
tyandf
orm anot
heronewi
thhi
ssof
tli
nesuppor
ter
s.Thenewl
yfor
med
par
tyi edKadi
scal
l ma.Thent
her
ewasaneedt
ohol
del
ect
ionpr
iort
oit
s
nor
malper
iodsi
ncet
hepr
evi
oussuppor
twi
thi
nthel
egi
sl
ati
vebr
anchwasno
mor
epr
esent
.Doy
out
hinkt
hissamer
easonmi
ghtbet
heoneant
ici
pat
edby
subpar
agr
aph2ofAr
ti
cl
e60oft
heFDREconst
it
uti
on?

Dearst
udentbef
orewegot
othenex
tsect
ionofourdi
scussi
onIwoul
dli
ke
y
out
otr
ythef
oll
owi
ngexer
cisequest
ionsso t
hatt
o checki
fyouhav
e
gr
aspedwhatweal
readydi
scussedi
nrel
ati
ont
othepar
li
ament
ari
ansy
stem
ofgov
ernment
.

Exer
ciseI

1.Whatar
ethedi
sti
ngui
shi
ngf
eat
uresoft
hepar
li
ament
ari
ansy
stem of

gov
ernment
?

2.Br
ief
lyenumer
atet
hepr
osandconsoft
hepar
li
ament
ari
ansy
stem of

gov
ernment
.

3.Whatar
ethecondi
ti
onst
hatneedt
obemetbef
oret
heI
srael
’
sPM

exer
cisehi
s/herpowert
odi
ssol
vet
hepar
li
ament
?
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 18

4.Howcanwer
elat
ethepossi
bil
i
tyofdi
ssol
uti
onbyt
hei
nit
iat
ionoft
he

PM wi
thoneoft
hedi
sadv
ant
agesoft
hepar
li
ament
ari
ansy
stem of

gov
ernment
?

5.Gi
vet
woexampl
esofAf
ri
canst
atest
hatf
oll
ow t
hepar
li
ament
ari
an

sy
stem and hav
ethe power
s oft
he Head ofSt
ate and Head of

Gov
ernmentbei
ngf
usedi
nonepr
esi
dent
.

1.
2. The Presi
dent
ial syst
em of
gover
nment
Dearst
udent
,asy
oucanr
ememberqui
teeasi
l
y,i
nthepar
li
ament
arysy
stem
t
her
eisami
xbet
weent
hel
egi
sl
ati
veandt
heexecut
ivebr
anchesoft
he
gov
ernment
,wi
tht
hef
ormerexer
cisi
ngcont
rolov
ert
hel
att
er.Wheni
tcomes
t
othepr
esi
dent
ialsy
stem,t
hecl
assi
calexampl
eofwhi
chi
stheUSsy
stem,
t
heopposi
tei
str
uei
nthesenset
hatt
het
woor
gansofgov
ernmentwor
k
separ
atel
yandt
heex
ecut
ivei
snotcont
rol
l
edbyt
hel
egi
sl
ati
veor
gan.Al
so
cal
l
edacongr
essi
onalsy
stem,t
hisi
sasy
stem ofgov
ernmentwher
ethe
execut
ivebr
anchexi
stsand pr
esi
des (
hencet
het
erm)separ
atef
rom t
he
l
egi
sl
atur
e,t
o whi
ch i
tis notaccount
abl
e,and whi
ch cannoti
n nor
mal
ci
rcumst
ancesdi
smi
ssi
t.
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 19

I
towes i
ts or
igi
ns t
othe medi
evalmonar
chi
es ofFr
ance,Engl
and and

Scot
land i
n whi
ch execut
ive aut
hor
it
y was v
est
ed i
nthe Cr
own,noti
n
meet
ingsoft
heest
atesoft
her
eal
m(i
.
e.par
li
ament
).Theconceptofsepar
ate
spher
es ofi
nfl
uence oft
he execut
ive and l
egi
sl
atur
e was copi
ed i
nthe
Const
it
uti
onoft
heUni
tedSt
ates,
wit
hthecr
eat
ionoft
heof
fi
ceofPr
esi
dentof
t
heUni
tedSt
ates.Per
hapsi
roni
cal
l
y,i
nEngl
andandScot
land(
since1707as
t
heKi
ngdom ofGr
eatBr
it
ain,andsi
nce1801ast
heUni
tedKi
ngdom)t
he
powerofasepar
ateexecut
iver
educed t
o a cer
emoni
alr
ole,and a new
execut
iveanswer
abl
etopar
li
amentev
olv
ed,whi
l
ethepoweroft
heUni
ted
St
atessepar
atedexecut
ivei
ncr
eased.Thi
shasgi
venr
iset
ocr
it
ici
sm oft
he
Uni
tedSt
atespr
esi
dency
,wi
thaccusat
ionst
hatt
heUni
tedSt
ateshasan
"
Imper
ialPr
esi
dency
".Ot
her
sdi
sput
etheext
entt
owhi
char
ealsepar
ati
on
exi
sts,
ref
err
ingt
otheconceptof"
separ
atei
nst
it
uti
onsshar
ingpower
".

Ev
en i
fthe def
ini
ng char
act
eri
sti
c oft
he moder
nrepubl
i
can pr
esi
dent
ial
sy
stem l
i
esonhow t
hepr
esi
denti
sbei
ngel
ect
ed,t
hef
oll
owi
ngf
eat
uresar
e
al
sot
ypi
cal
ofal
mostal
lsuchsy
stems;
 Thepr
esi
denti
sbot
hheadofst
ateandheadofgov
ernment
,

 Thepr
esi
denthasnof
ormalr
elat
ionshi
pwi
tht
hel
egi
sl
atur
e.Hei
snot
av
oti
ngmember
,norcanhei
ntr
oducebi
l
ls(
wit
htheexcept
ionof
Puer
toRi
co,wher
ehecani
ntr
oduceabi
l
l).Howev
er,i
nsy
stemssuch
ast
hatoft
heUni
tedSt
ates,
thePr
esi
denthast
hepowert
ovet
oact
sof
t
hel
egi
sl
atur
e,andi
ntur
nasuper
maj
ori
tyofl
egi
sl
ator
smayactt
o
ov
err
idet
hev
eto.Thi
spr
act
icei
sder
ivedf
rom t
heBr
it
isht
radi
ti
onof
Roy
alAssent
,inwhi
chanactofPar
li
amentcannotcomei
ntoef
fect
wi
thoutt
heassentoft
heMonar
ch.
 Thepr
esi
denthasaf
ixedt
erm ofof
fi
ce.El
ect
ionsar
ehel
datschedul
ed

t
imes,andcannotbet
ri
gger
edbyav
oteofconf
idenceorot
hersuch
par
li
ament
ary pr
ocedur
es. Howev
er,many pr
esi
dent
ial sy
stems
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 20

i
ncor
por
atepr
ovi
si
onsf
ort
hepr
esi
dent
'st
ri
alandsubsequentr
emov
al

f
rom of
fi
cebyt
hel
egi
sl
atur
eifheorshei
sfoundt
ohav
ecommi
tt
eda
cr
ime.Thi
sisknown,
int asi
heUS, mpeachmentpr
ocedur
e.
 Theexecut
ivebr
anchi
suni
per
sonal
.Member
soft
heCabi
netser
veat

t
hepl
easur
eoft
hepr
esi
dentandmustcar
ryoutt
hepol
i
ciesoft
he
execut
ive and l
egi
sl
ati
ve br
anches.Howev
er,pr
esi
dent
ialsy
stems
f
requent
lyr
equi
rel
egi
sl
ati
veappr
oval
ofpr
esi
dent
ialnomi
nat
ionst
othe
Cabi
netas wel
las v
ari
ous gov
ernment
alpost
s such as j
udges;
whi
l
ethepr
esi
dentgener
all
yhast
hepowert
oissueor
der
stomember
s
oft
heCabi
net
,mi
l
itar
y,oranyof
fi
cerorempl
oyeeoft
heexecut
ive
br
anch,apr
esi
dentdoesnotgener
all
yhav
ethepowert
odi
smi
ssor
gi
veor
der
stoj
udges,whi
chi
sani
deaper
ti
nentt
othepr
inci
pleof
j
udi
ci
ali
ndependence.
 Thepowert
opar
donorcommut
esent
encesofconv
ict
edcr
imi
nal
s
i
sgener
all
ygi
vent
oheadsofst
atesi
ngov
ernment
swi
thasepar
ati
on
ofpowerbet
weenl
egi
sl
ati
veandexecut
ivebr
anchesofgov
ernment
.

Ther
e ar
e t
wo pr
esi
dent
ial exampl
es whi
ch do not const
it
ute a
Republ
i
canpr
esi
dent
ialsyst
em;di
ctat
ors,t
hosenotpopul
arl
yorl
egi
ti
mat
ely
el
ect
edwhost
ylet
hemsel
vesasa"
Presi
dent
".Li
kewi
se,manypar
li
ament
ary
democr
aci
es,not
abl
yIsr
aelandI
rel
and,hav
eapr
esi
dentwhi
chi
slar
gel
y
cer
emoni
alwi
thl
i
ttl
epower
.Aswedi
dfort
hepar
li
ament
ari
ansy
stem,we
shal
lnow l
ook i
nto some oft
he adv
ant
ages and di
sadv
ant
ages oft
he
pr
esi
dent
ial
syst
em.

1.
2.1.
Adv
ant
agesoft
hePr
esi
dent
ial
syst
em

a)Di
rectel
ect
ionoft
hepr
esi
dentbyt
hepeopl
e

Apr
imeMi
nist
eri
nthepar
li
ament
ari
ansy
stem i
susual
l
ychosenbyaf
ew
i
ndi
vi
dual
soft
hel
egi
sl
atur
e,whi
l
eapr
esi
denti
susual
l
ychosenbyt
hepeopl
e.
Accor
ding t
o suppor
ter
s oft
he pr
esi
dent
ialsy
stem,a popul
arl
y
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 21

el
ect
edl
eader
shi
pisi
nher
ent
lymor
edemocr
ati
cthanal
eader
shi
pchosenby

al
egi
sl
ati
vebody
,ev
eni
fthel
egi
sl
ati
vebodywasi
tsel
fel
ect
ed.Butwhatar
e
t
hev
aluesoft
hepr
esi
dentbei
ngdi
rect
lymandat
edbyt
hepeopl
e,r
athert
han
bei
ngchosenbyaf
ewmember
soft
hepar
li
ament
?

Fi
rst
,thr
oughmaki
ngmor
ethanoneel
ect
oralchoi
cev
oter
sinapr
esi
dent
ial
sy
stem canmor
eaccur
atel
yindi
cat
ethei
rpol
i
cypr
efer
ences.Concer
ningt
he
Uni
tedSt
atesofAmer
ica,somepol
i
ticalsci
ent
ist
sint
erpr
ett
hel
ateCol
dWar
t
endencyt
oel
ectaDemocr
ati
cCongr
essandaRepubl
i
canpr
esi
dentast
he
choi
cef
oraRepubl
i
canf
orei
gnpol
i
cyandaDemocr
ati
cdomest
icpol
i
cy.

Secondl
y,i
tisal
sost
atedt
hatt
hedi
rectmandat
eofapr
esi
dentmakeshi
m or
hermor
eaccount
abl
e.Ther
easoni
ngbehi
ndt
hisar
gumenti
sthatapr
ime
mi
nist
eri
s"shi
el
ded"f
rom publ
i
copi
nionbyt
heappar
atusofst
ate,whi
chi
n
t
hepr
esi
dent
ial
syst
em suchashi
el
disbei
ngsev
eral
stepsr
emov
ed.

b)Separ
ati
onofpower
s

The f
actt
hata pr
esi
dent
ialsy
stem separ
ates t
he execut
ivef
rom t
he
l
egi
sl
atur
eissomet
imeshel
dupasanadv
ant
age,i
nthateachbr
anchmay
scr
uti
nizet
heact
ionsoft
heot
her
.Inapar
li
ament
arysy
stem,t
heexecut
ive
i
s dr
awn f
rom t
he l
egi
sl
atur
e,maki
ng cr
it
ici
sm of one by t
he ot
her
consi
der
abl
ylessl
i
kel
y.Accor
dingt
osuppor
ter
soft
hepr
esi
dent
ialsy
stem,
t
hel
ackofchecksandbal
ances means t
hat mi
sconduct by a pr
ime
mi
nist
er may nev
er bedi
scov
ered.Cr
it
icsr
espondt
hati
fapr
esi
dent
ial
sy
stem'
slegi
sl
atur
eiscont
rol
l
edbyt
hepr
esi
dent
'spar
ty,t
hesamesi
tuat
ion
exi
sts.

Despi
tet
heexi
stenceoft
henoconf
idencev
ote,i
npr
act
ice,i
tisext
remel
y
di
ff
icul
ttost
opapr
imemi
nist
erorcabi
nett
hathasmadei
tsdeci
si
on.Tov
ote
downt
hecabi
net
'sl
egi
sl
ati
oni
stobr
ingdownagov
ernmentandhav
enew
el
ect
ions,a st
ep t
hati
sli
kel
yto be t
aken i
n a mannert
hatwe hav
e
di
scussed
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 22

abov
e.Hence,anoconf
idencev
otei
nsomepar
li
ament
arycount
ri
es,l
i
ke

Br
it
ain,
onl
yoccur
saf
ewt
imesi
nacent
ury
.

Dearst
udent
,ar
eyouf
oll
owi
ngourdi
scussi
on?Theni
nwhi
chsy
stem doy
ou
t
hinki
sther
eisabet
teroppor
tuni
tyf
orchecki
ngeachot
her
’sactbet
weent
he
l
egi
sl
atur
eandt
heexecut
ive?

c)SpeedandDeci
siv
eness

Somesuppor
ter
sofpr
esi
dent
ialsy
stemscl
aimt
hatpr
esi
dent
ialsy
stemscan
r
espondmor
erapi
dlyt
oemer
gingsi
tuat
ionst
hanpar
li
ament
aryones.Apr
ime
mi
nist
er,
whent
aki
ngact
ion,
needst
oret
aint
hesuppor
toft
hel
egi
sl
atur
e,but
apr
esi
denti
sof
tenl
essconst
rai
ned.

Ot
hersuppor
ter
s ofpr
esi
dent
ialsy
stems somet
imes ar
gue i
nthe exact
opposi
te di
rect
ion,howev
er,say
ing t
hatpr
esi
dent
ialsy
stems can sl
ow
deci
si
on-
maki
ngt
obenef
ici
alends.Di
vi
dedgov
ernment
,wher
ethepr
esi
dency
andt
hel
egi
sl
atur
ear
econt
rol
l
edbydi
ff
erentpar
ti
es,i
ssai
dtor
est
rai
nthe
excessesofbot
hpar
ti
es,
andguar
ant
eebi
par
ti
sani
nputi
ntol
egi
sl
ati
on.

d)St
abi
l
ity

Al
though v
otesofno conf
idence t
end t
o be r
arei
n some par
li
ament
ary
sy
stems,t
heyar
ecommoni
naf
ewot
her
s.I
tal
y,I
sraelandt
heFr
enchFour
th
Republ
i
c al
lhav
e or had pr
obl
ems wi
th gov
ernment
alst
abi
l
ity
.When
par
li
ament
arysy
stemshav
emul
ti
plepar
ti
esandgov
ernment
sdependon
coal
i
tions,ast
heydowi
thnat
ionst
hatv
otebypr
opor
ti
onalr
epr
esent
ati
on,
4

4
Proport
ional r
epr esentat
ionisacat egoryofelector
al f
ormul aaimi ngataclosemat ch
betweent heper centageofvotest hatgroupsofcandidates( groupsbyacer tai
nmeasure)
obtaininelectionsandt hepercentageofseat stheyreceive(usuallyinlegi
slati
veassembl
ies)
.
I
ti softencont rastedtoplurali
tyvot i
ngsystems, wheredisproportionalseatdist
ri
buti
on
resultsfr
om thedi visi
onofv ot
ersi nt
omul ti
pleelect
oraldistri
cts.Thepl ur
ali
tyvoti
ngsyst
em
i
sasi ngl
e-winnerv oti
ngsystemof tenusedt oelectexecutiveoffi
cer sortoelectmembersof
apar li
amentwhi chi sbasedonsi ngle-memberconst i
tuencies.Ourel ecti
onsy st
emseemst o
foll
owt helattert ypebecauseunderAr ti
cl
e13( 2)ofProclamat i
onNo.
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 23

extr
emi
stpar
ti
escan t
heor
eti
cal
l
yuset
het
hreatofl
eav
ing t
hecoal
i
tion
to

bl
ackmai
lthecent
ri
stpar
ti
eswhoar
eleadi
ng.

Many peopl
e consi
derpr
esi
dent
ialsy
stems t
o be mor
e abl
eto sur
viv
e
emer
genci
es.A count
ryunderenor
mousst
ressmay
,suppor
ter
sar
gue,be
bet
ter of
f bei
ng l
ed by a pr
esi
dent wi
thaf
ixed t
erm t
han r
otat
ing
pr
emi
ershi
ps.Fr
ancedur
ingt
heAl
ger
iancont
rov
ersyswi
tchedt
o asemi
-
pr
esi
dent
ialsy
stem,Sr
iLankadi
dli
kewi
sedur
ing i
tsci
vi
lwar
,andI
srael
exper
iment
edwi
thadi
rect
lyel
ect
edpr
imemi
nist
eri
n1992.I
natl
eastt
he
f
ir
stt
wocases,t
her
esul
tsar
ewi
del
yconsi
der
edt
ohav
ebeenposi
ti
ve.I
nthe
I
srael
icase,howev
er,di
rectel
ect
ion oft
he pr
ime mi
nist
erpr
oduced an
unant
ici
pat
ed f
urt
her pr
oli
fer
ati
on of smal
lpar
ti
es,and t
he t
radi
ti
onal
par
li
ament
arymodeofsel
ect
ionwasr
est
ored.

Thef
actt
hatel
ect
ionsar
efi
xedi
napr
esi
dent
ialsy
stem i
sli
kewi
seof
tenhel
d
asav
aluabl
e"check"ont
hepower
soft
heexecut
ive.Whi
l
epar
li
ament
ary
sy
stemsof
tenal
l
owt
hepr
imemi
nist
ert
ocal
lel
ect
ionswhenev
erheseesf
it
,
oror
chest
rat
ehi
sownv
oteofnoconf
idencet
otr
iggeronewhenhecannot
getal
egi
sl
ati
vei
tem passed,
thepr
esi
dent
ialmodeli
ssai
dtodi
scour
aget
his
sor
tofoppor
tuni
sm,andi
nst
eadf
orcet
heexecut
ivet
ooper
atewi
thi
nthe
conf
inesofat
erm hecannotal
tert
osui
thi
sownneeds.

1.
2.2.
Disadv
ant
agesoft
hePr
esi
dent
ial
syst
em

a)Tendencyt
owar
dsaut
hor
it
ari
ani
sm

Wi
nni
ng t
he pr
esi
dency i
s a wi
nner
-t
ake-
all
,zer
o-sum 5 pr
ize.A pr
ime

mi
nist
erpar
li
ament
arysy
stem t
hatdoesnotenj
oyamaj
ori
tyi
nthel
egi
sl
atur
e

438/2005(asamended)pr ovides‘
Acandidatewi t
hmor evotesrecei
vedthant hatbyother
competit
ors
withi
ntheconst i
tuencyshallbedeclar
edthewi nner.
’
5
Dearstudentdoy ouknowt heconceptofzero-sum?Thisisaconceptthatdescr i
besa
sit
uati
oninwhi chapar ti
cipant’
sgai
norlossisex act
lybalancedbythelossesorgai nsoft
he
otherpar
ti
cipant(s).I
tissonamedbecausewhent hetotalgai
nsoftheparti
cipantsareadded
up,andthetotallossesare
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 24

wi
l
lhav
eto ei
therf
orm acoal
i
tion or
,ifhei
sabl
etol
ead ami
nor
it
y

gov
ernment
,gov
erni
namanneraccept
abl
etoatl
eastsomeoft
heopposi
ti
on
par
ti
es.Ev
eni
fthepr
imemi
nist
erl
eadsamaj
ori
tygov
ernment
,hemustst
il
l
gov
ernwi
thi
n(per
hapsunwr
it
ten)const
rai
ntsasdet
ermi
nedbyt
hemember
s
ofhi
spar
ty-apr
emi
eri
nthi
ssi
tuat
ioni
sof
tenatgr
eat
err
iskofl
osi
nghi
s
par
tyl
eader
shi
pthanhi
spar
tyi
satr
iskofl
osi
ngt
henextel
ect
ion.Ont
he
ot
herhand,onceel
ect
edpr
esi
dentcannotonl
ymar
ginal
i
zet
hei
nfl
uenceof
ot
herpar
ti
es,butcanexcl
uder
ivalf
act
ionsi
nhi
sownpar
tyaswel
l
,orev
en
l
eav
ethepar
tywhoset
ickethewasel
ect
edunder
.Thepr
esi
dentcant
husr
ule
wi
thoutanyal
l
iesf
ort
hedur
ati
onofoneorpossi
blyconsecut
ivet
erms,a
wor
ri
somesi
tuat
ionf
ormanyi
nter
estgr
oups.JuanLi
nzar
guest
hat
‘
The danger t
hat zer
o-sum pr
esi
dent
ial el
ect
ions pose i
s
compoundedby
t
her
igi
dit
yoft
hepr
esi
dent
'
sfi
xedt
ermi
nof
fi
ce.Wi
nner
sand
l
oser
sar
eshar
plydef
inedf
ort
heent
ir
eper
iodoft
hepr
esi
dent
ial
mandat
e...l
oser
smustwai
tfourorf
iveyear
swi
thoutanyaccess
t
o execut
ive powerand pat
ronage.The zer
o-sum game i
n
pr
esi
dent
ialr
egi
mesr
aisest
hest
akesofpr
esi
dent
ialel
ect
ions
and i
nevi
tabl
y exacer
bat
es t
hei
r at
tendantt
ensi
on and
pol
ari
zat
ion.
’

I
napr
esi
dent
ialsy
stem,t
hel
egi
sl
atur
eandt
hepr
esi
denthav
eequal
l
yval
i
d
mandat
esf
rom t
hepubl
i
c.Ther
eisof
tennowayt
oreconci
l
econf
li
ctbet
ween
t
he br
anches of gov
ernment
. When pr
esi
dent and l
egi
sl
atur
e ar
e at
l
ogger
heads (
arei
n st
rong di
ff
erences)and gov
ernmenti
s notwor
king
ef
fect
ivel
y,t
her
eis a power
fuli
ncent
ivet
o empl
oy ext
ra-
const
it
uti
onal
manoeuv
res6 t
obr
eakt
hedeadl
ock.Ecuadori
ssomet
imespr
esent
edasa
case
st
udyofdemocr
ati
cfai
l
uresov
ert
hepastquar
ter
-cent
ury
.Pr
esi
dent
shav
e

subtracted,t
heywi l
lsum tozero.Zero-
sumcanbet houghtofmoregener
all
yasconst antsum
where
thebenef i
tsandlossestoal l
playerssum tothesamevalue.Cut
ti
ngacakeiszero-sumor
constant-sum becausetakingalargerpiecer
educestheamountofcakel
eftforothers.
6
Manipulati
on,t
acti
calhandlingofmat t
ers
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 25

i
gnor
ed t
hel
egi
sl
atur
eorby
passed i
tal
toget
her
.Onepr
esi
denthad t
he

Nat
ional
Assembl
ytear
-gassed,
whi
l
eanot
herwaski
dnappedbypar
atr
ooper
s7
unt
ilheagr
eedt
ocer
tai
ncongr
essi
onaldemands.Fr
om 1979t
hrough1988,
Ecuador st
agger
ed t
hrough a successi
on of execut
ive-
legi
sl
ati
ve
conf
ront
ati
onst
hatcr
eat
edanearper
manentcr
isi
sat
mospher
eint
hepol
i
cy.
I
n 1984,Pr
esi
dent Leon Febr
es Cor
der
otr
ied t
o phy
sical
l
y bar new
Congr
essi
onal
l
y-appoi
ntedsupr
emecour
tappoi
nteesf
rom t
aki
ngt
hei
rseat
s.
Suchaf
ail
urei
srar
elypossi
blei
nthepar
li
ament
arysy
stem ofgov
ernment
duet
othecl
osecooper
ati
onbet
weent
het
wopower
fulor
gansoft
hest
ate,
i
.
e.,
thel
egi
sl
atur
eandt
heexecut
ive.

b)Separ
ati
onofPower
s

Pr
esi
dent
ialsy
stems ar
e sai
d bycr
it
ics nott
o of
ferv
oter
sthe ki
nd of
account
abi
l
ity seen i
n par
li
ament
ary sy
stems.I
tis easy f
orei
thert
he
pr
esi
dentorCongr
esst
oescapebl
amebybl
ami
ngt
heot
her
.Descr
ibi
ngt
he
Uni
tedSt
ates,f
ormerTr
easur
ySecr
etar
yCDougl
asDi
l
lonsai
d"t
hepr
esi
dent
bl
amesCongr
ess,t
heCongr
essbl
amest
hepr
esi
dent
,andt
hepubl
i
cremai
ns
conf
usedanddi
sgust
edwi
thgov
ernmenti
nWashi
ngt
on.
"

Consi
dert
heexampl
eoft
hei
ncr
easei
nthef
eder
aldebtoft
heUni
tedSt
ates
t
hatoccur
reddur
ingt
hepr
esi
dencyofRonal
dReagan.Ar
guabl
y,t
hedef
ici
ts
wer
ethepr
oductofabar
gai
nbet
weenPr
esi
dentReaganandSpeakeroft
he
HouseofRepr
esent
ati
ves.Thel
att
eragr
eednott
oopposeReagan'
staxcut
s
i
fReaganwoul
dsi
gnt
heDemocr
ats'budget
.Eachsi
decoul
dcl
aimt
obe
di
spl
easedwi
tht
hedebt
,pl
ausi
blybl
amet
heot
hersi
def
ort
hedef
ici
t,and
st
il
lpubl
i
cizei
tsown success,si
ncebot
h had gotwhatt
heywant
ed t
o
achi
eve,t
ax r
educt
ion f
ort
he pr
esi
dentand budgetappr
ovalf
ort
he

7
Tr
oopst
rai
nedt
ofi
ghti
npar
achut
es
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 26

Democr
ats,whi
l
ethedebtpr
obl
em st
il
lremai
nedapr
obl
em t
hatt
hepubl
i
c

woul
dhav
etol
i
vewi
th.

Ont
heot
herhand,manyobser
ver
sbel
i
evet
hatf
eder
albudgetsur
plusesof
t
hel
ate1990si
ntheUni
tedSt
ateswer
eadi
rectr
esul
tofdi
vi
dedgov
ernment
.
ARepubl
i
canCongr
essr
efusedt
oal
l
ow Democr
ati
cPr
esi
dentBi
l
lCl
i
ntont
o
i
ncr
easedomest
icspendi
ng,whi
l
eCl
i
ntonr
efusedt
oal
l
ow Congr
esst
ocut
t
axes.Thecombi
nat
ionofspendi
ngr
est
rai
ntandhi
ghr
evenuesl
edt
othe
el
i
minat
ionoft
heannualbudgetdef
ici
t.Thus,aswecanseef
rom such
scenar
iosmostoft
hepol
i
ticalgamedependsonhowt
hepl
ayer
smanaget
o
handl
eitpr
oper
lyandwi
thduecar
etot
hepubl
i
c’si
nter
est
.

c)I
mpedi
ment
stol
eader
shi
pchanges

Anot
heral
l
eged pr
obl
em ofpr
esi
dent
ial
i
sm i
sthati
tisof
ten di
ff
icul
tto
r
emov
eapr
esi
dentf
rom of
fi
ceear
ly.Ev
eni
fapr
esi
denti
spr
ovedt
obe
i
nef
fi
ci
ent
,ev
eni
fhebecomesunpopul
ar,
eveni
fhi
spol
i
cyi
sunaccept
abl
eto
t
hemaj
ori
tyofhi
scount
rymen,heandhi
smet
hodsmustbeendur
edt
il
lthe
momentcomesf
oranewel
ect
ion.Si
ncet
her
eisnol
egalwayt
oremov
ean
unpopul
arpr
esi
dent
,manypr
esi
dent
ialcount
ri
eshav
eexper
iencedmi
l
itar
y
coupst
oremov
eal
eaderwhoi
ssai
dtohav
elosthi
smandat
e.

I
npar
li
ament
arysy
stems,unpopul
arl
eader
scanbequi
ckl
yremov
edbya
v
oteofno conf
idence,apr
ocedur
ewhi
ch i
sreckoned t
o bea"
pressur
e
r
eleasev
alv
e"f
orpol
i
ticalt
ensi
on.Vot
esofno conf
idencear
eeasi
ert
o
achi
evei
nmi
nor
it
ygov
ernmentsi
tuat
ions,butev
eni
ftheunpopul
arl
eader
headsamaj
ori
tygov
ernment
,nonet
hel
esshei
sof
teni
naf
arl
esssecur
e
posi
ti
ont
hanapr
esi
dent
.Remov
ingapr
esi
dentt
hroughi
mpeachmenti
sa
pr
ocessmandat
ed by t
he const
it
uti
on and i
s usual
l
y made i
ntoav
ery
di
ff
icul
tpr
ocess;bycompar
isont
hepr
ocessofr
emov
ingapar
tyl
eaderi
s
gov
ernedbyt
he(
oft
enmuchl
essf
ormal
)rul
esoft
hepar
tyi
nquest
ion.
Near
lyal
lpar
ti
es
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 27

(
incl
udi
nggov
erni
ngpar
ti
es)hav
ear
elat
ivel
ysi
mpl
eandst
rai
ght
for
war
d

pr
ocess f
or r
emov
ing t
hei
rleader
s.I
f a pr
emi
er sust
ains a ser
ious
enoughbl
ow t
ohi
spopul
ari
tyandr
efusest
oresi
gnonhi
sown,t
henot
her
pr
omi
nentpar
ty member
s wi
l
lli
kel
yini
ti
ateal
eader
shi
p chal
l
enge i
n
hopesofmi
ti
gat
ingdamaget
othepar
ty.Mor
eof
tent
hannot
,apr
emi
er
f
aci
ng aser
iouschal
l
engewi
l
lresi
gnbef
oreheorshei
sfor
mal
l
yremov
ed-
Mar
gar
etThat
cher
’sr
eli
nqui
shi
ng ofherpr
emi
ershi
p bei
ng a pr
omi
nent
,
r
ecentexampl
e.

Wal
terBagehot
,in hi
s book ‘
The Engl
i
sh Const
it
uti
on,t
he Cabi
net
’,had
descr
ibedt
hissi
tuat
ioni
nthef
oll
owi
ngwor
ds;
‘
Underacabi
netconst
it
uti
onatasuddenemer
gencyt
hepeopl
e
canchoosear
ulerf
ort
heoccasi
on.I
tisqui
tepossi
bleandeven
l
i
kel
ythathe woul
d notbe r
ulerbef
oret
he occasi
on…Byt
he
st
ruct
ureoft
hewor
ldwewant
,att
hesuddenoccur
renceofa
gr
avet
empest
,tochanget
hehel
msman-
tor
epl
acet
hepi
l
otoft
he
cal
m by t
he pi
l
ot of t
he st
orm.But under a pr
esi
dent
ial
gover
nmentyou can do not
hing oft
he ki
nd.The Amer
ican
gover
nmentcal
l
sit
sel
fagover
nmentoft
hesupr
emepeopl
e;but
ata qui
ck cr
isi
s,t
he t
ime when a sover
eign poweri
s most
needed,youcannotf
indt
hesupr
emepeopl
e.Youhavegota
congr
essel
ect
edf
oronef
ixedper
iod,goi
ngoutper
hapsbyf
ixed
i
nst
all
ment
s,whi
chcannotbeaccel
erat
edorr
etar
ded-
youhavea
pr
esi
dentchosenf
oraf
ixedper
iod,andi
mmovabl
edur
ingt
hat
per
iod:..Ther
eisnoel
ast
icel
ement...youhavebespokenyour
gover
nmenti
nadvanceandwhet
heri
tiswhatyouwantornot
,by
l
awyoumustkeepi
t...
’

Fi
nal
l
y,manyhav
ecr
it
ici
zedpr
esi
dent
ialsy
stemsf
ort
hei
ral
l
egedsl
owness
i
nrespondi
ngt
othei
rci
ti
zens'needs.Of
ten,t
hechecksandbal
ancesmake
act
ionext
remel
ydi
ff
icul
t.Wal
terBagehotsai
doft
heAmer
icansy
stem "
the
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 28

execut
ivei
scr
ippl
edbynotget
ti
ngt
hel
aw i
tneeds,andt
hel
egi
sl
atur
eis

spoi
l
edbyhav
ingt
oactwi
thoutr
esponsi
bil
i
ty:t
heexecut
ivebecomesunf
it
f
ori
tsname,si
ncei
tcannotexecut
ewhati
tdeci
deson;t
hel
egi
sl
atur
e
i
sdemor
ali
zed by l
i
ber
ty,by t
aki
ng deci
si
ons ofot
her
s[and noti
tsel
f]
wi
l
lsuf
fert
heef
fect
s."

1.
3.Di
ff
erencesbet
weent
hePar
li
ament
aryandPr
esi
dent
ial
syst
em
Bef
orewegot
othenextt
opi
cpr
ecededbyf
ew exer
cisequest
ionsont
he
pr
esi
dent
ialsy
stem,l
et’
sbr
ief
lyout
li
net
hedi
ff
erencest
hatexi
stbet
weent
he
t
wosy
stemswhi
chwi
l
lal
sobeani
ndi
rectsummar
yofwhatwehav
eal
ready
di
scussed.Anumberofdi
ff
erences,
bot
htheor
eti
calaswel
laspr
act
ical
,exi
st
bet
weent
het
wo.Someoft
hesear
eout
li
nedbel
ow;

 I
napr
esi
dent
ialsy
stem,t
hecent
ralpr
inci
plei
sthatt
hel
egi
sl
ati
veand
execut
ivebr
anchesofgov
ernmentshoul
dbesepar
ate.Thi
sleadst
o
t
hesepar
ateel
ect
ionofpr
esi
dent
,whoi
sel
ect
edt
oof
fi
cef
oraf
ixed
t
erm,
andonl
yremov
abl
eforgr
ossmi
sdemeanorbyi
mpeachmentand
di
smi
ssal
.In addi
ti
on heorshedoesnotneed t
o choosecabi
net
member
scommandi
ngt
hesuppor
toft
hel
egi
sl
atur
e.Bycont
rast
,in
par
li
ament
ari
ani
sm,t
he execut
ive br
anch i
sled by a counci
lof
mi
nist
ers,headedbyaPr
imeMi
nist
er,whoar
edi
rect
lyaccount
abl
eto
t
hel
egi
sl
atur
eandof
tenhav
ethei
rbackgr
oundi
nthel
egi
sl
atur
e.
 Aswi
tht
hepr
esi
dent
'ssett
erm ofof
fi
ce,
thel
egi
sl
atur
eal
soexi
stsf
ora

sett
erm ofof
fi
ceandcannotbedi
ssol
vedaheadofschedul
e.By
cont
rast
,in par
li
ament
arysy
stems,t
he l
egi
sl
atur
e can t
ypi
cal
l
ybe
di
ssol
vedatanyst
agedur
ingi
tsl
i
febyt
heheadofst
ate,
usual
l
yont
he
adv
iceofei
therPr
imeMi
nist
eral
one,
byt
hePr
imeMi
nist
erandcabi
net
,
orbyt
hecabi
net
.Whi
choft
heset
hreeopt
ionscanbeused
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 29

undert
heFDREconst
it
uti
on?Car
eful
l
yreadsubpar
agr
aphs(
1)&(
2)

whi
l
eanswer
ingt
hisquest
ion.

 I
napr
esi
dent
ialsy
stem,t
hepr
esi
dentusual
l
yhasspeci
alpr
ivi
l
egesi
n
t
heenact
mentofl
egi
sl
ati
on,
namel
ythepossessi
onofapowerofv
eto
ov
erl
egi
sl
ati
onofbi
l
ls,i
nsomecasessubj
ectt
othepoweroft
he
l
egi
sl
atur
ebywei
ghedmaj
ori
tyt
o ov
err
idet
hev
eto.Howev
er,i
tis
ext
remel
yrar
efort
hepr
esi
dentt
ohav
ethepowert
odi
rect
lypr
opose
l
aws,
orcastav
oteonl
egi
sl
ati
on.Thel
egi
sl
atur
eandt
hepr
esi
dentar
e
t
husexpect
edt
oser
veaschecksandbal
ancesoneachot
her
'spower
s.
 Pr
act
ical
l
yspeaki
ng,el
ement
s ofbot
h sy
stems ov
erl
ap.Though a

pr
esi
denti
n a pr
esi
dent
ialsy
stem does nothav
eto choose a
gov
ernmentanswer
abl
etot
hel
egi
sl
atur
e,t
hel
egi
sl
atur
emayhav
ethe
r
ightt
oscr
uti
nizehi
sorherappoi
ntment
stohi
ghgov
ernment
alof
fi
ce,
wi
tht
her
ight
,onsomeoccasi
ons,t
obl
ockanappoi
ntment
.Int
he
Uni
tedSt
ates,manyappoi
ntment
smustbeconf
ir
medbyt
heSenat
e.
By cont
rast
,though answer
abl
e t
o par
li
ament
,a par
li
ament
ary
sy
stem'
scabi
netmaybeabl
etomakeuseoft
hepar
li
ament
ary'
whi
p'
(
anobl
i
gat
iononpar
tymember
sinpar
li
amentt
ovot
ewi
tht
hei
rpar
ty)
t
ocont
rolanddomi
nat
epar
li
ament
,reduci
ngi
tsabi
l
ityt
ocont
rolt
he
gov
ernment
.
 Somecount
ri
es,
suchasFr
ancehav
esi
mil
arl
yev
olv
edt
osuchadegr
ee

t
hatt
heycannol
ongerbeaccur
atel
ydescr
ibedasei
therpr
esi
dent
ialor
par
li
ament
ary
-st
ylegov
ernment
s,andar
einst
eadgr
oupedundert
he
cat
egor
yofsemi
-pr
esi
dent
ialsy
stem.Dearst
udentr
eadcar
eful
l
ywhat
Ihav
eputi
nthef
oll
owi
ngboxaboutt
hesemi
-pr
esi
dent
ial
syst
em.

∑
Thesemi
-pr
esi
dent
ialsy
stem i
sasy
stem ofgov
ernmenti
nwhi
chapr
ime
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 30

mi
nist
erand a pr
esi
dentar
e bot
h act
ive par
ti
ci
pant
sint
he day
-to-
day

admi
nist
rat
ionoft
hest
ate.I
tdi
ff
ersf
rom apar
li
ament
aryr
epubl
i
cint
hati
t
hasapopul
arl
yel
ect
ed pr
esi
dentwho i
smor
ethan apur
elycer
emoni
al
f
igur
ehead.I
tdi
ff
ersf
rom t
he pr
esi
dent
ialsy
stem i
nthatt
he cabi
net
,
al
thoughnamedbyt
hepr
esi
dent
,isr
esponsi
blet
othel
egi
sl
atur
e,whi
chmay
f
orcet
hecabi
nett
oresi
gnt
hroughamot
ionofnoconf
idence.

How t
hepower
sar
edi
vi
dedbet
weenpr
esi
dentandpr
imemi
nist
ercanv
ary
gr
eat
lybet
weencount
ri
es.I
nFr
ance,
forexampl
e,t
hepr
esi
denti
sresponsi
ble
f
orf
orei
gnpol
i
cyandt
hepr
imemi
nist
erf
ordomest
icpol
i
cy.I
nthi
scase,t
he
di
vi
si
on ofpower
s bet
ween t
he pr
ime mi
nist
erand t
he pr
esi
denti
s not
expl
i
cit
lyst
atedi
ntheconst
it
uti
on,buthasev
olv
edasapol
i
ticalconv
ent
ion.
I
nFi
nland,bycont
rast
,thi
spar
ti
cul
araspectoft
hesepar
ati
onofpower
sis
expl
i
cit
lyst
atedi
ntheconst
it
uti
on:"
for
eignpol
i
cyi
sledbyt
hepr
esi
denti
n
cooper
ati
onwi
tht
hecabi
net
".

Semi
-pr
esi
dent
ialsy
stemsar
esomet
imest
ypi
fi
edbyper
iodsofcohabi
tat
ion,
i
nwhi
cht
hepr
imemi
nist
erandpr
esi
dentar
eel
ect
edsepar
atel
y,andof
ten
f
rom r
ivalpar
ti
es.Thi
s can cr
eat
e an ef
fect
ive sy
stem ofchecks and
bal
ancesora per
iod ofbi
tt
erand t
ense st
onewal
l
ing,dependi
ng on t
he
at
ti
tudesoft
het
wol
eader
s,t
hei
deol
ogi
esoft
hei
rpar
ti
es,ort
hedemandsof
t
hei
rconst
it
uenci
es.Asat
ypi
calexampl
e,Sr
iLankanpol
i
ticsf
orsev
eraly
ear
s
wi
tnessedabi
tt
erst
ruggl
ebet
weent
hePr
esi
dentandt
hePr
imeMi
nist
er,
bel
ongi
ngt
odi
ff
erentpar
ti
esandel
ect
edsepar
atel
y,ov
ert
henegot
iat
ions
wi
tht
heLTTE(
Liber
ati
onTi
ger
sofTami
lEelam,commonl
yknow asTami
l
Ti
ger
s)t
oresol
vet
hel
ongst
andi
ngci
vi
lwar
.
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 31

Dearst
udent
,nowwehav
egonet
hroughourdi
scussi
onoft
hedi
sti
ngui
shi
ng

f
eat
ures oft
he t
wo maj
orsy
stems ofgov
ernment
,incl
udi
ng t
he semi
-
pr
esi
dent
ialsy
stem whi
chl
i
esi
nthemi
ddl
e,aswel
last
hepr
osandconsof
t
het
wosy
stems.Bywayofconcl
usi
onIhav
eputf
ewexer
cisequest
ionsf
or
y
ouwhi
chy
ouneedt
oanswerbyy
our
sel
fbef
orechecki
ngt
her
esponsest
hat
Ihav
epr
ovi
dedf
ory
ouatt
heendoft
hemodul
e.

Exer
ciseI
I
1.Woodr
owWi
l
sononcemadet
hef
oll
owi
ngr
emar
k;

‘
...how i
stheschool
mast
er-
thenat
ion-
toknow whi
chboyneeds
t
hewhi
ppi
ng?...Powerandst
ri
ctaccount
abi
l
ityf
ori
tsusear
ethe
essent
ialconst
it
uent
sofgood gover
nment
....I
tis,t
her
efor
e,
mani
fest
lyar
adi
caldef
ecti
nourf
eder
alsyst
em t
hati
tpar
cel
sout
powerandconf
usesr
esponsi
bil
i
tyasi
tdoes.Themai
npur
pose
oft
heConvent
ionof1787seemst
ohavebeent
oaccompl
i
sht
his
gr
ievousmi
stake.The`
li
ter
aryt
heor
y'ofchecksandbal
ancesi
s
si
mpl
yaconsi
stentaccountofwhatourconst
it
uti
onmaker
str
iedt
o
do;andt
hosechecksandbal
anceshavepr
ovedmi
schi
evousj
ustt
o
t
heext
entwhi
cht
heyhavesucceededi
nest
abl
i
shi
ngt
hemsel
ves...
[
theFr
amer
s]woul
d bet
hef
ir
stt
o admi
tthatt
heonl
yfr
uitof
di
vi
dingpowerhadbeent
omakei
tir
responsi
ble.
’
(Congr
essi
onal
Gover
nment
,186-
7)Br
ief
lydescr
ibewhatWoodr
ow wasmeantby
t
hisst
atement
.

2.‘
The adv
ant
ages of t
he par
li
ament
ary sy
stem ar
e t
he
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 32

di
sadv
ant
agesoft
hepr
esi
dent
ialoneandv
isev
ersa.
’Doy
ou

agr
eewi
tht
hisst
atement
?Why
?

3.Br
ief
ly descr
ibe t
he adv
ant
ages and di
sadv
ant
ages of t
he

Pr
esi
dent
ial
syst
em ofgov
ernment
.

4.Thename‘
presi
dent
’canbeappl
i
ed i
nset
ti
ngsot
hert
hana

r
epubl
i
canpr
esi
dent
ialsy
stems.Cany
oust
atet
woexampl
esof

suchappl
i
cat
ions?

5.Whatar
ethemai
ndi
ff
erencesoft
hepar
li
ament
ari
anandt
he

pr
esi
dent
ial
syst
emsofgov
ernment
?

6.Let
’sassumet
haty
ouhav
ebeenhi
redasaconsul
tantbyacet
rai
n

count
rywhi
chi
sin ast
ateoft
ransi
ti
ont
oademocr
ati
csy
stem of
gov
ernment
.Oneoft
het
asksf
orwhi
chy
ouhav
ebeenhi
redi
s,
amongot
her
s,t
ogi
vey
ourpr
ofessi
onalopi
niononwhi
chsy
stem
ofgov
ernmentt
hatt
hecount
ryshoul
doptf
or.Pl
easegi
vey
our
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 33

br
iefexpl
anat
ionont
hepossi
blechoi
cet
haty
ouwoul
dmake

wi
thy
ourr
easons.

7.Whati
s‘v
oteofnoconf
idence’andwhati
s‘i
mpeachment
’?How

ar
etheset
wor
elat
ed,
ift
her
ear
erel
atedatal
l
?

Chapt
erI
I.St
ruct
uresofGov
ernment

2.
1.I
ntr
oduct
ion
I
n t
he maj
ori
ty of nat
ions,t
he publ
i
c gov
ernment cont
ains mul
ti
ple
gov
ernment
swi
thi
nit
sel
f,eachofwhi
chhast
hei
rownj
uri
sdi
cti
onandl
aws.
Ther
ear
esev
eralst
ruct
uresofgov
ernment
,theuni
tar
y,t
hef
eder
al,andt
he
conf
eder
ate. These st
ruct
ures of gov
ernment i
ncl
ude a cent
ral cor
e
gov
ernmentt
hati
sspr
ead nat
ional
l
y,al
ong wi
th gov
ernment
sofsmal
l
er
di
vi
si
onsoft
henat
ion-
stat
esuchasst
ate,pr
ovi
nce,di
str
ict
,andci
ty,among
ot
her
s.Al
loft
hesai
dgov
ernment
sfunct
ionaccor
dingt
oacer
tai
nst
ruct
ured
pl
an.Mostcount
ri
eshav
eagov
ernmentt
hatusesei
therauni
tar
yoraf
eder
al
sy
stem,al
though some count
ri
es use a sy
stem wi
thf
eder
aland uni
tar
y
char
act
eri
sti suchasaf
cs, eder
acy.

Dearst
udent
,int
hischapt
erourdi
scussi
oni
smor
eofst
ruct
ureandt
hef
ir
st
chapt
erwasonhow t
hisst
ruct
urei
stobeputi
ntomot
ion.Thati
swhywe
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 34

f
indaboutst
ruct
urei
nourFDREconst
it
uti
onunderAr
ti
cl
e1whi
chst
ates

‘
Thi
sconst
it
uti
onest
abl
i
shesaFeder
alandDemocr
ati
cst
atest
ruct
ure.
’Thi
s
st
atest
ruct
urei
ssupposedt
obeoper
ati
onal
i
zedt
hrought
hepar
li
ament
ari
an
sy
stem ofgov
ernmentasest
abl
i
shedunderAr
ti
cl
e45t
hatwehav
eseen
i
nourf
ir
stchapt
erdi
scussi
on.

Gener
alObj
ect
ives:
Ast
udentwhof
ini
shesr
eadi
ngt
hischapt
erwi
l
lhav
e

 The under
standi
ng as t
othe meani
ng and nat
ure oft
he uni
tar
y
st
ruct
ureofgov
ernment
;
 The abi
l
ityt
o anal
yze t
he el
ement
s oft
he f
eder
alst
ruct
ure of

gov
ernment
;

 Theknowl
edget
odi
sti
ngui
sht
heconf
eder
alst
ruct
ureofgov
ernment
f
rom t
hatoft
heuni
tar
yandt
hef
eder
alst
atest
ruct
ureaswel
las
f
eder
acy
;
 Thecapaci
tyt
orespondt
otheor
eti
calaswel
laspr
act
icalquest
ions

r
elat
ingt
ost
ruct
ureofgov
ernment
;

 Bet
terunder
standi
ngoft
heEt
hiopi
anf
eder
alst
atest
ruct
ure.

2.
2.Uni
tar
yst
atest
ruct
ure
Theuni
tar
ysy
stem gi
vest
hemai
npower
stot
hecent
ralgov
ernment
.St
ate,
pr
ovi
nci
al,andl
ocalgov
ernment
sar
eal
lcr
eat
edbyt
hecent
ralgov
ernment
.
Thenon-
cent
ralgov
ernment
shav
eonl
ythepower
sthatar
egr
ant
edbyt
he
cent
ralgov
ernment
.Count
ri
essuchasFr
ance,I
tal
y,Japan,andt
heUni
ted
Ki
ngdom,al
ongwi
thot
herdemocr
ati
cnat
ions,uset
heuni
tar
yst
ruct
ureof
gov
ernment
.Howev
er,not ev
ery count
ry uses t
he same r
ules i
nthe
cent
ral
i
zat
ion and decent
ral
i
zat
ion ofpower
s.Ti
l
lthe 1995 const
it
uti
on,
Et
hiopi
a has had such uni
tar
yst
ate st
ruct
ure wi
th cent
ral
i
zed powerof
gov
ernance.
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 35

Themaj
ori
tyoft
hewor
ld'
scount
ri
es(
cur
rent
lynear
ly169count
ri
es)ar
e

uni
tar
yst
atesmai
nlybecausemostoft
hem ar
enotl
argeenought
owar
ranta
separ
ati
on i
nto di
sti
ncti
nter
nalt
err
it
ori
es.Thus manyoft
he non-
uni
tar
y
st
atesoft
hewor
ldar
ever
ylar
gei
nsi
ze,par
ti
cul
arl
yRussi
a,Canada,Uni
ted
St
ates,Br
azi
l
,Indi
aandAust
ral
i
a.Thi
sdoesnoti
mpl
ythatl
argesi
zewi
l
l
i
nvar
iabl
yresul
tinnon-
uni
tar
ygov
ernment
;Chi
na,f
ori
nst
ance,duet
oit
s
pol
i
ticalandsoci
o-cul
tur
alhi
stor
y,hasnotseent
her
iseofanon-
uni
tar
y
ar
rangement
,thoughcer
tai
neconomi
stsar
guet
hatt
hecur
rentpol
i
ticaland
economi
csi
tuat
ioni
nmai
nlandChi
naconst
it
uteauni
quef
orm ofChi
nese
f
eder
ali
sm.Ot
hercount
er-
exampl
es ar
e Bel
gium and Swi
tzer
land,whi
ch
despi
teasmal
lter
ri
tor
yhav
edev
elopedacompl
exf
eder
alsy
stem.

I
nauni
tar
yst
ate,anysub-
gov
ernment
aluni
tscanbecr
eat
edorabol
i
shed,
andhav
ethei
rpower
svar
ied,byt
hecent
ralgov
ernment
.Thepr
ocessi
n
whi
chsub-
gov
ernmentuni
tsand/
orr
egi
onalpar
li
ament
sar
ecr
eat
edbya
cent
ralgov
ernmenti
sknownasdev
olut
ion.Auni
tar
yst
atecanbr
oadenand
nar
row t
hef
unct
ionsofsuch dev
olv
ed (
sub-
gov
ernment
s)wi
thoutf
ormal
agr
eementf
rom t
he af
fect
ed bodi
es.I
nfeder
alsy
stems,by cont
rast
,
assembl
i
esi
nthosest
atescomposi
ngt
hef
eder
ati
onhav
eaconst
it
uti
onal
exi
stenceandasetofconst
it
uti
onalf
unct
ionswhi
chcannotbeuni
l
ater
all
y
changedbyt
hecent
ralgov
ernment
.Ev
eni
nsomesuchcases,suchasi
nthe
Uni
tedSt
atesandEt
hiopi
a,i
tist
hef
eder
algov
ernmentt
hathasonl
ythose
power
sspeci
fi
cal
l
ydel
egat
edt
oit
.

Mostf
eder
alst
atesal
sohav
euni
tar
ylowerl
evel
sofgov
ernment
.Thuswhi
l
e
t
heUni
tedSt
atesi
tsel
fisf
eder
al,most(
ifnotal
l
)U.
S.St
atesar
ethemsel
ves
uni
tar
y,wi
th count
ies and ot
hermuni
ci
pal
i
tieshav
ing onl
ythe aut
hor
it
y
gi
ven(
dev
olv
ed)t
othem byt
hest
ateconst
it
uti
onorl
egi
sl
atur
e.Si
mil
arl
y,i
n
ourf
eder
alsy
stem,eachr
egi
onhasi
tsownsub-
lev
elsofgov
ernment
,the
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 36

l ng Wor
owest bei eda. The power
s and f
unct
ions of t
hese l
ower
l
evel

gov
ernment
sar
etobedescr
ibedi
neachoft
her
egi
onal
legi
sl
ati
ons.

Dearst
udent
,hav
eyougr
aspedt
heconceptoft
heuni
tar
yst
atest
ruct
ure?I
tis
j
ustasi
tuat
ionwher
ewehav
easi
ngl
elegi
sl
atur
e,execut
iveandj
udi
ci
al
or
gans ofgov
ernmentand t
he subuni
ts bei
ng dependenton t
he cent
ral
command.Youwi
l
lunder
standi
tev
enbet
terwhenwel
ooki
ntot
heot
her
sy
stemssi
ncey
ouwi
l
lhav
etheoppor
tuni
tyt
ocompar
e.

2.
3.Feder
alSt
ateSt
ruct
ure
Thename‘
feder
ali
sm’i
sder
ivedf
rom t
heLat
int
erm‘
foedus’whi
chmeans
cov
enant
.Thet
ermf
eder
ali
sm i
susedt
odescr
ibeasy
stem ofgov
ernmenti
n
whi
ch sov
erei
gnt
yis const
it
uti
onal
l
ydi
vi
ded bet
ween a cent
ralgov
erni
ng
aut
hor
it
yand const
it
uentpol
i
ticaluni
ts(
li
kest
ates,pr
ovi
nces,r
egi
onsor
cant
ons)
.Thus,f
eder
ali
sm i
sthesy
stem i
nwhi
cht
hepowert
ogov
erni
s
shar
edbet
weent
henat
ional& st
ategov
ernment
s,cr
eat
ingwhati
sof
ten
cal
l
edaf
eder
ati
on.
8

Unl
i
ket
heUni
tar
ysy
stem,t
hef
eder
alsy
stem dev
elopswhenanumberof
st
atesorpr
ovi
ncesf
eder
ate,
orf
orm auni
on,
event
ual
l
yinor
dert
oest
abl
i
sha
nat
ion.I
n a gov
ernmentusi
ng t
he f
eder
alsy
stem,t
he power
s oft
he
gov
ernmentar
ejoi
ntl
yshar
edbet
weent
hecent
ralgov
ernmentandt
hemor
e
l
ocalorr
egi
onalgov
ernment
s.Bot
hoft
hecent
ralandr
egi
onalgov
ernment
s
ar
e di
rect
lyt
ied t
othe peopl
e,who ar
ethe sour
ce ofa democr
ati
c
gov
ernment
’s aut
hor
it
y.The Uni
ted St
ates,Ar
gent
ina,Aust
ral
i
a,Aust
ri
a,
Bel
gium,Br
azi
l
,Canada,Et
hiopi
a,Ger
many
,Indi
a,Mexi
co,andSwi
tzer
land,
among ot
her
s,hav
efeder
alsy
stems.I
tismor
e di
ff
icul
tfornat
ion-
wide

8
Beclearofthediff
erencebetween‘federali
sm’and‘f
ederati
on’.
Federali
smi sjustt
he
poli
ti
cal conceptusedtodescribethecomi ngtoget
herofstates/
regionsfortheformat
ion
offederations.Thelat
teri
sjusttheinsti
tuti
onsofthi
ssortthatareformedt hrougha
federalconstit
uti
on.
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 37

t
otal
i
tar
iani
sm t
oexi
sti
naf
eder
ati
on,f
orf
eder
ati
ont
heor
eti
cal
l
yli
mit
sthe

cent
ral
i
zat
ionofpoweri
nthef
ew,al
thought
heSov
ietUni
onandNazi
Ger
manywer
efor
mal
l
yfeder
ati
onsal
so.

I
nit
smor
egener
alunder
standi
ng,
feder
alst
atest
ruct
urei
sconcei
vedofasan
i
dealor
gani
zat
ionofhumanaf
fai
rsasr
efl
ect
edi
nthecel
ebr
ati
onofdi
ver
sit
y
t
hroughuni
ty.Thus,i
tbr
ingst
oget
hert
woasy
mmet
ri
cint
erest
swi
thwel
l
def
inedmechani
smsofbal
anci
ngatt
hesamet
ime.I
tist
husconsi
der
edas‘
a
compr
omi
se,conv
eyed by t
he i
mage ofchecks and bal
ances bet
ween
uni
tyanddi
ver
sit
y,aut
onomyandsov
erei
gnt
y,t
henat
ionalandr
egi
onal
.
’Thi
s
i
sbasi
cal
l
ydonet
hroughaf
eder
alconst
it
uti
onwhosepr
imar
yconcer
nist
he
di
vi
si
onofpower
sbet
weent
hecent
ral
andt
her
egi
onal
gov
ernment
s.

Feder
ali
sm
I
n di
sti
ngui
shi
ng f
eder
ati
on f
rom ot
herf
ormsofst
ate or
gani
sat
ion most
comment
ator
sconsi tasadecent
deri ral
i
sedpol
i
ticalsyst
em possessi
nga
const
it
uti
onalgov
ernmenti
nwhi
chconst
it
uentt
err
it
ori
aluni
tsar
einv
olv
ed
n apol
i i
ticsofaccommodat
ion.Thenat
ureandscal
eoft
hedi
vi
si
onsof
power
sbet
weent
hecent
reandt
her
egi
oncanbedi
sti
ngui
shedf
rom ot
her
f
ormsofpol
i
ticaldev
olut
ionbyv
irt
ueoft
hef hatr
actt egi
onalaut
onomyand
r
epr
esent
ati
onar
enotonl
ymor
edev
olv
edbutar
econst
it
uti
onal
l
yguar
ant
eed.
Thecent
redoesnothavet
hej
udi
cialr
ightt
oabol
i
sh,amendorr
edef
inei
ts
t
err
it
ori
aluni
ts.Thus,i
nfeder
ati
ons,r
egi
onaluni
tsar
einef
fectt
rul
ylocal
st
ateswi
thl
ocalst
ater
ight
s.(
Graham Smi
th(
ed)
,(1995)
,Feder
ali
sm:The
Mul
ti
ethni
cChal
l
enge.
)

Dearst
udent
,cany
ouseef
ew poi
ntst
hatdi
sti
ngui
shf
eder
alst
atest
ruct
ure
f
rom t
hatoft
heUni
tar
y?Cany
oupi
ckatl
eastt
hreepoi
ntsf
rom Gr
aham’
s
st
atement
s t
hat make f
eder
ati
on di
sti
nct f
rom t
hat of t
he Uni
tar
y
st
ate
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 38

st
ruct
ure?

Dearst
udent
,ify
ouhav
emanagedt
oext
ractt
hef
oll
owi
ngpoi
nts,y
ouhav
e

cl
ear
lyunder
stoodGr
aham’
swr
it
ingsaboutf
eder
ali
sm:

 Feder
ali
sm i
sadecent
ral
i
sedsy
stem ofgov
ernment
,whi
l
etheuni
tar
y
sy
stem i
shi
ghl
ycent
ral
i
sedone;
 Mor
eregi
onalaut
onomy and r
epr
esent
ati
on wi
thi
nthe cent
ral

gov
ernmentexi
stsi
nfeder
ali
sm whi
ch hast
o beguar
ant
eed bya
const
it
uti
on,whi
l
einuni
tar
yst
atest
ruct
ure,t
hecent
ralgov
ernment
deci
deshow muchaut
onomyandr
epr
esent
ati
onshoul
dit
ssubuni
ts
possessandt
hatmaynotnecessar
il
ybei
ntheconst
it
uti
on;
and
 Thecent
ralgov
ernmentdoesnothav
etheuni
l
ater
alj
udi
ci
alr
ightt
o

abol
i
sh,
amendorr
edef
inei
tst
err
it
ori
aluni
tsaswel
last
hei
rpower
s.

Thesear
ethemai
npoi
ntst
hatGr
aham hadenunci
atedi
nhi
swr
it
ings.

Dearst
udent
,si
ncet
hisi
sast
atest
ruct
uret
hatourcount
ryi
scur
rent
ly

hav
ing,weshal
ldev
oteonesubsect
ionandwi
l
ltr
eatsomeoft
her
emai
ning
i
ssuesi
nther
e.

2.
4.Conf
eder
ati
on
Aconf
eder
ati
oni
sanassoci
ati
onofsov
erei
gnst
atesorcommuni
ti
es,usual
l
y
cr
eat
ed by t
reat
y but of
ten l
ater adopt
ing a common const
it
uti
on.
Conf
eder
ati
onst
endt
obeest
abl
i
shedf
ordeal
i
ngwi
thcr
it
icali
ssues,suchas
def
ense,f
orei
gnaf
fai
rs,f
orei
gnt
rade,andacommoncur
rency
,wi
tht
he
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 39

cent
ralgov
ernmentbei
ngr
equi
redt
opr
ovi
desuppor
tforal
lmember
s.A

conf
eder
ati
on,i
nmoder
npol
i
ticalt
erms,i
susual
l
yli
mit
edt
oaper
manent
uni
onofsov
erei
gnst
atesf
orcommonact
ioni
nrel
ati
ont
oot
herst
ates.

The nat
ure of t
he r
elat
ionshi
p bet
ween t
he ent
it
ies const
it
uti
ng a
conf
eder
ati
on v
ari
es consi
der
abl
y.Li
kewi
se,t
he r
elat
ionshi
p bet
ween t
he
memberst
atesandt
hecent
ralgov
ernment
,andt
hedi
str
ibut
ionofpower
s
amongt
hem,i
shi
ghl
yvar
iabl
e.Somel
ooserconf
eder
ati
onsar
esi
mil
art
o
i
nter
nat
ional or
gani
zat
ions,whi
l
eti
ght
er conf
eder
ati
ons may r
esembl
e
f
eder
ati
ons.

I
n a non-
pol
i
ticalcont
ext
,conf
eder
ati
on i
s used t
o descr
ibe a t
ype of
or
gani
zat
ion whi
ch consol
i
dat
es aut
hor
it
yfr
om ot
hersemi
-aut
onomous
bodi
es.Exampl
esi
ncl
udespor
tsconf
eder
ati
onsorconf
eder
ati
onsofPan-
Eur
opeant
radeuni
ons.

Mostoft
heconf
eder
ati
onsofst
atesexi
stedonl
yinhi
stor
yandsomeoft
hese
wer
ethe Swi
ss Conf
eder
ati
on (
1291-
1848)
;New Engl
and Conf
eder
ati
on
(
1643-
1684)
; Conf
eder
ate St
ates of Amer
ica (
1861-
1865)
; Uni
on of
Af
ri
canSt
ates (
1961-
1963,Mal
i
+ Ghana+ Gui
nea)
;Uni
ted Ar
ab Republ
i
c
(
conf
eder
ati
ondef
act
o,1958-
1961,Egy
pt+Sy
ria,1963,Egy
pt+Sy
ria+I
raq)
;
Senegambi
a(1982-
89,Senegal+Gambi
a).Whi
l
ethesear
econf
eder
alst
ates,
exampl
es of i
nter
nat
ional or
gani
sat
ions wi
th t
he char
act
eri
sti
cs of
conf
eder
ati
onar
eCommonweal
thofI
ndependentSt
ates(
sof
tconf
eder
ati
on
wi
thv
eryf
ew cent
ralpower
s,consi
sti
ngoff
ormermember
soft
heSov
iet
Russi
a);Eur
opeanUni
on(
sof
tconf
eder
ati
on;f
orei
gnaf
fai
rsl
eftt
omember
st
ates,manyi
ssues need unani
mit
yoft
he memberst
ates)
;and Uni
ted
Nat
ions(
sof
tconf
eder
ati
on;v
eryf
ew cent
ralpower
sal
l
ott
edbymember
-
st
ates)
.
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 40

Conf
eder
ati
onv
s.Feder
ati
on

The di
ff
erence i
n meani
ng bet
ween a conf
eder
ati
on and a f
eder
ati
on had
ev
olv
edi
nusageov
ert
ime.Pr
iort
otheAmer
icanCi
vi
lWar
,thet
ermswer
e
l
argel
ysy
nony
mous,butdi
ff
eri
ngpol
i
ticalv
iewswi
thr
egar
dtot
henat
ureof
pol
i
ticaluni
ons,especi
all
yasappl
i
edt
otheUSConst
it
uti
on(
whi
chupt
othat
t
imewasconsi
der
edbot
haFeder
alandaConf
eder
atedUni
on)
,causedeachof
t
het
ermst
osubsequent
lyembodyoneoft
het
wor
ivalandopposi
ngt
heor
iesof
st
ate'
sri
ght
s.Cur
rent
ly,
aconf
eder
ati
oni
sconsi
der
edast
ateorent
it
ysi
mil
ari
n
st
ruct
ure t
o a f
eder
ati
on but wi
th a weaker cent
ral gov
ernment
.A
conf
eder
ati
onmayal
so consi
stofmemberst
ateswhi
ch,whi
l
etempor
ari
l
y
pool
i
ng sov
erei
gnt
yin cer
tai
n ar
eas,ar
e consi
der
ed ent
ir
elysov
erei
gn and
r
etai
nther
ightofuni
l
ater
alsecessi
on.

Aconf
eder
ati
oni
ssomet
imesal
ooseal
l
iancebuti
not
hercasest
hedi
sti
nct
ion
bet
weenaf
eder
ati
onandaconf
eder
ati
onmaybeambi
guous.I
ncont
rastt
oa
f
eder
ati
on,
amemberst
atemaypar
ti
ci
pat
einmor
ethanoneconf
eder
ati
on.

Becauseoft
hehi
stor
icalsy
nony
mit
ybet
weent
hewor
dsConf
eder
ati
onand
Feder
ati
on,some nat
ions or
igi
nal
l
y or
gani
zed t
hemsel
ves usi
ng t
he t
erm
"
conf
eder
ati
on,
"butar
einf
actf
eder
ati
onsi
nst
ruct
ureascur
rent
lydef
ined.
Al
thoughSwi
tzer
landi
sof
fi
ci
all
yst
yledast
heSwi
ssConf
eder
ati
on,i
tisa
Feder
ati
on bymoder
n st
andar
ds.The Uni
ted St
ates ofAmer
ica was f
ir
st
or
gani
zed undert
he Ar
ti
cl
esofConf
eder
ati
on and Per
pet
ualUni
on,whi
ch
woul
dtodaybedef
ined asaFeder
ati
on,and cont
inued assuchundert
he
cur
rentConst
it
uti
onoft
heUni
tedSt
atesi
n1789.
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 41

NB:Ev
eni
fthi
sist
hegener
alpi
ctur
esoft
het
hreest
atest
ruct
ures,y
ouwi
l
l

hav
etonot
icet
hosef
eat
ureswhi
char
eabsentf
rom ourf
eder
alst
ate
st
ruct
ure.Cany
oui
dent
if
yatl
eastonesuchpoi
nt?
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 42

Thest
atementt
hatsay
s‘f
eder
all
aw maypr
evai
lunderspeci
alci
rcumst
ances’
i
s

nott
ruei
nourf
eder
alsy
stem,unl
essonear
guest
hatt
hegener
alpr
inci
plesof
f
eder
ali
sm mustbeusedt
oint
erpr
ett
heconst
it
uti
onsoast
oreadi
ntoi
tthi
s
supr
emacyoft
hef
eder
all
aw ov
ert
hatoft
her
egi
ons.Butasofy
et,t
her
ehas
beennoasser
ti
onoft
hissor
tbyt
heor
ganwhi
chi
sent
it
ledt
oaut
hor
it
ati
vel
y
i
nter
prett
heconst
it
uti
on.

It
hinkbynow y
ouar
eabl
etounder
standt
he‘
Senat
e’t
omeani
nourcase

‘
HouseofFeder
ati
on’andt
he‘
HouseofCommons’ast
he‘
HouseofPeopl
es’

Repr
esent
ati
ves.
’

2.5.
Federacy
Af
eder
acyi
saf
orm ofgov
ernmentt
hatshar
esf
eat
uresofbot
haf
eder
ati
on
anduni
tar
yst
atest
ruct
ure.I
naf
eder
acy
,atl
eastoneoft
heconst
it
uent
par
tsoft
hest
atei
saut
onomous,whi
l
ethemaj
ori
tyofconst
it
uentpar
tsar
e
notorcompar
ati
vel
ylessaut
onomous.Anexampl
eofsuchanar
rangementi
s
Fi
nland,wher
eÅl
and,whi
chhast
hest
atusofaut
onomouspr
ovi
nce,has
consi
der
abl
ymor
eaut
onomyt
hanot
herFi
nni
shpr
ovi
nces.Theaut
onomous
const
it
uentpar
tenj
oysi
ndependenceast
houghi
twaspar
toff
eder
ati
on,
whi
l
etheot
herconst
it
uentpar
tsar
easi
ndependentassubuni
tsi
nauni
tar
y
st
ate.Thi
s aut
onomy i
s guar
ant
eed i
nthe count
ry'
s const
it
uti
on.The
aut
onomous subuni
ts ar
e of
ten f
ormer col
oni
al possessi
ons. These
aut
onomoussubuni
tsof
tenhav
easpeci
alst
atusi
nint
ernat
ional
rel
ati
ons.
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 43

Let
’sseet
heFi
nni
shÅl
andandt
hatofI
ndi
a’
sKashmi
rsot
hatt
ohav
eacl
ear

pi
ctur
eoff
eder
acy
.Fi
nlandi
sdi
vi
dedi
ntosi
xpr
ovi
nces.Ål
and,al
thoughone
oft
hesi
xpr
ovi
nces,
enj
oysahi
ghdegr
eeofhomer
uleasopposedt
othef
ive
i
n mai
nland Fi
nland.Ext
ensi
ve aut
onomy i
s gr
ant
ed i
nthe Acton t
he
Aut
onomyofÅl
andof1920,andt
heaut
onomywasaf
fi
rmedbyaLeagueof
Nat
ionsdeci
si
oni
n1921.Thegov
ernmentofÅl
andhandl
esdut
iesexer
cised
byst
atepr
ovi
nci
alof
fi
cesoft
hecent
ralgov
ernmenti
not
herpr
ovi
nces.I
t
sendsoner
epr
esent
ati
vet
otheFi
nni
shpar
li
ament
.Iti
sdemi
l
itar
ized,
andi
sa
memberoft
heNor
dicCounci
l
.MostofÅl
and'
sinhabi
tant
sspeakSwedi
sh.
Ål
and'
saut
onomousst
atuswasar
esul
tofdi
sput
esbet
weenSwedenand
Russi
a,andbet
weenFi
nlandandSweden.

I
ndi
aisademocr
ati
cfeder
ati
on.Af
teri
ndependence,v
ari
ouspr
incel
yst
ates
wer
efor
mal
l
yinv
itedt
ojoi
ntheI
ndi
anRepubl
i
c,whi
chwer
eaccept
ed.The
Kashmi
rpr
ovi
nce was r
uled by a Hi
ndu ki
ng butt
he maj
ori
ty ofi
ts
popul
ati
onwasMusl
i
m.WhenPaki
stanimi
l
itant
sinv
adedhi
sland,t
heki
ng
agr
eed t
ojoi
nthe I
ndi
an Republ
i
c,wi
th an agr
eement f
or Kashmi
ri
aut
onomy
.

Cur
rent
ly,Kashmi
ris a di
sput
ed t
err
it
ory
,wi
th bot
hIndi
a and Paki
stan
cl
aimi
ngi
tast
hei
rown.Themi
l
itar
yconf
li
cthasdi
mini
shedt
heaut
onomyof
t
he r
egi
on.I
ndi
a cont
rol
s about t
wo-
thi
rds and Paki
stan cont
rol
sthe
r
emai
nder
.Thear
eaundert
hecont
rolofPaki
stani
sgener
all
yref
err
edt
oas
POK,
i.
e.,
Paki
stanOccupi
edKashmi
r.

Dearst
udent
,doy
ouunder
standt
heuni
quenat
ureoff
eder
acy
?Whatmakesi
t
di
ff
erentf
rom t
hatoff
eder
alst
atest
ruct
ureort
hatoft
heuni
tar
yst
ate
st
ruct
ure?A f
eder
acydi
ff
ersf
rom auni
tar
yst
atest
ruct
urebecausei
nthe
l
att
ert
hecent
ralgov
ernmentcanr
evoket
he‘
i
ndependence’oft
hesubuni
ts
wi
thoutaneedt
ochanget
heconst
it
uti
on.Andt
hei
ndependenceoft
he
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 44

subuni
tsi
sjustf
ort
hepur
poseofadmi
nist
rat
iveconv
eni
enceandnot
hing

mor
e.Feder
ati
oni
sasy
stem,aswesawbef
ore,wher
etheaut
onomyofeach
r
egi
oni
soneandt
hesame.I
nfeder
acywef
indaki
ndofmi
xedsi
tuat
ionof
uni
tar
y and f
eder
alst
ate st
ruct
urei
nthat t
othe ex
tent of Ål
and’
s
i
ndependence,t
her
eisasi
gnoff
eder
ati
onwhi
l
efort
her
estoft
hepr
ovi
nces,
t
he uni
tar
y st
ate st
ruct
ure pr
inci
ples st
il
lcont
inue t
o appl
y.Wher
ethe
count
ryf
oll
owsaf
eder
alst
atest
ruct
urei
n pr
inci
pleand gr
ant
sahi
gher
aut
onomyt
ooneofi
tsr
egi
onsl
i
keQuebecofCanada,t
heni
tbecomesv
ery
muchi
ndi
sti
nctt
ocal
litei
therf
eder
acyorf
eder
ati
on.Thati
swhypol
i
tical
sci
ent
ist
scal
li
tasy
mmet
ri
cfeder
ati
on.
9

Now wewi
l
lhav
etogot
hroughf
ew quest
ionsbywayofr
evi
si
ti
ngwhatwe
hav
edi
scussedsof
arandIdohopet
hatt
hiswi
l
lgi
vey
out
heoppor
tuni
tyt
o
onceagai
ngoandr
e-checkt
hemat
eri
al.

Exer
ciseI

1.‘
The bi
ggera st
atei
sthen t
he f
eder
alst
ate st
ruct
urei
s

al
way
spr
efer
red.
’Doy
ouagr
eewi
tht
hisst
atement
?Why
/Whynot
?

2.Whati
sdev
olut
ion?

9
Asymmet r
icFederat
ionisafederati
onwher eoneormor eofthestat
eshaveconsiderabl
y
moreautonomyt hantheothersubunits,al
thought heyhavethesameconstitut
ionalst
atus.
Thediv
isi
onofpower sbetweensubuni tsisnotsy mmet r
ic(hencethenameasy mmet r
ic.
Dearst
udent,symmetrymeans‘ constancy’,i.
e.,
ifsomethingretai
nsacert
ainfeatur
eev en
aft
erwechangeawayofl ookingatit
,theni tissymmet r
ic.)
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 45

3.“
Iti
s mor
e di
ff
icul
tfornat
ion-
wide t
otal
i
tar
iani
sm t
o exi
sti
na

f
eder
ati
on,f
orf
eder
ati
on t
heor
eti
cal
l
yli
mit
sthe cent
ral
i
zat
ion of
poweri
nthef
ew,al
thought
heSov
ietUni
onandNaziGer
manywer
e
f
ormal
l
yfeder
ati
onsal
so.
”Dearst
udent
,thi
sisasent
encet
hatIt
ook
f
rom ourpr
evi
ousdi
scussi
on.Whatmessagedoesi
tconv
eyt
oyou?
Woul
dyoupl
easedescr
ibey
ourt
hought
sinf
ew l
i
nesbyy
ourown
wor
ds?

4.Br
ief
lydescr
ibet
hedi
ff
erencesbet
weenf
eder
ati
onandconf
eder
ati
on.

5.Ar
cadi
ahadbeeni
nast
ateofci
vi
lwarf
ort
hel
ast29y
ear
sandi
twas

onl
yrecent
lyt
hatagr
oupofr
ebel
smanagedt
ooustt
hei
ncumbent
aut
hor
it
ari
an r
egi
me.Thesegr
oup ofr
ebel
sconsi
sted ofl
i
ber
ati
on
mov
ement
s f
rom t
he pr
omi
nent si
x pr
ovi
nces of Ar
cadi
a;
Megal
omani
a,Kur
dus,
Kaukacus,
Mir
acus,
Sir
su,
andMi
rawuni
.

Kur
duswasacol
onyofBel
omani
aforabout50y
ear
sandi
tnev
er
consi
der
edi
tsel
faspar
tofAr
cadi
afort
hatl
ongper
iod.Af
terf
ew
y
ear
sofcent
ralr
ulebyAr
cadi
asi
ncei
tsl
i
ber
ati
onf
rom Bel
omani
a,i
t
st
art
edaf
reshar
medst
ruggl
eforl
i
ber
ati
onf
rom Ar
cadi
a. Theot
her
l
i
ber
ati
onmov
ementl
eader
sfr
om t
hef
ivepr
ovi
nceshadoncemetand
uni
tedf
ort
hei
rsi
mil
arcausesofl
i
ber
ati
on,t
hought
hosef
ivedi
dnot
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 46

hav
eanyagendaf
orsecessi
onf
rom Ar
cadi
a,exceptf
orbr
ingi
nga

democr
ati
csy
stem i
ntot
hewhol
ecount
ry.

Nowt
hatt
hewarhadal
readybeenf
oughtandt
het
yrantbei
ngoust
ed,
t
hey once agai
n ar
e supposed t
o di
scuss t
he f
utur
e of t
he
count
ry’
s st
ate st
ruct
ure and how t
hey mi
ghtaccommodat
ethe
i
nter
est
sofal
lthosewhohav
ebeeni
nat
ir
esomest
ruggl
e.

Ev
en i
fKur
dus want
ed t
o secede and hav
eit
s own i
ndependent
exi
stence,t
her
ear
efewt
hingst
hatst
il
ltempti
ttor
emai
nboundwi
th
Ar
cadi
a.Theot
her
sar
esuppor
ti
ngf
eder
ati
onasast
atest
ruct
uret
hat
bestaccommodat
es al
lthe publ
i
c’si
nter
estofAr
cadi
a.You ar
e
supposedt
omakeabr
iefout
li
nef
oraconceptpapert
hatwi
l
lbeused
asapr
ofessi
onali
nputf
ort
heon-
goi
ngdi
scussi
onsi
ntheconsecut
ive
sessi
ons oft
he pol
i
ticalpar
ti
es.Fr
om whaty
ou hav
eread about
st
ate
st
ruct
ure,
pleasedoputsomeofy
ourt
hought
sfort
hisnobl
ecause.

2.
6.Et
hiopi
a’
sFeder
alst
atest
ruct
urer
evi
sit
ed
Dearst
udent
,Et
hiopi
aisoneoft
hecount
ri
esoft
hewor
ldt
hatf
oll
owst
he
f
eder
alsetup.Andi
thasbeenonl
yawhi
l
esi
ncet
hecount
ryadopt
eda
f
eder
alconst
it
uti
onandst
art
edr
unni
ngt
hesy
stem.I
nthi
ssubsect
ionwewi
l
l
bel
ooki
ngi
ntosomei
mpor
tantpoi
ntsr
elat
ingt
ofeder
alst
atest
ruct
urewi
th
r
epeat
edr
efer
encet
othecaseofEt
hiopi
a.St
art
ingf
rom t
hequest
ionwhydo
st
atesneedt
oent
eri
ntof
eder
alset
up,wewi
l
lexpl
orehow f
eder
alst
ate
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 47

st
ruct
urei
sbei
ngdesi
gned,whatessent
ialpr
e-r
equi
si
tesshoul
dbemetf
or

opt
ingt
oaf
eder
alsetup,andhow poweri
sdi
str
ibut
edbet
weent
het
wo-
t
ier
ed gov
ernment
s.Fi
nal
l
ywewi
l
lconcl
udet
hechapt
erwi
thf
ew r
evi
ew
quest
ions.

Obj
ect
ives
At the end of t
his sect
ion
st
udent
s

 Wi
l
lbeabl
etoanal
yset
hebasi
cfeat
uresoft
heEt
hiopi
anf
eder
al
st
atest
ruct
ure,
 Wi
l
lbeabl
etor
espondt
othequest
ionsofwhyandhowf
eder
alst
ate
st
ruct
uresar
etobef
ormed,
 Wi
l
lbe i
n a posi
ti
on t
o under
stand t
he possi
ble adv
ant
agesand
di
sadv
ant
agesoff
eder
alsst
atest
ruct
ure.

2.
6.1.
WhyFeder
ali
sm?

Thequest
ionast
owhyaf
eder
alst
atest
ruct
uremi
ghtbeopt
edcoul
dei
ther
bebecauseofnecessi
tyordesi
rabi
l
ity.Eveni
ffr
om t
hei
ror
dinar
yusage,
necessi
tyanddesi
rabi
l
itymi
ghtseem sy
nony
mous,
forourpur
pose,
thesear
e
t
obeconsi
der
edasspeaki
ngt
wodi
ff
erentsi
tuat
ions.Weshal
llooki
ntot
hem
separ
atel
y.

a)Feder
ali
smasamat
terofNecessi
ty

Feder
ali
sm i
stobeconsi
der
edaquest
ionofnecessi
tywher
euni
tar
yst
ate
st
ruct
ureandcl
osercohesi
onwoul
dbei
mpossi
ble.Andi
nsuchsi
tuat
ions,
t
he quest
ion oft
he desi
rabi
l
ityoff
eder
ali
sm-
wher
e we t
ryt
o wei
gh t
he
adv
ant
ages and di
sadv
ant
ages of t
wo v
iabl
e opt
ions-
as a met
hod of
decent
ral
i
sat
ion i
s v
irt
ual
l
y i
rr
elev
ant
. Ther
efor
e, wher
e uni
tar
y st
ate
st
ruct
urei
srul
edoutf
rom t
heopt
ionst
henf
eder
ali
sm becomesamat
terof
necessi
ty.
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 48

Ofcourse,t
her
e has t
o st
il
lbe r
easons t
o come t
oget
herand f
orm a
compact

wher
euni
tyi
sbal
ancedwi
thdi
ver
sit
y,ast
hati
stheessenceoff
eder
ali
sm.
Di
cey
,whi
l
e wr
it
ing aboutt
heat
ti
tudest
hatmustexi
stf
orf
eder
alst
ate
st
ruct
ur d,‘
esai feder
ali
sm r
equi
resf
ori
tsf
ormat
iont
wocondi
ti
ons;ont
he
onehand t
her
e must be a body of count
ri
es/
regi
ons…so cl
osel
y
connect
ed by l
ocal
i
ty,byhi
stor
y,byr
ace,ort
hel
i
ke,ast
obecapabl
eof
bear
ing,i
ntheeyesoft
hei
rinhabi
tant
s,ani
mpr
essofcommonnat
ional
i
ty…On
t
heot
herhand,t
her
emustexi
staver
ypecul
i
arst
ate ofsent
imentamong
t
he i
nhabi
tant
s oft
he count
ri
es,whi
ch i
tispr
oposedt
ouni
te.Theymust
desi
reuni
on,andmustnotdesi
reuni
ty.
’Thus,aswesai
dint
hepr
evi
oussub-
sect
ion,t
hef
eder
alconst
it
uti
on’
swor
rywi
l
lbet
ost
ri
keabal
ancebet
ween
t
heset
woi
nter
est
s.

Hi
stor
ical
l
y,manyf
eder
alst
atest
ruct
uresowet
hei
rneedf
oraut
onomyf
rom
col
oni
ali
sm. For t
he sake of ef
fect
ive expl
oit
ati
ons, t
he col
oni
zi
ng
count
ri
esusedi
nthei
rdomi
nionadi
vi
deandr
ulemet
hodst
hatent
rencheda
senseofdet
achmentamongt
hev
ari
ousl
ocal
i
tiessodi
vi
ded.Thepar
cel
l
ing
outofj
uri
sdi
cti
ons and l
ands on ar
bit
rar
y gr
ounds of mer
etr
ansi
ent
conv
eni
encehadl
aterbeent
akenser
iousl
ybyt
hel
ocalpeopl
ethatr
ender
eda
questf
oraut
onomyamat
terofnecessi
ty.

Apar
tfr
om t
hecol
oni
all ,i
egacy nher
entdi
ver
sit
ieshaveal
sopl
ayedacent
ral
r
olei
nthedesi
ref
ornat
ionhoodandsepar
ati
on.I
nCanada,f
ori
nst
ance,
l
anguage and r
eli
gion wer
e mor
e i
mpor
tant t
han t
opogr
aphy and
admi
nist
rat
iveor
gani
sat
ioni
nevoki
ngt
hef
eder
alsol
uti
on.Andf
ort
heUS,
despi
tet
hecommonl
anguage,t
her
ewer
eot
herdr
ivi
ng mot
ivesf
ort
hei
r
f
eder
alst
ate st
ruct
ure and when wr
it
ing aboutt
he same i
ssue,James
Madi
son made t
he f
oll
owi
ng r
emar
k;‘
the gr
eatdangert
o ourgener
al
gover
nmenti
sthatt
hesout
her
nandnor
ther
nint
erest
soft
hecont
inentar
e
opposedt
oeach
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 49

ot
her
,notf
rom t
hei
rdi
ff
erencesi
nsi
ze,butf
rom cl
i
mat
e,andpr
inci
pal
l
y

f
rom t
heef
fectoft
hei
rhav
ingornothav
ingsl
aves.
’

I
ntr
eat
ingf
eder
ali
sm asnecessi
ty,becausemor
ewasi
mpossi
ble,wehav
e
st
ressedt
husf
art
hesour
cesofonl
yoneofa‘
ver
ypecul
i
arst
ateofsent
iment
’
-t
heaspectt
hatr
esi
stsuni
ty.Theot
hersi st
dei hewi
l
ltoassoci
ate.I
ts
sour
cemaybet
racedt
otwoset
soff
act
ors.Thef
ir
sti
sposi
ti
vecompat
ibi
l
ity
.
Thesecond i
s shar
ed appr
ehensi
on and mut
ualdef
ense.Fearhas been
ady
nami
c-oratl
eastcat
aly
tic-
inmostf
eder
alunder
taki
ngt
hathasbeenmor
e
t
hani
mit
ati
ve.TheAmer
icanst
ates,f
orexampl
e,knew t
heext
entt
owhi
ch
t
hei
rindependencehadbeenwoni
ntheendasani
nci
dentofaEur
opean
war
;noty
etsecur
eont
hecont
inentandcl
ear
lyawar
eofext
ernalf
orces,
they
f
ear
edt
her
isksi
ndi
vi
si
onasaf
ulcr
um f
ori
ntr
igueanddi
ssensi
onandan
openi
ngf
orat
tack.Canadi
anuni
oni
nmi
d-cent
urywasi
nfl
uencedbydef
ensi
ve
concer
n.I
nAust
ral
i
athebel
atedmov
ementf
orf
eder
ati
onwasqui
ckenedi
n
par
tbycomi
ngofpowerpol
i
ticsi
nthepaci
fi
c;ani
mmedi
atef
act
orwast
he
t
hreatofmoder
nJapanasr
eveal
edi
nthecl
osi
ngdecadeoft
hecent
ury
.

Nev
ert
hel
ess,f
earasamot
iveal
onei
snotenought
opr
oducecombi
nat
ions
t
hatar
elast
ing.Thepr
obl
em off
eder
ati
ont
oday
,especi
all
ywhennat
ional
uni
tsar
edeal
twi
th,i
stof
ind,i
naddi
ti
ont
owel
l-
just
if
ieddef
ensi
vemot
ives,
t
heposi
ti
veel
ement
sthatmayl
i
eincul
tur
alandeconomi
ccondi
ti
onsand
needs,
whi
chwecal
lposi
ti
vecompat
ibi
l
ity
.

b)Feder
ali
smasamat
terofDesi
rabi
l
ity

Thecasef
oraf
eder
alr
athert
hanauni
tar
yconst
it
uti
on-
thati
s,wheni
tis
r
elev
antt
ocanv
assori
nvest
igat
ethear
gument
s-maybest
atedsummar
il
y
underf
ivepoi
nts.Fi
rst
,whendi
ver
sit
iesar
epr
onouncedandl
ocat
edwi
th
r
easonabl
e compact
ness, t
he geogr
aphi
cal deconcent
rat
ion of
i
mpor
tant
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 50

power
s secur
es gr
eat
er cor
respondence bet
ween publ
i
c pol
i
cies and
l
ocal

maj
ori
tysent
imenton mat
ter
sent
rust
ed t
otheconst
it
uentgov
ernment
s.
Second,bymul
ti
ply
ingt
hei
ndependentl
egi
sl
ati
vear
enas,t
hesy
stem gi
ves
scopef
orexper
iment
ati
on,f
oll
owedbyi
mit
ati
on.Thi
rd,t
hemul
ti
pli
cat
ionof
t
hebodi
esofel
ect
edof
fi
ci
alswhobearconsi
der
abl
eresponsi
bil
i
tyi
nthei
r
own r
ightbr
oadens t
he oppor
tuni
tyf
orpol
i
ticalpar
ti
ci
pat
ion.Four
th,t
he
sy
stem i
s sui
tabl
eforgov
ernmentov
erl
arge orscat
ter
ed ar
eas.Fi
ft
h,
f
eder
ali
sm l
essenst
her
iskofmonopol
yofpol
i
ticalpowerbypr
ovi
dinga
numberofi
ndependentpoi
ntswher
ethepar
tyt
hati
snat
ional
l
yint
hemi
nor
it
y
att
het
imecanmai
ntai
nit
sel
fwhi
l
eitf
ormul
atesandpar
tl
ydemonst
rat
esi
ts
pol
i
ciesandcapabi
l
iti
esanddev
elopsnewl
eader
shi
p.

Looki
ngbackt
othef
oregoi
ngf
ivear
gument
s,i
tmustbeconcededast
othe
f
ir
stf
ourt
hatt
he r
esul
tst
heycont
empl
ate coul
d be appr
oxi
mat
ed i
na
decent
ral
i
seduni
tar
yst
ate,dev
elopedi
nat
oler
antsoci
etyt
hatbel
i
evedi
n
di
ff
usedi
nit
iat
ive.Thef
if
thar
gumentr
est
suponf
eat
urespecul
i
art
oaf
eder
al
st
ruct
ure,pr
ovi
dedi
tisnott
het
ypet
hatl
egal
i
sesf
orcef
uli
nter
vent
ionbyt
he
cent
ralgov
ernment
;besi
dest
he ar
gumentassumest
hatt
he sur
roundi
ng
condi
ti
onsassur
ecompet
it
ivepol
i
ticsandor
der
lyel
ect
ions.

Doubt
saboutt
hesui
tabi
l
ityoff
eder
alst
ruct
uref
ornat
ionalst
atesunder
moder
n condi
ti
ons-
unl
ess f
eder
ali
sm i
sthe cl
osestf
orm ofor
gani
sat
ion
possi
ble att
he t
ime-
ari
se i
ntwo di
rect
ions:i
n domest
ic pol
i
cy and i
n
i
nter
nat
ionalaf
fai
rs.I
nthe backgr
ound i
sthe quest
ion ofmai
ntai
ning
cohesi
onandpeacewi
thi
nthecomposi
test
ate.

The pr
oponent
s off
eder
ali
sm as t
he means ofmai
ntai
ning peace whi
l
e
achi
evi
ng cohesi
on ami
d di
ver
sit
yface t
he di
stur
bing f
actt
hatt
he t
wo
out
standi
ngf
eder
alsy
stemswer
est
abi
l
isedont
hebat
tl
efi
el
d:Swi
tzer
landi
n
t
hef
ew weeks’waroft
heSonder
bundi
n1847;t
heUni
tedSt
atesi
naf
our
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 51

y
ear
s’st
ruggl
ethatwast
hegr
eat
estci
vi
lwar
soft
hecent
ury
.Thus,i
tis

ar
guedt
hatf
eder
ali
sm exposes,
domest
ical
l
y,t
other
isksofci
vi
lwarbecause
t
heuni
tsmi
ghtt
aket
hei
rdi
ff
erencesser
iousl
y.Fr
om t
hei
nter
nat
ionalpoi
nt
ofv
iew,opponent
sar
guet
hataf
eder
alst
atemi
ghtbesost
ruct
uredast
obe
atadi
sadv
ant
agei
nit
sint
ernat
ionalpol
i
ticsbecauseofl
ackofpoweratt
he
cent
re.Wi
tht
his same st
andpoi
nt,t
he pr
obl
em oft
he f
eder
alst
atei
n
i
nter
nat
ionalaf
fai
rs may be compl
i
cat
ed (
though notnecessar
il
ytot
he
di
sadv
ant
ageoft
hecount
ryi
nquest
ion)byt
hecl
aim ofconst
it
uentmember
s
f
orsepar
ater
epr
esent
ati
on.Fi
nal
l
y,t
hepossi
bleembar
rassment
stof
ri
endl
y
i
nter
nat
ionalr
elat
ionst
hatmaybecausedbyt
heact
ionori
nact
ionoft
he
const
it
uentgov
ernment
sandt
hei
rsubdi
vi
si
onswi
thi
nthef
iel
dsl
eftt
othem
by f
eder
al const
it
uti
on. The cent
ral gov
ernment assumes f
ew di
rect
r
esponsi
bil
i
tiesf
orwhathappenst
oorbyal
i
ens;f
ullr
esponsi
bil
i
tywoul
d
har
dlybecompat
ibl
ewi
tht
hef
eder
alpr
inci
ple.Thus,t
hesepoi
nts-
ri
sksof
ci
vi
lwar
swhenv
iewedf
rom domest
icpol
i
ciesaswel
last
hedi
sadv
ant
ages
i
nint
ernat
ionalr
elat
ionsofaf
eder
alst
ate-
mightbeputatt
heot
hersi
deoft
he
bal
ancet
omeasur
ethedesi
rabi
l
ityoff
eder
ali
sm asasy
stem wheni
tisnota
sheermat
terofnecessi
ty.

Theobv
iousquest
ionf
ory
ouwoul
dbet
hen,whi
choneoft
hesi
desdoy
ou
t
hinkout
wei
ght
heot
her
?Dearst
udentdoy
out
hinkf
eder
ali
sm hasmucht
o
of
fersoast
orenderi
tasadesi
rabl
est
atest
ruct
uret
hant
heuni
tar
yst
ate
st
ruct
ure?Mor
eov
er,doy
out
hinkt
heEt
hiopi
anf
eder
alst
atest
ruct
urewasa
mat
terofnecessi
tyorwasi
tadesi
rabi
l
ityi
ssuewher
ebyt
hear
chi
tect
soft
he
sy
stem hadpassedt
hrought
hemeasur
ingpr
ocessesoft
headv
ant
agesand
di
sadv
ant
agesoft
hef
eder
alst
atest
ruct
ure?
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 52

Whenonel
ooksi
ntot
hePr
eambl
eoft
hef
eder
alconst
it
uti
on,t
her
ear
emany

poi
ntst
hatspeak aboutt
hose f
act
orst
hatr
enderuni
ty and r
espect
ofdi
ver
sit
ysomehowdesi
rabl
e.Ihav
edupl
i
cat
edt
her
elev
antbi
tsher
e;

We,
theNat
ions,
Nat
ional
i
tiesandPeopl
esofEt
hiopi
a:
St
rongl
ycommi
tt
ed,i
nful
landf
reeexer
ciseofourr
ightt
osel
f-
det
ermi
nat
ion,t
obui
l
dingapol
i
ticalcommuni
tyf
oundedont
he
r
uleof l
aw and capabl
e of ensur
ing a l
ast
ing peace,
guar
ant
eei
ng ademocr
ati
cor
der
,andadvanci
ngoureconomi
c
andsoci
aldevel
opment
;

Fi
rml
yconvi
ncedt
hatt
hef
ulf
il
mentoft
hisobj
ect
iver
equi
resf
ull
r
espectofi
ndi
vi
dualand peopl
e’
sfundament
alf
reedoms and
r
ight
s,t
oli
vet
oget
heront
hebasi
sofequal
i
tyandwi
thoutany
sexual
,rel
i
giousorcul
tur
aldi
scr
imi
nat
ion;

Fur
therconvi
ncedt
hatbycont
inui
ng t
oli
vewi
th ourr
ich and
pr
oudcul
tur
all
egaci
esi
nter
ri
tor
ieswehavel
ongi
nhabi
ted,have,
t
hroughcont
inuousi
nter
act
iononvar
iousl
evel
sandf
ormsofl
i
fe,
bui
l
tup common i
nter
estand have al
so cont
ri
but
ed t
othe
emer
genceofacommonout
look;

Ful
l
ycogni
zantt
hatourcommondest
inycanbestbeser
vedby
r
ect
if
ying hi
stor
ical
l
y unj
ust r
elat
ionshi
ps and by f
urt
her
pr
omot
ingourshar
edi
nter
est
s;

Convi
ncedt
hatt
oli
veasoneeconomi
ccommuni
tyi
snecessar
y
i
n or
der t
o cr
eat
e sust
ainabl
e and mut
ual
l
y suppor
ti
ve
condi
ti
onsf
orensur
ingr
espectf
orourr
ight
sandf
reedomsand
f
ort
hecol
l
ect
ivepr
omot
ionofouri
nter
est
s;
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 53

Det
ermi
nedt
oconsol
i
dat
e,asal
ast
ingl
egacy,t
hepeaceandt
he
pr
ospectofademocr
ati
cor
derwhi
chourst
ruggl
esand
sacr
if
iceshavebr
oughtabout

ThePr
eambl
eishi
ghl
ypr
eoccupi
edwi
tht
heel
abor
ati
onoft
henew f
eder
al
st
atest
ruct
ureext
ensi
vel
ybyposi
ng t
hej
ust
if
icat
ionsf
orbot
huni
tyand
separ
ati
on.Dearst
udent
,whi
chpar
agr
aphsoft
hepr
eambul
art
extdescr
ibe
t
hegr
oundsf
ort
hedesi
ref
oruni
ty?Whi
choft
hosepar
agr
aphsspeakabout
t
hej
ust
if
icat
ionsf
ort
hedesi
ret
omai
ntai
nregi
onal
aut
onomy
?


Thei
nter
estf
ort
hef
ullandf
reeexer
ciseoft
her
ightt
osel
f-
det
ermi
nat
ionby
i
nsur
ingr
egi
onalaut
onomyi
ssupposedt
ojust
if
ythei
nter
est
sforsepar
ati
on
f
orwhi
chmostoft
heopposi
ti
onpar
ti
eshadbeenf
ight
ingf
or16ormor
e
y
ear
s.Mor
eov
er,
ensur
ingequal
i
tyandt
ackl
i
ngdi
scr
imi
nat
ionont
hegr
ounds,
amongot
her
s,ofcul
tur
eisconsi
der
edasapr
econdi
ti
onf
ort
heguar
ant
eeof
t
he r
ight t
o sel
f-
det
ermi
nat
ion, whi
ch agai
n i
s anot
her mot
ive f
or
r
egi
onal
i
sat
ion.Howev
er,t
hepr
eambl
eal
sohi
ntspr
omot
ionofhi
stor
ical
l
y
shar
edi
nter
est
s,t
hedesi
ret
oli
veasoneeconomi
ccommuni
tyi
nor
dert
o
cr
eat
esust
ainabl
eandmut
ual
l
ysuppor
ti
vecondi
ti
onsandt
heconsol
i
dat
ion
oft
hepeaceandt
hepr
ospectofademocr
ati
cor
derassomeoft
hedr
ivi
ng
mot
ivesf
oruni
ty.Whenonecombi
nest
heset
woi
nter
est
s,t
her
eshal
lbea
sy
stem ofuni
tyami
dinher
entdi
ver
sit
y,andi
tisaf
eder
alst
atest
ruct
uret
hat
ensur
est
hissor
tofcombi
nat
ion.
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 54

2.
6.2.
HowFeder
alSt
atest
ruct
urei
sfor
med?

Ther
ear
eatl
eastt
woway
sthr
oughwhi
chaf
eder
alst
atest
ruct
urecoul
d
emer
ge and t
he t
erms cent
ri
pet
aland cent
ri
fugalf
eder
ali
sm ar
e bei
ng
bor
rowed f
rom t
hesci
enceofphy
sicst
orepr
esentt
hese.By‘
cent
ri
pet
al
f
orce’aphy
sicspr
ofessi
onalr
efer
stoani
nwar
dfor
cet
hatmov
esanobj
ect
t
owar
dst
hecent
re,whi
chi
sacombi
nat
ionoft
woLat
int
er Cent
ms:‘ rum’
(
Cent
re)and
Pet
‘ er
e’(tend t
owar
ds)
.Thi
sist
hecase,i
nthe cont
extoff
eder
alst
ate
st
ruct
ure

f
ormat
ion,wher
etwo ormor
e st
atescome t
oget
hert
ofor
m a uni
on i
n
f
urt
her
anceoft
hoseai
mst
hatwedi
scussedabov
easf
orcest
hatt
ier
egi
ons
t
oget
herunderasi
ngl
ecent
ralgov
ernment
.Thi
shadhappenedi
nhi
stor
yin
t
hecaseoft
heUni
tedSt
ates.Thi
sist
hust
hesor
tofsi
tuat
ioni
nwhi
ch
f
eder
ali
sm mi
ghtbe ofv
alue i
n maki
ng a nat
ion outofa gr
oup of
communi
ti
eswhi
char
ethemsel
vesofdi
sti
nctordi
ff
eri
ngnat
ional
i
ty.

Thesecondt
ermi
s‘cent
ri
fugal
for
ce’
whi
chi
stheopposi
teofcent
ri
pet
alf
orce
andi
sder
ivedagai
nfr
om t
woLat
int
er Cent
ms:‘ rum’(
cent
r f
e)and‘uger
e’(
to
f
lee)
.Itt
her
efor
emeanst
omov
eawayf
rom t
hecent
reandi
nrel
ati
ont
o
f
eder
alst
ate st
ruct
uref
ormat
ion,i
tis wher
e a pr
evi
ousl
y uni
ted nat
ion
deci
des t
ofor
m such a sy
stem f
ort
he v
ari
ous r
easons t
hatcal
lfor
appr
eci
ati
onofi
nter
naldi
ver
sit
ies.Her
eacasei
npoi
nti
sourowncount
ry
Et
hiopi
a,and f
rom t
he f
eder
ati
ons oft
he wor
ldt
hatofAust
ral
i
a and
Swi
tzer
landcanbement
ioned.Whi
l
eincent
ri
pet
alf
eder
ali
sm whatcal
l
sfor
suchst
ruct
urear
ethef
orcesofuni
ty,
int
hecaseofcent
ri
fugalf
eder
ali
sm t
he
f
orcesofdi
ver
sit
ycal
lforaf
eder
alst
atest
ruct
ure.I
nbot
hcases,howev
er,
t
her
eisaneedt
omakesur
ethatei
theroft
hef
orcesdoesn’
tov
erwhel
mthe
ot
her
.
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 55

φ
Thus,f
eder
ali
sm i
sther
esul
tofcent
ral
i
zing(
Cent
ri
pet
al)anddecent
ral
i
zing
(
Cent
ri
fugal
)for
ceswhi
char
eatpl
ayatt
het
imeoft
hef
ormat
ionoft
heuni
on
andwhi
chcont
inuet
oaf
fectt
heuni
onl
ongaf
tert
hesy
stem hasbeencr
eat
ed.
Whent
her
easonst
ocomet
oget
herar
eext
remel
ypower
ful
,thet
endencyi
sto
ent
rustt
hecent
ralgov
ernmentwi
thl
argeandext
ensi
vepower
s,i
ndeedt
o
make i
tthe "
mai
n"gov
ernment
.When t
he r
easons t
oremai
n apar
tar
e
st
rongert
hant
her
easonst
ocomet
oget
her
,ther
esul
twi
l
lbet
hatt
hel
ocal
gov
ernment
swi
l
lbeent
rust
edwi
tht
hel
argestpower
s.Eachf
eder
ati
onf
inds
i
tsbal
ancesomewher
eal
ongt
hel
i
neandt
her
esul
ti
ngdi
str
ibut
ionofpower
bet
weent
het
wol
evel
sofgov
ernmenti
swi
tnesst
other
espect
ivest
rengt
hof
t
hecent
ral
i
zinganddecent
ral
i
zingf
orcesatt
het
imeoft
heuni
on.Sol
ongas
somesov
erei
gnt
yisdeposi
tedi
neachl
evelofgov
ernment
,thenwear
e
deal
i
ngwi
thaf
eder
alsy
stem.

I
n cent
ri
fugalf
eder
ali
sm,one i
mpor
tantdeci
si
on t
hatneed t
o be made

t
hrough t
he f
eder
alconst
it
uti
on i
sthe bases on whi
ch t
he aut
onomous
r
egi
onsar
egoi
ng t
o bef
ormed.Thi
squest
ionwasnotapr
obl
em whi
l
e
est
abl
i
shi
ngt
heAmer
icanf
eder
alst
atest
ruct
uresi
ncet
hosest
atest
hatcame
t
oget
hert
ofor
mtheuni
onwer
eindependentsov
erei
gnnat
ionst
hathadt
hei
r
owndel
i
mit
edboundar
ies.Thati
str
uef
oral
mostal
lcent
ri
pet
alf
eder
ali
sms.
I
nfeder
alst
atest
ruct
uressuchasEt
hiopi
a,howev
er,t
hismi
ghtnotbean
easyt
askt
ohandl
e.Thatwasexact
lyt
hemostdebat
abl
epoi
ntdur
ingt
he
ear
ly1990swhi
l
ecr
aft
ingt
hef
eder
alconst
it
uti
onofEt
hiopi
a.Whi
l
emany
desi
redt
ofol
l
owt
heol
dpr
ovi
nci
alst
ruct
ureasgr
oundsofdel
i
mit
ingeachof
t
her
egi
ons,ot
her
s,i
ncl
udi
ngt
her
uli
ngpar
tymember
s,cal
l
edf
orapat
ter
nof
del
i
mit
ati
onbasedonet
hno-
li
ngui
sti
cgr
ounds.Theyhadpr
opoundedt
hati
t
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 56

wast
heonl
ywayt
osof
tent
het
ensi
onst
hatexi
stedf
orl
ongi
nthecount
ry

andwhi
chr
esul
tedi
nthemaj
orar
medst
ruggl
es.

Accor
dingl
y,t
hel
att
erv
iew hadwont
hedebat
eandt
hePr
eambl
edecl
ares
t
heconst
it
uti
onasapact
,notof‘
Ethi
opi
an’assuch,r
atherof‘
theNat
ions,
Nat
ional
i
tiesand Peopl
esofEt
hiopi
a.’I
tismor
eorl
esssay
ing ‘
We,t
he
Peopl
eoft
heUni
tedSt
ates’r
athert
han‘
We,t
heAmer
icanPeopl
e’or‘
We,t
he
Amer
icanNat
ion’asdecl
aredbyt
heUSf
eder
alconst
it
uti
on.Thi
sgi
vesacl
ue
aboutwhati
stobest
atedi
nAr
ti
cl
e46asgr
oundsf
orr
egi
ons-
for
mat
ion
whi
chst
atesundersubpar
agr
aph2t
hef
oll
owi
ng:

St
ates shal
lbe del
i
mit
ed on t
he basi
s oft
he set
tl
ement
pat
ter
ns,
language,
ident
it
yandconsentoft
hepeopl
esconcer
ned

Dearst
udent
,cany
ouseet
hef
ourgr
oundsi
.
e.,
set
tl
ementpat
ter
ns,
language,
i
dent
it
yandconsentoft
hepeopl
e,whi
char
eenumer
atedasbasi
ccr
it
eri
afor
del
i
mit
ati
oni
nreal
i
ty?Thus,i
tisassumedt
hatt
heni
ner
egi
onalst
atesof
Et
hiopi
aar
ecl
assedassuchont
hesecumul
ati
ve,
oratl
eastmaj
ori
tyoft
hese
el
ement
s.Doy
out
hinki
tismer
epr
esumpt
ionorsomet
hingt
hatact
ual
l
yhas
happened?Somear
guet
hati
twasmer
eet
hno-
li
ngui
sti
ccr
it
eri
athathadbeen
appl
i
ed. Mor
eov
er,t
he di
ff
icul
ty of def
ini
ng ‘
i
dent
it
y’and ‘
set
tl
ement
pat
ter
ns’i
nthecaseofEt
hiopi
amakest
hem l
essl
i
kel
ytobeappl
i
edst
ri
ctl
y
f
ort
her
egi
ons’f
ormat
ion.Et
hni
ci
tyhasnotbeenment
ionedexpl
i
cit
lyi
nthi
s
Ar
ti
cl
eunl
esswei
nter
preti
dent
it
ywi
del
ytoi
ncl
udesuchmat
ter
saset
hni
c,
cul
tur
al,
rel
i
gious(
etc)i
dent
it
ies.

Et
hni
ci
ty
Ther
eisof
tenapr
obl
em i
ndef
ini
ngconcept
sli
keet
hni
cident
it
y,et
hni
ci
ty,
nat
ional
i
tyandnat
ional
i
sm.Li
keal
lot
her‘
i
sms’
theyl
ackcl
ari
tyandaut
hor
s
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 57

aswel
laspr
act
it
ioner
shav
eusedt
hem i
nmanydi
ff
erentway
s.I
tisst
ri
ki
ng

t
oobser
vet
hisf
act
,notonl
yatgl
oball
evelbutal
soi
ntheEt
hiopi
ancont
ext
.
Thenomencl
atur
eoft
heEt
hiopi
anf
eder
alsy
stem,f
ori
nst
ance,r
angesf
rom
t
hose who i
nsi
sti
n cal
l
ing i
t‘et
hni yegossa’f
c’or‘ eder
ali
sm,t
othose
whoar
gueet
hni
cfeder
ali
sm hasnegat
iveconnot
ati
onsandconsi
deri
tasa
pej
orat
iveoneandhencepr
efert
ocal
li mul
tasa‘ ti
cul
tur
al’
feder
alsy
stem.

Al
thoughi
tisnoteasyt
odeci
phert
hedi
sti
nct
ion,i
tappear
sthatet
hni
ci
tyi
s
di
ff
erent
,al
thoughnotcl
ear
ly,f
rom nat
ional
i
sm.Et
hni
ci
tyi
sast
ateofmi
nd
emanat
ingf
rom af
eel
i
ngofsepar
atei
dent
it
y,whi
chi
ntur
nisbasedon
shar
ed cul
tur
al mar
ker
s (
cul
tur
e, l
anguage, r
eli
gion, et
c), but mor
e
i
mpor
tant
lyont
hemy
thofcommondescent
.Iti
simpor
tantt
opoi
ntoutt
hat
t
hemy
thofcommondescenti
sanessent
ialchar
act
eri
sti
cofanet
hni
cgr
oup
butnotofnat
ionalgr
oupst
hatshar
eacommonl
anguage,r
eli
gion,cust
om,
hi
stor
yandt
radi
ti
onbutnotnecessar
il
yacommondescent
.Thesubj
ect
ive
bel
i
efi
nmy
thofcommondescenti
sinshor
ttheessenceofanet
hni
cgr
oup
or et
hni
ci
ty…(
Excer
pt f
rom Fi
seha, A.
,(2005/
6), Feder
ali
sm and t
he
Accommodat
ion
of Di
ver
sit
yin Et
hiopi
a:A Compar
ati
ve St
udy,
Ut
recht
)

2.
6.3.
CommonFeat
uresofFeder
alst
atest
ruct
ures

Ev
eni
fnotal
l
,mostf
eder
alsy
stemshav
esomef
eat
uresi
ncommont
hat
maket
hem di
sti
nctf
rom t
heot
herst
atest
ruct
ures.Let
’sseet
hesef
eat
ures
br
ief
ly.

a)Twol
evel
sofGov
ernment

Af
eder
alst
atest
ruct
urei
schar
act
eri
zedbyt
wot
ier
sofgov
ernmentwhi
ch
ar
ecr
eat
edandpr
otect
edbyt
heconst
it
uti
on,wi
thsov
erei
gnt
yst
emmi
ng
nei
therf
rom abov
e,norf
rom bel
ow,
butdi
str
ibut
edbet
weent
het
wo,
insome
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 58

f
ashi
onbyt
hesamef
eder
alconst
it
uti
on.Dearst
udentcany
oui
magi
newhy

t
hisi
saf
eat
ure ofev
eryf
eder
ati
on i
nthe sense t
hatt
he t
wo t
ier
ed
gov
ernment
s shoul
d exi
st wi
tht
hei
rrespect
ive power
s of l
egi
sl
ati
on,
j
udi
ci
ary as wel
las execut
ion? Pl
ease putdown y
ourt
hought
sint
he
f
oll
owi
ngf
ewl
i
nesbef
orer
eadi
ngwhatIwi
l
lhav
etot
ell
youi
nabi
t.

Aswer
epeat
edl
yst
ated,f
eder
ali
sm r
equi
resasapr
econdi
ti
ont
woi
nter
est
s:

i
nter
est
stouni
teandi
nter
est
stobeaut
onomous.Ther
efor
e,i
mpl
i
citi
nthe
di
vi
si
onofpower
sint
otwot
ier
sofgov
ernment
swi
thsov
erei
gnr
ight
sof
t
hei
rowni
stheset
wodr
ivi
ngmot
ivesf
orent
eri
ngi
ntot
hispact
,i.
e.,f
eder
al
st
atest
ruct
ure.

Suchdi
vi
si
onofpower
sint
othet
wot
ier
sofgov
ernment
scoul
dbemade
basi
cal
l
yint
hreeway
s:
 Byexhaust
ivel
yli
sti
ngt
hecent
ralgov
ernment
’spower
sleav
ingt
he
r
esi
dual
power
stot
hest
ates;
(Opt
ionI
)
 By exhaust
ivel
yli
sti
ng t
he const
it
uentst
ates’power
sleav
ing t
he
r
esi
dual
power
stot
hecent
ral
gov
ernment
;(Opt
ionI
I)
 Byexhaust
ivel
yli
sti
ngt
heexcl
usi
vepower
soft
hecent
reaswel
last
he

const
it
uentst
ates,andt
hosepower
sthatar
eexer
cisabl
e
concur
rent
ly.(
Opt
ionI
II
)

Thesebei
ng t
hegener
alf
ramewor
ks,t
her
ear
evar
iat
ionsi
nmostoft
he
f
eder
alst
atest
ruct
uresoft
hewor
lddependi
ngbasi
cal
l
yont
hef
orcesofuni
ty
anddi
ver
sit
y.Wher
ethel
att
erout
wei
ghst
hef
ormer
,ther
eisat
endencyt
o
empowert
heconst
it
uentst
atesandusual
l
ythet
rendi
stoadoptt
hef
ir
stof
t
heabov
ethr
eesy
stemsofdi
str
ibut
ion.Thi
sist
hecasei
ntheUSconst
it
uti
on.
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 59

Wher
ether
eisat
endencyt
owar
dsuni
tyandaneedt
oempowert
hecent
ral

gov
ernment
,thent
her
esi
dualpowerwoul
dbemadet
ogot
othef
eder
al
gov
ernment
,though t
he cont
entoft
he enumer
ated power
sti
l
lremai
ns
per
ti
nent
.Thi
sisbecausewher
emostoft
hepower
sar
eexhaust
ivel
yli
sted
l
eav
ingonl
yfew ar
easofpower
sasr
esi
dualones,t
heni
tisquest
ionabl
eif
t
hatdi
str
ibut
ionr
eal
l
yempower
sthef
eder
algov
ernment
,whi
chf
acti
sal
so
t
ruewher
ether
esi
dualpoweri
slef
ttot
heconst
it
uentst
ates.Anexampl
eof
t
he wor
ldf
eder
ati
ons wher
ethe r
esi
dualpower
sisl
eftt
othe cent
ral
gov
ernmenti
sthatofCanadai
nwhi
cht
hef
eder
alconst
it
uti
onl
i
stst
hose
power
sthatar
especi
fi
cal
l
ygi
vent
othepr
ovi
ncesandl
eav
esr
esi
dualonest
o
t
hecent
ral
gov
ernment
.

I
tist
rue t
hata cl
ean di
vi
si
on ofpower
s bet
ween t
he t
wo l
evel
s of
gov
ernment
sisatbesti
deal
i
sti
cint
hesenset
hatt
her
ear
ear
easwher
e
t
het
wol
evel
sofgov
ernmentmusthav
eaj
ointsay
,especi
all
ythoser
elat
ing
t
otaxat
ion.Assuch,somef
eder
ati
onsf
oll
owasy
stem ofdi
vi
si
onofpower
s
bet
weent
het
wol
evel
sofgov
ernmentwi
thanaddi
ti
onall
i
sti
ngofconcur
rent
power
s.Thi
sist
ypi
caloft
heI
ndi
anf
eder
ati
ont
hatcl
assi
fi
est
hepower
sint
o
t
hree cat
egor
ies: excl
usi
ve t
o t
he cent
re, t
he st
ates as wel
l as
concur
rentpower
s of t
he t
wo, t
he cent
ral gov
ernment
’s l
egi
sl
ati
on
bei
ng gi
vensupr
emacyi
ncasesofanypot
ent
ial
oract
ual
conf
li
ctwi
tht
hatof
t
hest
ates’
legi
sl
ati
ons.

Dearst
udent
,car
eful
l
yreadAr
ti
cl
es50,51,52,55,98and99oft
heFeder
al
Const
it
uti
onofEt
hiopi
a.Hav
eyouf
ini
shedr
eadi
ng?Gr
eat
!Now Iwantt
o
ask y
ou whi
ch oft
he abov
ethr
ee way
s ofdi
vi
si
on ofpowert
hatour
const
it
uti
onhasadopt
ed.Br
ief
lyst
atey
ourr
esponset
othi
squer
yint
he
f
oll
owi
ngl
i
nes.
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 60

Thosepr
ovi
si
onst
hatIhav
eli
stedabov
eseem t
otel
lust
hatnoneoft
he
thr
ee

sy
stemsofdi
str
ibut
ionofpower
shav
ebeenf
oll
owed.Ev
eni
fAr
ti
cl
e51has
exhaust
ivel
yli
stedt
hepower
soft
hecent
ralgov
ernmentandAr
ti
cl
e52(
1)
st
atest
hatt
her
esi
duar
yisl
eftt
otheconst
it
uentuni
tsoft
hef
eder
ati
on
(
resembl
i
ngt
othatext
entopt
ionIabov
e),
Art
icl
e52(
2)appear
stochanget
he
nor
malwayofdoi
ngt
hedi
str
ibut
ionbyl
i
sti
ngsomeoft
hepower
soft
he
r
egi
onalst
atesev
eni
fwewoul
dhav
ear
ti
cul
atedt
hosepower
sfr
om t
he
Ar
ti
cl
e 52(
1).And Ar
ti
cl
e 98 speaks aboutpower
s oft
axat
ion t
hatar
e
exer
cisabl
ejoi
ntl
ybyt
her
egi
onal
stat
esandt
hecent
ral
gov
ernment
.

Dearst
udent
,whatwi
l
lhappenwher
ether
eisconf
li
ctbet
weent
hel
awsofa

r
egi
onalgov
ernmenti
nrel
ati
ont
oit
sconcur
rentpower
soft
axat
ionandt
hat

oft
hecent
ral
gov
ernment
?

This i
s one of t
he const
it
uti
onal l
acunae when i
t comes t
o t
he
Ethi
opi
an

f
eder
alsy
stem.Al
mostal
lfeder
alsy
stemspr
ovi
det
hesupr
emacyoft
he
f
eder
all
egi
sl
ati
oni
ncaseofconf
li
ct.Aswesaw abov
ethi
sisst
atedi
nthe
I
ndi
anconst
it
uti
on.Anot
hercasei
npoi
nti
sal
sot
hatoft
heNi
ger
ianf
eder
al
const
it
uti
on.Undert
he Ni
ger
ian f
eder
alconst
it
uti
on,poweri
s di
vi
ded i
n
t
hreepr
inci
palway
s:Excl
usi
vepower
soft
hecent
ralgov
ernment
,concur
rent
power
s oft
he t
wo l
evel
s ofgov
ernment
swi
tht
he f
eder
algov
ernment
’s
supr
emacyi
ncaseofconf
li
ctand r
esi
dualpower
swhi
ch ar
elef
ttot
he
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 61

const
it
uentst
ates.Thi
s agai
nfi
tsi
n none oft
he abov
e mechani
sms
of

di
str
ibut
iont
hatwehav
edescr
ibed.

Bef
oreconcl
udi
ngt
hissect
ioni
tiswor
thnot
ingt
hati
nal
mostal
lfeder
ati
ons
t
hecent
ralgov
ernmentenj
oyst
hepower
soff
orei
gn pol
i
cyand nat
ional
def
ense.Wer
ethi
snott
hecaseaf
eder
ati
onwoul
dnotbeasi
ngl
esov
erei
gn
st
ate.

b)Wr
it
tenandSupr
emeConst
it
uti
on

As we had di
scussed abov
e,a f
eder
alsy
stem pr
esupposes a compact
bet
weenandamongt
heconst
it
uentuni
tst
hatdesi
rebot
huni
tyanddi
ver
sit
y.
Suchki
ndofcompacti
sar
esul
tofal
ongpr
ocessofbar
gai
nasconcl
udedby
t
hemut
ualconsentofal
lthosei
nvol
vedi
nthemaki
ngoft
hesy
stem f
ort
he
pr
oofofwhi
cht
her
eisaneedt
ohav
eawr
it
tenr
ecor
d.

Ont
opofi
tsbei
ngwr
it
ten,f
eder
alconst
it
uti
oni
susual
l
ydecl
aredt
o be
supr
emeast
hisi
sal
ogi
cali
nfer
encef
rom t
henat
ureofaf
eder
alst
ate
st
ruct
urewher
etheaut
hor
it
yofnei
thert
hecent
renort
heconst
it
uentst
ates
haspr
ecedencei
nasf
arast
hei
rrespect
ivespher
esofi
nfl
uencei
sconcer
ned.
And one of t
he mechani
sms of ensur
ing coor
dinat
ion r
ather t
han
subor
dinat
ioni
stomaket
he‘
power
-house’(
thef
eder
alconst
it
uti
on)supr
eme
f
rom bot
hlev
elsofgov
ernment
.Asst
atedbyFi
seha,‘
i
nshor
t,t
hef
eder
al
ar
rangementpr
esupposest
heexi
stenceofasupr
emef
eder
alconst
it
uti
on
f
rom whi
cht
hef
eder
algov
ernmentandt
hest
atesder
ivet
hei
raut
hor
it
y.’
Thati
swhatwef
indi
nAr
ti
cl
e9oft
hef
eder
alconst
it
uti
onofEt
hiopi
a,whi
ch
wehav
edi
scussedi
nourconst
it
uti
onal
lawIcour
se.

c)Ri
gidConst
it
uti
on

‘
Rigi
dit
y’whenappl
i
edespeci
all
ytoconst
it
uti
onal
document
sisar
elat
ivet
erm,
t
houghwheni
tcomest
ofeder
alconst
it
uti
onst
her
eisami
nimum
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 62

requi
rement
.Thi
sist
o mean t
hatatl
easta f
eder
alconst
it
uti
on cannot
be

amendedbyei
therl
evel
sofgov
ernment
s’uni
l
ater
aldeci
si
on.Asy
oumi
ght
r
ecal
lri
gidi
tyorf
lexi
bil
i
tyofaconst
it
uti
oni
sani
ssuet
hatr
elat
est
heease
and di
ff
icul
tyi
nthemechani
smsofamendi
ng aconst
it
uti
onaldocument
whi
chi
stobef
oundi
ntheconst
it
uti
oni
tsel
f.Thus,af
eder
alconst
it
uti
on
musthav
epr
ovi
si
onst
hatensur
ear
elat
ivest
ri
ctnessi
nal
ter
ingi
tscont
ent
s
especi
all
ythoser
elat
ingt
othepowerdi
str
ibut
ionbet
weent
het
wot
ier
sof
gov
ernment
s.Thi
s way i
tshal
lguar
ant
ee t
hatnei
theroft
he l
evel
s of
gov
ernment
sget
stempt
edt
ost
ealt
hesov
erei
gnpower
soft
heot
her
.Pl
ease
r
evi
sey
ourr
eadi
ngsonAr
ti
cl
e104-
106oft
heFDREconst
it
uti
ont
oseehow
r
igi
d orf
lexi
blet
he amendmentpr
ocess i
s,especi
all
yinr
elat
ion t
othe
pr
ovi
si
ons t
hatr
elat
e wi
th power
-di
str
ibut
ion bet
ween t
he t
wo t
ier
s of
gov
ernment
s.

c)Ani
ndependentar
bit
eri
ncaseofdi
sput
e

Thenextpoi
ntbutnott
hel
easti
nter
msofi
mpor
tancei
stheexi
stenceofan
i
ndependentor
gant
hati
ssupposedt
oint
erpr
ett
hissupr
eme,
wri
tt
enandr
igi
d
const
it
uti
onwhenandi
fdi
sput
esensuet
hatcal
lfort
hear
ti
cul
ati
onoft
he
const
it
uti
on.Thi
scoul
dhappen,br
oadl
yspeaki
ng,wher
elegi
sl
ati
on(
eit
her
st
ateoff
eder
al)i
sbei
ngcont
est
edasunconst
it
uti
onalori
ncaseswher
e
t
hepower
soft
het
wol
evel
sofgov
ernment
sar
ebei
ngquest
ioned.Agai
nthe
bot
tom-
li
newi
tht
hisr
egar
disi
nfeder
alsy
stems,suchpowerofar
bit
rat
ion
mustnotr
esti
n ei
thert
he cent
ralort
he const
it
uentuni
tsal
oneandt
o
st
ipul
ateot
her
wisewoul
dbesubor
dinat
ingt
hesov
erei
gnt
yofonet
otheot
her
.
Whi
l
edescr
ibi
ngt
hei
mpor
tanceoft
hisaspectoft
hef
eder
alst
atest
ruct
ure,
Fi
sehawr
it
es,‘
unl
esst
her
eisat
ri
bunalt
hatenf
orcest
hesupr
emacycl
ause
oft
heconst
it
uti
onandt
hatdemar
cat
est
hepr
operspher
eoft
hepower
s
oft
hef
eder
alandst
ategov
ernment
s,chaoswoul
dresul
tfr
om j
uri
sdi
cti
onal
conf
li
cts.
’
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 63

Forexampl
e,undert
heUSf
eder
alsy
stem t
heUSSupr
emeCour
tisgi
vent
his

powerofi
nter
pret
ingt
heconst
it
uti
onandi
ncount
ri
essuchasGer
many
,a
separ
ateConst
it
uti
onalCour
tisest
abl
i
shedf
orsamepur
pose.I
nthecaseof
Et
hiopi
a,t
hist
askofi
nter
pret
ing t
heconst
it
uti
on and al
so t
he powert
o
r
esol
vedi
sput
esconcer
ningt
hef
eder
ati
oni
sexcl
usi
vel
ylef
ttooneoft
he
Housesofpar
li
ament
,i.
e.,
theHouseofFeder
ati
onwi
tht
hepr
ofessi
onall
egal
suppor
toft
heConst
it
uti
onalI
nqui
ryCommi
ssi
on whi
ch i
ssupposed t
o
i
nvest
‘ igat
econst
it
uti
onaldi
sput
es’
,andwher
eitf
indsnecessar
ytoi
nter
pret
t
he

const
it
uti
on,does t
he i
nter
pret
ati submi
on and ‘ tit
srecommendat
ionst
o
t
he
HouseofFeder
ati
on’f
or‘
fi
naldeci
si
on.
’(SeeAr
ti
cl
e84(
1 & 2)
,seeal
so
Ar
ti
cl
es
62,
82,
83and84)
.

Dearst
udent
,iti
s wor
thr
emember
ing t
hatt
he House ofFeder
ati
on i
s
supposedt
obef
il
ledi
nbypol
i
tici
ansf
rom eachr
egi
onaspr
ovi
dedunder
Ar
ti
cl
e61oft
heconst
it
uti
on.Thus,t
hedeci
si
onoft
hisor
gan,atbest
,isa
deci
si
ont
hatwi
l
lver
ymuchbepol
i
tical
l
yinf
luenced.Ev
eni
ftheConst
it
uti
onal
I
nqui
ryCommi
ssi
on’
smember
sar
epr
edomi
nant
lyl
egalpr
ofessi
onal
s,t
hei
r
r
ole i
n t
he deci
si
on-
maki
ng pr
ocess goes onl
y up t
o maki
ng
r
ecommendat
ions, t
hough t
his by no means i
s wi
thout any
i
mpor
tancei
ncr
eat
ingabal
ancebet
weent
hepol
i
ticali
nter
est
swi
thi
nthe
Houseandt
heneedsf
orl
egi
ti
macyi
nter
msofl
egal
i
ty.Ther
ear
e,howev
er,
manyacademi
ci
ansandpr
act
it
ioner
swhoar
guet
hatt
hecour
tst
oohav
ethei
r
shar
eint
hei
nter
pret
ati
onoft
heconst
it
uti
onespeci
all
ywheni
tcomest
o
t
hose pr
ovi
si
ons ofChapt
erI
II
,rel
ati
ng t
othe r
ight
s and f
undament
al
f
reedoms.Butt
hisi
syett
obedebat
ed.

d)Bi
camer
alPar
li
ament

Bi
camer
ali
sm i
s al
so consi
der
ed as one ot
herf
eat
ure off
eder
alst
ate
st
ruct
ure and i
t i
s so f
or conv
inci
ng r
eason. Ensur
ing adequat
e
r
epr
esent
ati
onoft
he
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 64

member
-st
ates wi
thi
n t
he i
nst
it
uti
ons of t
he cent
ral gov
ernment i
s
as

i
mpor
tantast
hef
ormaldi
str
ibut
ionofpower
sbet
weent
het
wol
evel
sof
gov
ernment
.Accor
dingl
y,i
tis usuali
nfeder
ati
ons t
o hav
e bi
camer
al
par
li
amentand f
ort
he second chamberorupperhouse oft
he cent
ral
par
li
amentt
o becomposed ofan equalnumberofr
epr
esent
ati
vesf
rom
eachoft
hest
atesorcant
onsandi
nthi
swaymi
nor
it
ynat
ional
i
tiesmayhav
e
t
hei
rposi
ti
on st
rengt
hened. Mor
eov
er,i
n t
he l
ower houses, al
though
r
epr
esent
ati
oni
sinpr
opor
ti
ont
opopul
ati
on,t
her
eisusual
l
y,asi
sst
atedi
n
Ar
ti
cl
e54(
3)oft
heFDREconst
it
uti
on,ami
nimum pr
opor
ti
on(
inourcase20
seat
s)ornumberofseat
sguar
ant
eedt
omi
nor
it
ynat
ions.

Forexampl
e,t
heUSandAust
ral
i
anf
eder
ati
onshav
ebi
camer
alpar
li
ament
andi
ntheupperHouse,cal
l
edt
heSenat
e,eachst
atei
srepr
esent
edbyan
equalnumberofsenat
orsi
rr
espect
iveoft
hesi
zeofi
tspopul
ati
on.Thi
sway
,
t
he possi
blei
mbal
ance i
nrepr
esent
ati
on i
nthe l
owerhouse (
House of
Peopl
es’Repr
esent
ati
ves,whi
chi
sinpr
opor
ti
ont
oeachr
egi
on’
spopul
ati
on
si
ze)i
sbei
ngr
ebal
anced.Whenwel
ooki
ntoourconst
it
uti
onev
eni
feach
r
egi
on has been ensur
ed by a si
ngl
erepr
esent
ati
on i
nthe House of
Feder
ati
on,popul
ati
onsi
zer
emai
nsadet
ermi
ningf
act
orast
ohow many
r
epr
esent
ati
vesar
egi
onalst
atecoul
dhav
eandaccor
dingl
yiti
samaj
ori
tar
ian
i
nst
it
uti
oni
nmucht
hesamewayast
heHouseofPeopl
es’Repr
esent
ati
ves.
Thi
ssamef
actcoupl
edwi
tht
heabsenceofl
egi
sl
ati
vef
unct
ioni
nthi
sHouse,
i
tsuseast
hepr
otect
oroft
hei
nter
est
soft
hemember
-st
atesi
squest
ionabl
e.

2.
7.Concl
usi
onsandRevi
ewQuest
ions

Dearst
udent
,wehav
ebr
ief
lyconsi
der
edt
hev
ari
ousst
atest
ruct
urest
hat
exi
stgl
obal
l
ywi
thgr
eat
eremphasi
sont
hef
eder
alst
atest
ruct
uref
orobv
ious
r
eason.Ihav
eal
somappedoutf
ory
out
hedi
ff
erencest
hatexi
stamong
t
he
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 65

t
hreemaj
orst
atest
ruct
ures,i
.
e.,t
heuni
tar
y,f
eder
ati
onandconf
eder
ati
onas

wel
lasaf
our
tht
ypewhi
chi
sknownasasy
mmet
ri
cfeder
ati
onorf
eder
acy
.
Wehav
eal
soconsi
der
edt
hedi
sti
nct
ivef
eat
uresoff
eder
ati
onwi
thf
requent
r
efer
encet
oourownf
eder
alst
atest
ruct
ure.I
tisv
erymuchi
mpor
tantt
onot
e
t
hataf
eder
alst
atest
ruct
urei
ssomehow usedasameansofr
esol
vi
ng
pr
olonged cl
aims of sel
f-
det
ermi
nat
ion and t
hei
r consequent i
nter
nal
conf
li
cts.Her
efol
l
owsf
ew r
evi
ew quest
ionst
hatwi
l
lhel
pyour
e-r
eadt
he
pr
evi
oussect
ionst
hatwehav
ebeendi
scussi
ng.

Exer
ciseI
I

1.‘
Dev
olut
ionexi
stsi
nbot
huni
tar
yandf
eder
alst
atest
ruct
ure.
’Doy
ou

agr
eewi
tht
hisst
atement
?Why
/Whynot
?

2.‘
Aty
peofuni
tar
yst
atest
ruct
urear
rangementexi
stsev
eni
nfeder
alset

up.
’Di
scusst
hiscor
rect
nessorot
her
wiseoft
hisasser
ti
on.

3.Whatmakesf
eder
ati
onandconf
eder
ati
onal
i
ke?

4.Whati
sthedi
ff
erencebet
weenf
eder
ali
sm asamat
terofnecessi
tyand

f
eder
ali
sm asamat
terofdesi
rabi
l
ity
?
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 66

5.Whatdoesi
tmeanbyt
hest
atement‘
regi
onsmustdesi
reuni
on,and

mustnotdesi
reuni
ty’
?Inot
herwor
ds,i
sther
eadi
ff
erencebet
ween

uni
onanduni
ty?

6.Ther
ear
emot
ivesorr
easonst
hati
nspi
reuni
tyaswel
lasdi
suni
tywi
th

t
heul
ti
mat
eef
fectofr
ender
ingf
eder
ali
sm asamat
terof

necessi
ty.Out
li
net
hesemot
ivesf
oruni
tyanddi
suni
ty.

7.Ay
ele,yourconst
it
uti
onalLaw I
Icl
ass mat
e,st
rongl
yar
gues t
hat

f
eder
ali
sm wasandst
il
lisamat
terofnecessi
tyf
ort
hepeopl
esof

Et
hiopi
a.’
Arguebot
hinsuppor nstAy
tandagai ele’
svi
ew.

8.Whati
sthemai
ndi
ff
erencei
npowerdi
str
ibut
ionbet
weent
hatof

I
ndi
anandNi
ger
ianf
eder
alconst
it
uti
on?
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 67

9.Why i
s adequat
erepr
esent
ati
on ofmember
-st
ates i
nthe v
ari
ous

i
nst
it
uti
onsoft
he f
eder
algov
ernmentasi
mpor
tantast
hef
ormal

di
str
ibut
ionofpowerbet
weent
het
wol
evel
sofgov
ernment
s?

10.Whatmakest
heHouseofFeder
ati
onofEt
hiopi
aani
nst
it
uti
onnot

l
i
kel
ytopl
ayar
oleofpr
otect
ingt
hei
nter
est
sofmember
-st
atesas
i
sthecasei
nmanybi
camer
alf
eder
alpar
li
ament
ssuchast
heUS?
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 68

Suggest
edanswer
stoexer
ciseI(
Chapt
erI
)

1.The par
li
ament
ari
an sy
stem i
s di
sti
ngui
shed byi
tsf
eat
ure oft
he
par
li
amentbei
ngt
heul
ti
mat
epower
-hol
dert
hatcont
rol
s,di
rect
lyor
i
ndi
rect
ly,t
heact
ivi
ti
esoft
heexecut
ivebr
anchoft
hegov
ernment
.
Mor
eov
er,
int
hepar
li
ament
ari
ansy
stem,
unl
i
ket
hepr
esi
dent
ialsy
stem,
t
he PM ast
he head ofgov
ernment
,isnotdi
rect
lyel
ect
ed byt
he
publ
i
c, r
ather shal
l be el
ect
ed f
rom among t
he par
li
ament
member
s.

2. Thepr
osoft
hepar
li
ament
ari
ansy
stem ar
eeasi
ert
omakel
egi
sl
ati
on;
i
tof
fer
sabet
teropt
ionf
oramul
ti
-et
hni
csoci
etysuchasEt
hiopi
a;
andt
heexi
stenceofcont
inuouscont
roloft
heexecut
ivebr
anchoft
he
gov
ernmentbyt
heel
ect
edassembl
y.I
tal
sohasf
ewqual
i
tiest
hatputi
t
i
ntocr
it
ique.Someoft
hesear
ethepubl
i
c’si
nabi
l
ityt
oascer
tai
nwhom
i
tisv
oti
ng f
oras head ofgov
ernmentand i
n ef
fectabsence of
f
ixedt
erm ofof
fi
cef
orapar
ti
cul
arPr
emi
er;
insuchsy
stem t
her
eisl
ess
cont
rol
overt
hel
egi
sl
atur
e;andf
inal
l
yitappear
stobeunst
abl
e.

3.Thecondi
ti
onsaspr
ovi
dedundert
he1992const
it
uti
onofI
srael
sect
ion
22,f
ort
heexer
ciseoft
hepoweroft
hePM t
odi
ssol
vet
hepar
li
ament
,
t
hef
oll
owi
ngcondi
ti
onsmustbemet
;

 s/
hehast
oascer
tai
nthatt
hegov
ernmentwhi
chs/
hechai
rs
hasl
ostsuppor
toft
hemaj
ori
tysuppor
toft
hepar
li
ament
 suchlossofsuppor
tmustbesuchast
opr
eventt
he
ef
fect
ive

f
unct
ioni
ngoft
hegov
ernment
;and

 I
thast
obeappr
ovedbyt
hepr
esi
dent
.
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 69

4.I
ntheexi
stenceofsuchopt
ionasadoor
-si
depossi
bil
i
tyatt
hehandsof

t
he execut
ive’
s head, t
her
e appear
s t
o be i
nst
abi
l
ity i
n t
he
par
li
ament
ari
ansy
stem asi
tmi
ghtbedi
ssol
vedbef
oret
hel
apseoft
he
pr
opert
erm ofof
fi
ceoft
hepar
li
ament
ari
anst
ohol
daf
reshel
ect
ion.
Howev
er,t
hisi
ssel
dom exer
cisedast
het
wo-
theexecut
iveandt
he
l
egi
sl
ati
vebr
anchoft
hegov
ernmentar
eex
pect
edt
ofunct
ioni
ncl
ose
cooper
ati
on.

5.Sout
hAf
ri
caandBot
swana

Suggest
edanswer
stoExer
ciseI
I(Modul
eIChapt
erI
)

1.Thi
sst
atementaddr
essest
hepr
obl
em t
hati
sassoci
ated wi
tht
he
separ
ati
onofpower
sthatexi
stsi
nthepr
esi
dent
ialsy
stem.I
nsucha
sy
stem i
tispossi
blet
hatt
het
wo,whi
l
efunct
ioni
ngi
nthei
rsepar
ate
spher
es,bl
ameeachot
herf
ort
hef
aul
tsofei
theroft
hem andt
he
consequence woul
d be t
he publ
i
c wi
l
lbe l
efti
n a dar
k wi
thout
knowi
ngonwhom t
oassi
gnt
hebl
ameandwhom t
ohol
daccount
abl
e.
Accor
dingt
oWoodr
ow,t
hesepar
ati
onmi
ghtendupi
nconf
usi
ngt
he
pr
operspher
esofeachone’
spower
sthatneedt
obest
ri
ctl
yexer
cised…

2.Thest
atementi
str
ueandy
oumayl
ookatt
hel
i
sti
ngs.Theyar
ethe
mor
eorl
esst
hedi
rectdupl
i
cat
ionsofeachot
her
’spr
osandcons.

3. The adv
ant
ages ar
e ensur
es di
rectel
ect
ion oft
he head oft
he
execut
iveby t
he peopl
e; exi
stence of separ
ati
on of power
s;
speed and deci
si
veness t
hata pr
esi
dentmi
ghtexer
cise dur
ing
emer
gencysi
tuat
ions;and f
inal
l
y st
abi
l
ity
.The di
sadv
ant
ages ar
e
t
endencyt
owar
dsaut
hor
it
ari
ani
sm;separ
ati
onofpower
scanal
sobea
di
sadv
ant
aget
oo(
youneedt
ocar
eful
l
yreadwher
eli
est
headv
ant
age
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 70

and di
sadv
ant
age ofsepar
ati
on ofpower
s);and i
mpedi
mentt
o

l
eader
shi
pchanges.

4.I
texi
stsf
ori
nst
ance i
n di
ctat
orshi
pregi
mes wher
ethe pr
esi
dent
decl
areshi
msel
f/her
sel
fassuchwi
thoutpopul
arel
ect
ion,andi
tcoul
d
al
soexi
sti
nfi
gur
eheadswher
ethesy
stem i
snotpr
esi
dent
ial
,rat
her
par
li
ament
arysuchasI
srael
,andour
s.

5.Some oft
he di
ff
erences bet
ween t
he t
wo ar
e summar
ized i
nthe
f
oll
owi
ngt
abl
e.

Pr
esi
dent
ial
syst
em ofgov
ernment Par
li
ament
ary sy
stem
of

gov
ernment
ThePr
esi
dent
-t
hehi
ghestexecut
ive The Pr
ime Mi
nist
eri
s chosen by
power
-hol
der
-hasadi
rectmandat
e a f
ew member
s of Peopl
es’
f
rom t
hepeopl
e Repr
esent
ati
ves

Theexecut
iveandl
egi
sl
ati
ve Suchsepar
ati
oni
snotpr
esent
br
anchofgov
ernmentar
e
separat
ed
Fixed t
erm f
ort
he execut
ive The Pr
ime Mi
nist
er mi
ght be
head,
i.
e.,
thepr
esi
dent r
emov
ed f
rom hi
s pr
emi
ershi
p
bef
oret
he expi
ry oft
he nor
mal
per
iod t
hrough v
ote of no
confi
dence
Amaxi
mum oft
wot
ermsi
sgi
ven Nosuchl i
mit
soft
ermsf
ora
Pri
me
f
orapar
ti
cul
arpr
esi
dent
Mini
ster
ThePr
esi
denthast
hepowert
ovet
o No such power ei
ther f
or
t
he
al
egi
sl
ati
on
‘
fi
gur
ehead’ort
hePremi
er
Theexecut
ivebr
anchi
suni
per
sonal ThePM andcabi
networ
k
col
l
ect
ivel
yand hav
e t
he
r
esponsi
bil
i
ty t
o
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 71

accountcol
l
ect
ivel
y.Ar
ti
cl
e72oft
he

FDRE const
it
uti
on pr
ovi
des;(
1)The
Hi
ghest execut
ive power
s of t
he
Feder
alGov
ernmentar
evest
edi
nthe
Pr
imeMi
nist
erandi
ntheCounci
lof
Mi
nist
ers;(
2)ThePr
imeMi
nist
erand
t
he Counci
l of Mi
nist
ers ar
e
r
esponsi
blet
otheHouseofPeopl
es’
Repr
esent
ati
ves.I
nthe exer
cise of
St
ate f
unct
ions, member
s of t
he
Counci
lofMi
nist
ersar
ecol
l
ect
ivel
y
r
esponsi
blef
or al
ldeci
si
ons t
hey
makeasabody
.

6.Bot
h sy
stems of gov
ernment hav
ethei
r own adv
ant
ages and

di
sadv
ant
agesandaswesai
datt
hebegi
nni
ngofourdi
scussi
ont
he
whol
epr
ocessi
nvol
vesadeci
si
onofwei
ghi
ngt
hesef
act
ors.Mor
eov
er,
oneneedsal
sot
oconsi
dert
hesoci
o-pol
i
ticalsi
tuat
ionsoft
hecount
ry
f
orwhi
cht
hechoi
ceneedst
obemade.Fori
nst
ance,i
namul
ti
-et
hni
c
soci
ety
,the par
li
ament
ary sy
stem mi
ghtof
fera bet
terchoi
ce i
n
t
ermsofpowerdi
str
ibut
ionamongt
hev
ari
ouset
hni
cgr
oups,t
her
eby
av
oidi
ngt
heconcent
rat
ionofpoweri
noneper
son,l
i
ket
hepr
esi
dent
.
Ul
ti
mat
ely
,itmat
ter
sli
tt
least
owhi
chsy
stem t
hatast
atemi
ghthav
e
v
otedf
ort
hanhow i
tiscommi
tt
edt
oexer
cisei
tinpr
act
ice.Bot
h
sy
stems can be used t
o st
ruct
ure a sy
stem t
hat f
unct
ions
ef
fect
ivel
ywi
th democr
ati
c cul
tur
e so l
ong asexcessesar
e bei
ng
handl
ed pr
oper
lyt
hrough v
ari
ousmeans.So,i
nrespondi
ng t
othi
s
quest
iony
ouneedt
ost
artwi
thassessi
ngt
heposi
ti
veandnegat
ive
si
desofeachsy
stem and
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 72

t
ryt
oputt
hoseel
ement
swi
thi
nthepar
ti
cul
arcount
ry’
ssoci
o-pol
i
tical

cont
ext
.Ift
hiswasanexam andnot
hinghasbeengi
veni
nthef
act
sof
t
hequest
ionaboutt
hiscont
ext
,youmi
ghtneedt
o go f
urt
herand
assumef
ewf
act
s.

7. A mot
ionofnoconf
idence,al edamot
socal
l ionofnon-
conf
idence,a
censur
e mot
ion,a no-
conf
idence mot
ion,orsi y a conf
mpl idence
mot
ion,i
sapar
li
ament
arymot
iont
radi
ti
onal
l
yputbef
oreapar
li
ament
byt
he opposi
ti
on i
nthe hope of def
eat
ing or embar
rassi
ng a
gov
ernment
.Such a mot
ion i
s passed orr
eject
ed bymeans ofa
par
li
ament
aryv
ote,
cal
l
ed a‘
Vot
eofno conf
idence’
. Thi
sway
,the
execut
ivei
sbei
ngcensur
edorcheckedf
ori
tsact
sandkeepsi
tinl
i
ne
wi
tht
heneedsandi
nter
est
soft
hepeopl
e,whoar
erepr
esent
edby
t
hosemember
sofpar
li
ament
. Ther
efor
e, unl
i
ke t
he pr
esi
dent
ial
sy
stem,a one t
imeel
ect
edexecut
ivei
snotguar
ant
eedf
ort
hef
ull
t
erm unl
essi
tact
spr
oper
ly.Thepr
act
icalappl
i
cat
ionoft
hispr
ocedur
e
i
showev
eri
mpeded wher
ether
eis democr
ati
c cent
ral
i
sm 10,wher
e
t
he par
tyhol
dinggov
ernmentpoweri
sexpect
edt
oactwi
thoutdi
ssent
.
So,i
fwet
akef
ori
nst
ance,ourpar
li
amentasanexampl
e,f
oramot
ion
ofnoconf
idencet
osucceed,t
her
eneedt
obeamaj
ori
tyi
nsuppor
tof
t
hatcensur
e.Howev
er,
sincet
hemaj
ori
tyseat
sar
ehel
dbyonepar
ty,
it
i
slessl
i
kel
ythatt
heopposi
ti
onscoul
dgett
hroughi
t,especi
all
ywher
e
duet
othi
sdemocr
ati
ccent
ral
i
sm,
nomemberoft
her
uli
ngpar
tycoul
d
v
otei
nfav
oroft
hemot
ion.

10
Democr ati
ccent ral
ismi sthenamegi ventot hepr
inci
plesofi nternalorganisati
onusedby
Leninistpoli
ti
cal part
ies,andt het
ermissomet i
mesusedasasy nony mforanyLeni nist
poli
cyi nsi
deapol i
ti
calparty.Thedemocr ati
caspectofthisorgani sati
onalmet hoddescribes
thefreedomofmember soft hepol
it
ical
par t
yt odi
scussanddebat emattersofpol i
cyand
dir
ection,butoncet hedeci si
onofthepar ty
i
smadebymaj orit
yvote,allmembersareex pect
edtouphol dthatdeci si
on. This
l
atteraspectr epresentscent r
ali
sm.AsLeni ndescri
bedit,democr aticcentrali
sm
consistedof‘freedomofdi scussi
on,uni
tyofact i
on.
’
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 73

Pr
esi
dent
ial sy
stems al
so usual
l
y hav
e t
he pr
ocedur
e of
i
mpeachment

bywhi
chanexecut
ivecanber
emov
ed,butt
hispr
ocedur
egener
all
y
r
equi
resasuper
-maj
ori
tyandt
hest
andar
dfori
mpeachmentgener
all
y
r
equi
ressomecr
imet
ohav
ebeencommi
tt
ed.I
ntheconst
it
uti
onsof
sev
eralcount
ri
es,i
mpeachmenti
sthef
ir
stoft
wost
agesi
naspeci
fi
c
pr
ocessf
oral
egi
sl
ati
vebodyt
oremov
eagov
ernmentof
fi
ci
alwi
thout
t
hatof
fi
ci
al’
s agr
eement
.The second st
age i
s cal
l
ed conv
ict
ion.
Ther
efor
e,ev
eni
fiti
sst
ri
cterandi
nvol
vesacr
imi
nalactt
obepr
oved,
i
mpeachmenti
stheonl
ywayt
hatapr
esi
denti
napr
esi
dent
ialsy
stem
canber
emov
edbef
oret
heexpi
ryoft
het
erm ofof
fi
ce,l
i
ket
hev
oteof
noconf
idencei
nthepar
li
ament
arysy
stem.

Suggest
edanswer
stoExer
ciseI(
Modul
eIChapt
erI
I)

1.Thegeogr
aphi
calsi
zeofacount
rymaynotal
way
srendert
hef
eder
al
st
atest
ruct
ureast
hebestal
ter
nat
ive,ev
eni
fthatcoul
dbeoner
eason
whyaf
eder
alst
atest
ruct
urei
spr
efer
red.Ther
ear
emanyot
herf
act
ors
t
hatneedt
obeconsi
der
edt
ooptf
orany
oneoft
hest
atest
ruct
urest
hat
wehav
edi
scussed.Fori
nst
ance,whenweseeRussi
a,t
heUSand
Canadai
tist
ruet
hatt
hesecount
ri
esar
ebi
genoughsoast
omaket
he
f
eder
alst
atest
ruct
ureapr
efer
redopt
ion,t
hought
her
easonst
hatt
hey
hadf
ormedt
hei
rst
atest
ruct
urewasnotsol
el
ysi
ze.Forexampl
e,t
he
UShad,amongot
her
,def
enceandeconomi
cconcer
ns,whi
l
edeci
ding
t
ofor
mthef
eder
alst
atest
ruct
ure.St
il
lwhenweseeChi
na,i
fitwer
e
si
zeal
onet
hatmat
ter
edf
orf
eder
alst
atest
ruct
ure,t
hent
her
eitwoul
d
hav
e been t
he f
ir
stwor
ld count
ryt
o hav
efor
med a f
eder
alst
ate
st
ruct
ure,
whi
chi
nfacthasn’
t.

2.Dev
olut
ioni
sapr
ocesswher
ebyr
egi
onalsub-
gov
ernment
sar
ecr
eat
ed
byt
heact
soft
hecent
ral
gov
ernmenti
nauni
tar
yst
atest
ruct
ure.When
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 74

wespeakofr
egi
onsorpr
ovi
ncesi
nfeder
alsetups,wecan’
tspeak
of

dev
olut
ionsi
ncet
hei
rpoweri
sader
ivat
iveoff
eder
alconst
it
uti
onand
nott
hepi
ecesofl
egi
sl
ati
onbyt
hecent
ralgov
ernment
.Dev
olut
ioncan
beusedt
oext
endl
egi
sl
ati
ve,j
udi
ci
alaswel
lasexecut
ivepower
swi
th
t
he ul
ti
mat
e deci
si
on-
maki
ng bei
ng r
etai
ned at t
he cent
ral
gov
ernment
’shand.

3.I
n pr
inci
plet
otal
i
tar
iani
sm and f
eder
alst
ate st
ruct
ure do notgo
t
oget
herbecause t
he whol
e pur
pose ofest
abl
i
shi
ng f
eder
ati
on i
s
decent
ral
i
zat
ion ofpower
.Ev
en i
fthi
sist
hepr
inci
ple,hi
stor
yhad
wi
tnessed except
ions f
rom t
hisi
n such t
otal
i
tar
ian r
ules as Nazi
Ger
manyandt
hef
ormerSov
ietUni
on.

4.Looki
ntot
hef
oll
owi
ngt
abl
e;

Feder
ati
on Conf
eder
ati
on

The cent
ral and r
egi
onal Weakercent
ral
gov
ernment
gov
ernment
s hav
e a bal
anced
power
,the f
ormer r
epr
esent
ing
uni
tyand t
he l
att
ersi
gni
fyi
ng t
he
needst
oaccommodat
edi
ver
sit
y

Ast
atecanbeamemberonl
yto Anent
it
ycanbeamembert
o
onef
eder
ati
on mor
ethanoneconf
eder
ati
on

I
tis appl
i
ed, pr
edomi
nant
ly, by I
t i
s used, much wi
del
y, by
st
atesandasapol
i
ticalconceptof i
nter
nat
ional or
gani
sat
ions and
st
atest
ruct
ure associ
ati
onsofempl
oyeesaswel
l
asempl
oyer
s
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 75

5.Theopt
ionst
hatonecanl
ooki
ntoar
euni
tar
yst
atest
ruct
ure,f
eder
al

st
ate st
ruct
ure,conf
eder
al st
ate st
ruct
ure and f
eder
acy
. Fr
om
amongt
hechoi
ces,
uni
tar
yandconf
eder
alst
atest
ruct
uremi
ghtnotbe
ofany use,because wher
ether
e exi
sta l
ong-
standi
ng need f
or
separ
ati
on,goi
ngf
oruni
tar
yst
atest
ruct
uremi
ghtnotbeal
ast
ing
sol
uti
on.Ont
heot
herhand,wher
ether
eisnocl
earneedf
orcompl
ete
separ
ati
on,conf
eder
ati
onasast
atest
ruct
urei
snotanopt
imalchoi
ce
t
obemade.Thenwewi
l
lhav
etoseeAr
cadi
a’
ssi
tuat
ioni
nli
ghtofwhat
f
eder
ali
sm aswel
lasf
eder
acymi
ghtof
fer
.Thel
att
ermaybeofhel
pto
accommodat
ethei
nter
est
sofKur
duswhi
l
ethef
ormert
orespondt
o
t
heneedsoft
hef
ivepr
ovi
nces.Ev
eni
fther
ear
eahandf
ulofpr
ovi
nces
t
hatpr
efert
hef
eder
alst
atest
ruct
ure,ev
enasi
ngl
epr
ovi
nce’
sint
erest
mustnotgo unnot
iced i
n nat
ion-
bui
l
ding and t
ransi
ti
onalj
ust
ice
pr
ocesses.Ther
efor
e,wher
etheci
rcumst
ancessowar
rant
,itmi
ghtbe
abet
terway
-outt
oest
abl
i
shanasy
mmet
ri
cfeder
ati
onbygr
ant
ing
gr
eat
eraut
onomyandi
ndependencet
oKur
dusf
oll
owi
ngt
heconcept
s
off
eder
acy
..
.

Suggest
edanswer
stoExer
ciseI
I(Modul
eIChapt
er2)

1.Dev
olut
ion i
s a pecul
i
arf
eat
ure ofpowershar
ing i
n uni
tar
yst
ate
st
ruct
ure whi
ch i
sto be done att
he di
scr
eti
on oft
he cent
ral
gov
ernmentt
oit
s sub-
uni
ts.Such power
-shar
ing i
nfeder
alst
ate
st
ruct
ureev
eni
fexi
stsi
tdoesi
nav
erydi
sti
nctwayt
handev
olut
ion,
becausei
tisdonebyaf
eder
alconst
it
uti
onwhi
chi
stobeconsi
der
ed
asacov
enantbet
weenandamongt
hecent
ralgov
ernmentaswel
las
t
her
egi
onaluni
ts.Ther
efor
e,i
tisnotpossi
blet
o cal
lsuchpower
-
shar
ingi
nfeder
alst
atest
ruct
ureasdev
olut
ionasi
texi
stsi
nuni
tar
y
st
atest
ruct
ure.
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 76

2.I
nfeder
alst
atest
ruct
uret
her
egi
onaluni
tsort
heconst
it
uentmember
s

oft
hef
eder
ati
onoper
ate,i
nthei
rspher
esofi
nfl
uence,i
nmucht
he
samewayasuni
tar
yst
ateshandl
ethei
rbusi
ness.Ther
ear
esubuni
ts
wi
thi
n each r
egi
onalst
ates,i
n our case t
hese coul
d go up t
o
suchl
owestl
ev saswor
el edas.Thesesmal
luni
tswi
thi
neachr
egi
on
wi
l
lhav
eadev
olv
edpowerf
rom t
hoser
egi
ons,whi
chpowermi
ghtbe
r
est
ri
ctedorexpandedatt
hewi
shesoft
hepar
ti
cul
arr
egi
onalst
ate.So,
i
tist
ruet
hatwi
thi
nfeder
ati
onswemi
ghtf
indt
hesembl
anceoft
he
uni
tar
yst
atest
ruct
ure.

3. Bot
hhav
ethef
orcesofuni
tyanddi
ver
sit
y,t
hought
hei
ntensi
tyoft
he
l
att
eri
sst
rongeri
nconf
eder
ati
ont
hatt
hecent
ralgov
ernmenti
sver
y
muchweaker
…

4.Whenwesayf
eder
ali
sm i
samat
terofnecessi
tywear
eimpl
yi
ngt
hat
uni
tar
yst
atest
ruct
ureasanopt
ioni
simpossi
ble.Whenwespeak
aboutf
eder
ali
sm asamat
terofdesi
rabi
l
itywemeant
hatf
eder
ali
sm
of
fer
s bet
teradv
ant
ages t
han uni
tar
yst
ate st
ruct
ure ev
en i
fbot
h
opt
ionswoul
d hav
e been t
enabl
efort
hecount
ry’
spol
i
tical
,soci
al,
hi
stor
ical
andot
hercont
ext
s.Whet
herf
eder
ali
sm hasbeenopt
edf
oras
amat
terofnecessi
tyordesi
rabi
l
ity
,howev
er,
ther
eal
way
sshoul
dexi
st
aneedt
oassoci
ateanddi
ssoci
ateamongt
heuni
tsoft
hef
eder
ati
on.

5. Adesi
ref
oruni
onandnotf
oruni
tyhasi
tsownmeani
ngwhenwet
alk
aboutf
eder
alst
atest
ruct
ure.Uni
tyi
mpl
i
esasi
tuat
ionofbecomi
ngas
one,auni
t,whi
l
eincaseofuni
on,t
hesi
tuat
ioni
sdi
ff
erent
.Auni
oni
s
t
hecomi
ngt
oget
herofconst
it
uentmember
soft
hatassoci
ati
onwho
hav
eacommoni
nter
estt
hatt
heywantt
opur
sue,t
hought
hei
runi
on
woul
dn’
tresul
tin maki
ng t
hem as one,ora uni
t.Ther
efor
e,i
n
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 77

f
eder
ati
on,t
her
eisaneedt
ofor
m auni
onbutnott
obecomeasone.

Thi
sist
heot
herwayofsay
ingast
ateofuni
tyami
ddi
ver
sit
y.

6. Whenwespeakoff
eder
ali
sm asnecessi
ty,t
her
est
il
lshoul
dexi
st,
aswesai
dabov
eadesi
ret
ofor
m auni
onaswel
lasadesi
ret
o
di
ssoci
ate.Suchdesi
ref
oruni
oni
zat
ioncoul
dcomef
rom ei
therposi
ti
ve
compat
ibi
l
itysuchaspr
e-exi
sti
ngsoci
o-economi
caswel
laspol
i
tical
t
ies ori
tcoul
d al
so come f
rom shar
ed appr
ehensi
on and mut
ual
def
ence.When count
ri
es come t
oget
herand seta common goal
t
owar
dst
hei
rdef
enceandot
herends,t
hataddsupt
othei
rcol
l
ect
ive
st
rengt
hinpr
event
ingext
ernalaggr
essi
onaswel
lasi
nter
nalunr
est
,
because,
ast
hesay
inggoes,
‘uni
tyi
sst
rengt
h.’

Howev
er,t
her
eis al
so a need t
o hav
e di
ssoci
ati
ng f
act
orsf
or
consi
der
ingf
eder
ali
sm asanopt
ion,becausei
fst
ates/
nat
ionsonl
y
hav
east
rongneedt
ofor
m auni
onwi
thoutacor
respondi
ngi
nter
estt
o
besepar
ate,t
hen t
he v
iabl
e opt
ion woul
d hav
e been uni
tar
yst
ate
st
ruct
ureandnotf
eder
ali
sm.Thesour
cesf
orsuchdi
ssoci
ati
ngi
nter
est
coul
dbe,ashi
stor
yhasshownus,col
oni
all
egaci
eswher
ether
ehad
been di
vi
si
ons of j
uri
sdi
cti
ons f
or admi
nist
rat
ion pur
poses t
hat
t
hrought
imegr
ewi
ntodeep-
root
edquest
sforaut
onomyandsepar
ate
exi
stence. Mor
eov
er,i
nher
ent di
ver
sit
ies i
n t
erms of l
anguage,
et
hni
ci
ty,r
eli
gion,cul
tur
eet
cmi
ghtal
soser
veassour
cesf
orsuch
i
nter
est
sofsepar
ati
on.Theseasy
mmet
ri
cint
erest
s,i
ftheyar
enot
ext
reme,mi
ghtbeaccommodat
ed t
hrough a st
atest
ruct
urecal
l
ed
f
eder
ali
sm.

7.For
:Due t
othe deep-
root
ed and i
nher
entdi
ver
sit
ies t
hatexi
sti
n
Et
hiopi
ansoci
ety
,feder
ali
sm wasandst
il
lisamat
terofnecessi
ty.And
t
heneedf
oruni
oni
zat
ionexi
stsbecauseoft
hehi
stor
icalt
iest
hat
t
he
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 78

peopl
ehav
eformanycent
uri
es.Andatt
het
imet
heconst
it
uti
onwas

adopt
eduni
tar
yst
atest
ruct
urewoul
dn’
thav
ebeent
houghtofasan
opt
ionsi
ncei
twasn’
twor
kingt
hroughoutt
hehi
stor
yofEt
hiopi
a,whi
ch
had wi
tnessed et
hni
c conf
li
cts f
or a l
ong per
iod of
t
ime…Agai
nst
:onemi
ghtal
soar
guet
hatt
hedi
ff
erencesandt
hequest
f
orsepar
ati
onwasnotandst
il
li
snotasst
rongasi
tiscl
aimedt
obeby
t
he r
uli
ng par
ty.Et
hiopi
an soci
etyi
sli
vi
ng i
nav
ery mi
xed way
wi
thout any sy
stemat
ic sel
ect
ion of descent f
or mar
ri
age and
set
tl
ement
,fori
nst
ance.Andi
fatal
lther
ear
eex
tremef
eel
i
ngsof
et
hno-
li
ngui
sti
csel
ect
ion t
endenci
est
heyar
eal
lcr
eat
ionsofpost
-
r
evol
uti
ont
hanbei
ngi
nher
enti
nthesoci
ety
.Ther
efor
e,t
her
ewasa
need t
olook i
ntot
hepossi
bil
i
tyofassessi
ng t
he pr
osand cons
ofuni
tar
y as wel
las f
eder
alst
ate st
ruct
ures bef
orer
ushi
ng i
nto
t
hesy
stem t
hatwehav
enow,whi
chi
spr
ovi
ngi
tsel
fmuchmor
ea
f
ail
uret
hani
tssuccess.Ther
ecentet
hni
cconf
li
ctsar
ewi
tnessesof
t
hisasser
ti
on.

8.TheI
ndi
anconst
it
uti
onhascl
assi
fi
edpoweri
ntot
hreeway
s:t
hoset
hat
ar
e excl
usi
vel
y gi
ven t
othe cent
ralgov
ernment
;those excl
usi
vel
y
gi
vent
otheconst
it
uentuni
ts;andt
hoset
hatar
egi
venconcur
rent
lyf
or
bot
h,wi
thast
ipul
ati
ont
hati
ncaseofanyconf
li
ctbet
weenar
egi
onal
and t
he cent
ral gov
ernment
’sl
egi
sl
ati
on,t
he l
att
er shal
l hav
e
pr
ecedence.I
nthecaseofNi
ger
iapoweri
sbei
ngal
l
ocat
edbyl
i
sti
ng
t
hoset
hatar
eexcl
usi
vel
ygi
vent
othef
eder
algov
ernment
,thoset
hat
ar
econcur
rent
lygi
vent
obot
hthef
eder
alandr
egi
onalgov
ernment
s
wi
tht
hesamepr
ecedenceoft
hef
eder
all
egi
sl
ati
oni
ncaseofconf
li
ct
and f
inal
l
y wi
th a st
ipul
ati
on t
hatt
he r
esi
dualpower
s shal
lbe
exer
cisedbyt
her
egi
onaluni
ts.Asonecanseef
rom t
hesest
atement
s,
whi
l
etheI
ndi
anconst
it
uti
oni
smuchmor
erest
ri
cti
veoft
hepower
sof
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 79

t
hest
atesi
nmucht
hesamewayasi
tdoest
hatoft
hepower
sof
t
he

cent
ralgov
ernment
,theNi
ger
ianconst
it
uti
onappar
ent
lyseemst
ogi
ve
awi
derpowert
other
egi
ons.Howev
eracl
oserl
ooki
ntot
hosepower
s
excl
usi
vel
ygi
vent
othecent
ralgov
ernmentmi
ghtr
evealt
hatt
her
eis
l
i
ttl
elef
tasar
esi
dualpowert
other
egi
ons.Ther
ear
esomesi
xty-
eight
i
temsl
i
sted asar
easofcompet
ence f
ort
he cent
ralgov
ernment
’s
l
egi
sl
ati
vepower
swhi
l
esomet
hir
tyi
temsf
orconcur
rentpower
sfor
bot
hthecent
reandt
her
egi
ons.Ev
eni
fthenumber68t
ell
susl
i
ttl
e
aboutt
her
ealcont
entoft
hosepower
s,i
tisnotsomet
hingt
hatcan
easi
l
ybedi
smi
ssedasi
rr
elev
ant
.

9. The cent
ralgov
ernment i
s supposed t
o aspi
ref
or common
i
nter
est
sthatconcer
n al
lther
egi
onaluni
ts.To t
hatend t
her
ear
e
l
egi
sl
ati
onst
hatwi
l
lhav
eauni
ver
salappl
i
cat
ionacr
osst
heconst
it
uent
uni
tsi
ncl
udi
ng budget
aryl
aws.Those i
nst
it
uti
ons t
hatmake such
gr
and deci
si
ons must be f
il
led i
n t
hrough f
air and adequat
e
r
epr
esent
ati
on f
rom each r
egi
on.Equalr
epr
esent
ati
on i
n al
lthe
i
nst
it
uti
onsmi
ghtaf
fectt
hei
nter
est
soft
hoser
egi
onswhi
chhav
ea
hugenumberofpopul
ati
onsandt
hedeci
si
onsmi
ghtbeaf
fect
edby
t
hosewi
thmi
nor
it
ies.Thi
ssamef
actwoul
dther
efor
eaf
fectar
egi
on’
s
deci
si
onei
thert
ojoi
nornott
ojoi
nacer
tai
nfeder
alar
rangement
.
Ther
efor
e,t
he House of Peopl
es’Repr
esent
ati
ves i
s meant t
o
accommodat
e such i
nter
est
sint
he sense t
hatt
he pr
opor
ti
onal
r
epr
esent
ati
onwi
thi
nthi
sHouseensur
est
hatt
hemi
nor
it
ies’i
nter
est
s
woul
dn’
taf
fectt
hatoft
hemaj
ori
ti
es’
.Howev
er,t
hisal
onemaynot
sol
vet
hewhol
epr
obl
em si
ncet
hemi
nor
it
y,whi
chcannothav
eequal
seat
swi
thi
nthi
shouse,mi
ghtf
eeli
nsecur
eandi
nti
midat
edbyt
he
maj
ori
tar
ianr
ule.Thati
swhyi
nmost f
eder
al st
ate st
ruct
ures,
bi
camer
al par
li
ament i
s pr
efer
redwher
eby t
he ot
herhouse,wi
th
equalr
epr
esent
ati
oni
rr
espect
iveof
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 80

popul
ati
onsi
ze,
wil
lser
veasapr
otect
oroft
hei
nter
est
sofal
lmember
-

st
ates i
nthe same f
oot
ing.Thus,r
epr
esent
ati
ons i
nthe cent
ral
gov
ernment
’si
nst
it
uti
onsmustbet
houghtofameansofensur
ingsuch
pr
otect
ion.Fori
nst
ance,a l
egi
sl
ati
on,t
hathas been debat
ed and
passedbyt
hel
owerhousewi
l
lonceagai
nbeconsi
der
edandneedt
o
bepassedbyt
hel
owerhouset
oo.Thi
sway
,thepot
ent
ialt
yrannyof
t
hemaj
ori
tywi
l
lhav
eacheckbyani
nst
it
uti
onwher
ether
eex
ist
s
equal
repr
esent
ati
onofev
eryconst
it
uentuni
t.

10.When we consi
der t
he Et
hiopi
an upper house of t
he Feder
al
Par
li
ament
,theHouseofFeder
ati
on,si
ncei
trepeat
sthemaj
ori
tar
ian
pr
inci
pleoft
hel
owerhouse,t
heHouseofPeopl
es’Repr
esent
ati
ves,i
t
i
snotupt
oit
sdesi
redpur
pose.Secondl
y,t
hel
ackofi
nvol
vementof
t
hehousei
nlegi
sl
ati
vef
unct
ionsmakesi
tincapabl
eofpl
ayi
ngt
her
ole
t
hatt
heSenat
eint
heUS,orAust
ral
i
awoul
dhav
epl
ayedi
nchecki
ng
t
hedeci
si
onsoft
hel
owerhouseofpar
li
ament
.
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 81

CH-
2Fundament
alRi
ght
sandFr
eedomsundert
he

FDREConst
it
uti
on

I
ntr
oduct
ion
Oneoft
hepr
inci
plesofconst
it
uti
onall
awi
sthepr
inci
pleoff
undament
alr
ight
s
andf
reedoms.Respect
ingt
othi
sal
mostone-
thi
rdoft
heFDREconst
it
uti
onal
t
exti
scov
eredbyt
heser
ight
sandf
reedoms,andt
hest
ri
ngentamendment
pr
ocedur
esst
ipul
atedi
nAr
ti
cl
e104and105(
1)oft
heconst
it
uti
onal
sor
eit
erat
e
t
hisi
mpor
tance. Ar
ti
cl
e13(
1)byi
mposi
ngdut
yonbot
hfeder
alaswel
las
r
egi
onall
egi
sl
ati
ve,execut
iveandj
udi
ci
alor
ganst
opr
otectandenf
orcet
hose
r
ight
sandf
reedoms.
1.
2.Thenat
ureoft
hef
undament
alr
ight
sandf
reedoms

Whati
sthedi
ff
erencebet
ween‘
ri
ght
’and‘
fr
eedom’ mebi
or‘ t’e’
na‘
net
sanet
’?

I
njur
ispr aw,ar
udenceandl ighti
sthel
egalormor
alent
it
lementt
odoor

r
efr
ainf
rom doi
ngsomet
hingort
oobt
ainorr
efr
ainf
rom obt
aini
nganact
ion,
t
hing orr
ecogni
ti
on i
n ci
vi
lsoci
ety
.Ri
ght
sser
veasr
ules ofi
nter
act
ion
bet
weenpeopl
e,and,
assuch,
theypl
aceconst
rai
ntsandobl
i
gat
ionsupont
he
act
ionsofi
ndi
vi
dual
sorgr
oups(
forexampl
e,i
fonehasar
ightt
oli
fe,t
his
meanst
hatot
her
sdonothav
ethel
i
ber
tyt
omur
derhi
m).

Ther
ear
etwomai
nmoder
nconcept
ionsofr
ight
s:ont
heonehand,t
hei
dea
ofnat
uralr
ight
shol
dst
hatt
her
eisacer
tai
nli
stofr
ight
senshr
inedi
nnat
ure
t
hatcannotbe l
egi
ti
mat
elymodi
fi
ed byanyhumanpower
.Ont
he ot
her
hand,t deaofl
hei egalr
ight
shol
dst
hatr
ight
sar
ehumanconst
ruct
s,cr
eat
ed
bysoci
ety
,enf
orcedbygov
ernment
sandsubj
ectt
ochange.
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 82

Consequent
ly,t
wof
undament
alcont
rov
ersi
esexi
stt
hatsur
roundt
henot
ion

ofr
ight
s:Fi
rst
,ther
eist
hequest
i hebasi
onoft sforr
ight
s(onwhatbasi
s
r
ight
scanbesai
dtoexi
st,ar
etheynat
uralorar
etheyahumanconst
ruct
).
Second,t
her
eist
hequest
i hecont
onoft entofr
ight
s(whatt
her
ight
sofa
per
sonact
ual
l
yar
e,canaper
sonpossessunl
i
mit
edr
ight
stodowhat
ever
s/
hecanori
sther
eapossi
blel
i
mitoni
t,i
fsowher
edoest
hatl
i
mitbegi
nor
end)
.

Thewor
dfr
eedom,
ont
heot
herhand,
iscl
aimedt
ohav
eor
igi
nat
edi
nEngl
and.
Engl
i
shhadi
tsbegi
nni
ngsaboutf
if
teenhundr
edy
ear
sago,whent
he"
Angl
e
-
ish"spokenbyAngl
esandSaxonssepar
atedf
rom ot
herGer
mani
clanguages
ast
heAngl
esandSaxonst
hemsel
ves,cr
ossi
ngt
hewat
ert
oset
tl
einwhat
t
heywoul
dcal
l"Angl
e-l
and,
"separ
atedf
rom ot
herGer
mani
ctr
ibes.Si
ncet
hat
t
ime,no wor
d has been ofmor
e si
gni
fi
cance t
o Engl
i
sh speaker
sthan
f
reedom.Thi
swor
dwasnotcar
ri
edt
oEngl
andaspar
toft
heAngl
es'and
Saxons'Ger
mani
clanguage her
it
age,norwas i
timpor
ted f
rom anot
her
l
anguage.I
nst
ead,
itseemst
ohav
ebeenahomemadei
nvent
ion,
putt
oget
her
f
rom t
woexi
sti
ngGer
mani
cwor
dst
ofor
m adi
sti
nct
iveconcept
.

Theel
ement
soff
r ef
eedom ar r
eeanddoom,t
ouset
hemoder
nspel
l
ings.
Fr
eeor
igi
nal
l
ymeant"
bel
oved"andi
srel
atedt
othewor
d‘f
ri
end.
’Byt
het
ime
Engl
i
shcamei
ntobei
ng,f
reehadev
olv
edt
otakeoni
tsmoder
nmeani
ng,
wi
tht
hei
deat
hatonewhoi
sbel
ovedi
saf
ri
end,f
reef
rom bondage.The
dev
elopmentofdoom i
smor
ecompl
i
cat
ed.Nowaday
swet
hinkofdoom asa
j
udgmentorasanunhappyf
ate.At
housandy
ear
sago,i
nthet
imeoft
he
ear
lyEngl
i
shl
anguage,doom hadadi
ff
erentemphasi
s.I
tdi
dindeedmean
j
udgment
,buti
tmeantaconsi
der
edj
udgment
,rel
atedt
othepr
esent
-day
deem.

Putf
reet
oget
herwi
thdoom andy
ouhav
ethecondi
ti
onofbei
ngj
udgedt
obe
f
ree.I
tinv
olv
esbei
ngf
reeandt
hinki
ngabouti
t,bei
ngf
reeandaccept
ingt
he
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 83

r
esponsi
bil
i
tyf
ormaki
ngt
hej
udgment
sthatbei
ngf
reeent
ail
s.Thi
swor
dhas

madei
tswayi
ntot
hewor
ldhumanr
ight
sregi
mebyt
her
enownedact
ivi
st
Pr
esi
dentRoosev
eltoft
he US i
nthe 1940s.Hi
s‘f
ourf
reedoms’speech
r
emai
nedt
obequi
tehi
stor
icalwi
tht
hisr
egar
dinwhi
chhedescr
ibedf
our
f
undament
alf
reedomst
hatheconsi
der
ed i
ndi
spensabl
eforev
eryhuman
ki
nd.Thef
oll
owi
ngi
sanexcer
ptf
rom hi
s6Januar
y1941St
ateoft
heUni
on’
s
Speecht
hathedel
i
ver
edt
oCongr
ess;

“
Int
hef
utur
edayswhi
chweseekt
omakesecur
e,wel
ookf
orwar
d
t
oawor
ldf
oundeduponf
ouressent
ialhumanf
reedoms;Thef
ir
st
i
sfr
eedom ofspeechandexpr
essi
on-
ever
ywher
eint
hewor
ld;The
secondi
sFr
eedom ofwor
shi
p.Thati
s,f
reedom ofever
yper
sont
o
wor
shi
pwhomever(
bei
tGod,oranyot
herdei
ty/
dei
ti
es)i
nhi
sown
way-ever
ywher
eint
hewor
ld;Thet
hir
disf
reedom f
rom want
,
whi
ch, t
ransl
ated i
nto wor
ld t
erms, means economi
c
under
standi
ngs whi
ch wi
l
lsecur
eto ever
y nat
ion a heal
thy
peacet
imel
i
fef
ori
tsi
nhabi
tant
s-ever
ywher
eint
hewor
ld;The
f
our
thi
sfr
eedom f
rom f
ear
,whi
ch,t
ransl
ated i
nto wor
ldt
erms,
means a wor
ld-
wide r
educt
ion ofar
mament
stosuchapoi
nt
andi
nsuchat
hor
oughf
ashi
ont
hatnonat
ionwi
l
lbei
naposi
ti
on
t
ocommi
tanactofphysi
calaggr
essi
onagai
nstanynei
ghbor
-
anywher
eint
hewor
ld.

Thati
snovi
sionofadi
stantmi
l
lenni
um.I
tisadef
ini
tebasi
sfor
aki
ndofwor
ldat
tai
nabl
einourownt
imeandgener
ati
on.That
ki
ndofwor
ldi
sthever
yant
it
hesi
soft
heso-
cal
l
ed"
newor
der
"of
t
yrannywhi
cht
hedi
ctat
orsseekt
ocr
eat
ewi
tht
hecr
ashofa
bomb.
”

Ther
efor
e,t
het
erms‘
ri
ght
’and‘
fr
eedom’speakal
mostt
hesamesi
tuat
ion
t
hought
hel
att
erseemswi
deri
nscopeandappl
i
est
opar
ti
cul
arnot
ionsof
r
ight
saspr
opoundedbyRoosev
elt
.Iti
sal
mostuni
ver
sal
l
yrecogni
zedt
hat
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 84

whenwespeakoft
hosef
ouraspect
sofhumanr
ight
s,t
heyar
eref
err
edt
o
as

‘
fr
eedoms’t
han‘
ri
ght
s’accor
dingl
yiti
shar
dlypossi
blet
o hearsomeone
say
ing‘
ri
ghtt
orel
i
gion’r
athert
han‘
fr
eedom ofr
eli
gion’
.Thesamei
str
uef
or
f
reedom ofexpr
essi
on,f
reedom ofassoci
ati
on,et
c.‘
Freedom f
rom want
’is
nowwhatwecal
lther
ightt
odev
elopmentwhi
chwasal
soenunci
atedi
nthe
UNChar
ter
,andi
ntheI
nter
nat
ional
Bil
lofRi
ght
s.11

HumanRi
ght
shadbeen,atl
eastunt
ilt
hepostWWI
Iadomest
icaf
fai
rint
o
whi
chnoot
hercount
ryhadasayexceptt
hesov
erei
gnst
atest
hemsel
ves.And
t
henor
malappr
oacht
owar
dst
her
ight
shasbeent
opr
ovi
det
hem wi
thi
nthe
const
it
uti
onaldocumentsot
hatt
hegov
ernment
’spowerwoul
dber
est
rai
ned
t
othatext
ent
.Af
tert
heWWI
I,howev
er,t
hemaj
orwor
ldpower
sreal
i
zedt
hat
t
he t
empt
ati
on f
orext
ernalaggr
essi
on i
sjusts r
efl
ect
ion of i
nter
nal
suppr
essi
onofr
ight
sandt
her
eshoul
dbeamechani
sm t
oregul
atet
hrough
i
nter
nat
ionalcov
enant
sthe conduct
s ofst
ates t
owar
ds notonl
y ot
her
st
atesbutal
sot
hei
rownci
ti
zens.Thenaf
ter
,begi
nni
ngwi
tht
heUni
ver
sal
Decl
arat
ionofRi
ght
s,manyi
nter
nat
ional
humanr
ight
sinst
rument
shav
ecome
i
ntoexi
stence.Thi
s,howev
er,i
snotmeantt
osubst
it
utet
hedomest
icr
egi
me
ofr
ight
s.I
trat
heri
sonl
ymeantt
ocompl
ementt
hosemi
nimum domest
ic
st
andar
ds and dependi
ng on t
he l
egalsy
stem of t
he count
ryt
hose
i
nter
nat
ionalr
egi
mesmayormaynothav
edi
rectappl
i
cat
ioni
nthenat
ional
pl
ane.

Chapt
erI
IIoft
he const
it
uti
on i
s,t
her
efor
e,l
ayi
ng down t
he mi
nimum
nat
ionalhumanr
ight
sst
andar
dst
hatt
hest
atehaspr
omi
sedt
o‘r
espect
,
pr
otectand f
ulf
il
l.
’ These ar
e t
he t
hree l
evel
s of obl
i
gat
ions t
hat
human r
ight
s
l
egi
slat
ions i
mpose on t
hose st
ates t
hatpr
ovi
de t
he f
undament
alr
ight
s
and

11
TheInt
ernati
onalBillofRight
sisusedtorefert
othethreepri
ncipalUNHumanRi ghts
i
nstruments:The1948Uni versalDecl
arat
ionofHumanRi ght
s,The1966I nt
ernat
ional
CovenantonCivilandPol i
ti
calRi
ghtsaswellastheInt
ernati
onalCovenantonEconomic,
Social
andCul t
uralRights.
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 85

f
reedoms.Fi
rst
,the st
ate has t
he obl
i
gat
ion t
o‘r
espect
’those r
ight
sin
t
he

senset
hati
tmustnot
,byi
tsact
ions,v
iol
atet
her
ightt
oli
feofi
ndi
vi
dual
s.
Second,t
he st
ate has t
he dut
yto‘
prot
ect
’the f
undament
alr
ight
s and
f
reedoms ofi
ndi
vi
dual
s by
,fori
nst
ance,pr
ohi
bit
ing mur
dert
hrough i
ts
cr
imi
nall
awsandpuni
shi
ngt
hosewhov
iol
atet
hecr
imi
nall
aw.Fi
nal
l
y,t
her
eis
anot
her aspect of t
he f
undament
alr
ight
s and f
reedoms whi
ch i
sa
cont
rov
ersi
alone.Thi
sist
heobl
i
gat
iont
o‘f
ulf
il
.’A st
atemustbeabl
eto
pr
ovi
de heal
th car
e ser
vices,saf
e and cl
ean dr
inki
ng wat
er,as wel
las
adequat
ehousi
ngf
ort
her
ightt
oli
fet
obeofanymeani
ng.Fori
nst
ance,t
he
I
ndi
anSupr
emecour
thadoncef
oundt
hest
atei
nvi
olat
ionoft
her
ightt
oli
fe
becauseofi
tsf
ail
uret
opr
ovi
dehousi
ngf
orsl
um dwel
l
ers.Thi
sobl
i
gat
ioni
s
cont
rov
ersi
albasi
cal
l
ybecauseoft
hef
actt
hati
trequi
resr
esour
cest
oful
fi
l
t
her
ight
sandaccor
dingl
yther
eisat
endencyt
ocl
assi
fyt
her
ight
sint
othose
t
hatar
eonl
yaspi
rat
ionalandt
hosewhi
char
eenf
orceabl
eimmedi
atel
y,whi
ch
wewi
l
lbel
ooki
ngi
ntot
hem i
ndet
aill
ateroni
nthesect
ionofcl
assi
fi
cat
ionof
r
ight
s.

Dearst
udent
,ar
eyouf
oll
owi
ngourdi
scussi
on?Ihopey
oudoandi
tisv
ery
i
mpor
tantt
haty
ou shoul
dread t
ime and agai
nthe pr
ovi
si
ons oft
he
const
it
uti
onChapt
erI
IIf
ort
hepr
operunder
standi
ngoft
henat
ureoft
her
ight
s.

Respect
,Pr
otectandFul
fi
l:
Inr
elat
iont
oWomen’
sHumanRi
ght
s(AI
)
Theobl
i
gat
ionsofst
atesunderhumanr
ight
slawar
eof
tensummar
izedunder
t
hreecat
egor
ies:
'respect
,pr
otect
,ful
fi
l'
.

Theobl
i
gat
i or
ont espectf
ocusesdi
rect
lyonwhatt
hegov
ernmentdoes
t
hrough i
ts or
gans,agent
s and t
he st
ruct
ures of i
tsl
aw. I
sther
e
a
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 86

const
it
uti
onalpr
ovi
si
onf
orequal
i
tybet
weenmenandwomeni
nal
lspher
es?

Doest
hel
aw r
est
ri
ctsomeempl
oymentt
omen,anddi
scr
imi
nat
eagai
nst
women?Dosomeagent
soft
hest
atesuchast
hepol
i
ce,r
egul
arl
ysexual
l
y
assaul
tandext
ortmoneyf
rom pr
ost
it
uteswi
thi
mpuni
ty?Doest
hest
ate
compelwoment
obest
eri
l
izedaspar
tofapopul
ati
onr
educt
ionpol
i
cy?Does
i
tdenyi
nfor
mat
ion on cont
racept
ion t
o adol
escentgi
rl
sint
he name of
r
espect
ing a domi
nant cul
tur
al or r
eli
gious cl
aim?

The Statei
s al
so r
equi
r o pr
ed t otect women'
s human r
ight
s. Thi
s
pri
nci
ple
'
requi
resf
rom t
hest
ateandi
tsagent
smeasur
esnecessar
ytopr
eventot
her
i
ndi
vi
dual
sorgr
oupsf
rom v
iol
ati
ngt
hei
ntegr
it
y,f
reedom ofact
ion,orot
her
human r
ight
s oft
he i
ndi
vi
dual
'
.By t
his,t
he st
ate has under
taken,f
or
exampl
e,t
opr
eventact
sofdi
rectandi
ndi
rectdi
scr
imi
nat
ionagai
nstwomen.
Thi
scoul
dincl
udepr
event
ingdi
scr
imi
nat
oryact
sthatr
est
ri
ctwomenand
gi
rl
sfr
om goi
ng t
o schoolby al
l
owi
ng sexualhar
assmentt
o cont
inue
unabat
ed,ort
o ensur
ethata woman i
snotdepr
ived ofequalr
ight
sto
empl
oymentby gi
vi
ng herhusband t
he powert
ovet
o herempl
oyment
cont
ract
.

Theobl
i
gat
i of
ont ul
fi
l'r
equi
rest
hest
atet
otaket
hemeasur
esnecessar
yto
ensur
e,f
oreach per
son wi
thi
nit
sjur
isdi
cti
on,oppor
tuni
ti
es t
o obt
ain
sat
isf
act
ion oft
hoseneeds,r
ecogni
zed i
nthehuman r
ight
sinst
rument
s,
whi
chcannotbesecur
edbyper
sonalef
for
ts'
.Thi
sobl
i
gat
ionf
orwomenand
men cov
ers ev
ery
thi
ng f
rom pr
ovi
ding a heal
thy env
ironmentand cl
ean
wat
ert
o,mor
egener
all
y,uphol
dingt
hecondi
ti
onsnecessar
yforwomen'
s
NGOst
ofor
m andf
unct
ion.
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 87

1.
3.I
nter
pret
ati
onoft
hef
undament
alr
ight
sandf
reedoms
Dearst
udent
,whatdoy
ouunder
standbyt
het
erm‘
i
nter
pret
ati
on’
?Cany
ou
r
ecal
lyourst
udi
es on I
ntr
oduct
ion t
o Ci
vi
lLaw and Per
sons? Gener
all
y
speaki
ng,i
nter
pret
ati
oni
nvol
vest
hepr
ocessofappl
yi
ngl
egalt
ext
swhi
char
e
pr
ocl
aimed i
n gener
alt
erms t
o par
ti
cul
arf
act
ualsi
tuat
ions.Thi
sis an
i
nher
ent dut
y of t
he j
udi
ci
albr
anch of gov
ernment
.The concept
ual
l
y
i
nter
pret
ati
oni
snotamer
eappl
i
cat
ionofwhati
swr
it
teni
nthet
ext
,rat
heri
t
goesbey
ondt
hatandi
nvol
vesani
ntel
l
ect
ualexer
cisei
nbr
ingi
ngt
hegener
al
nor
mtospeci
fi
ci
tyt
her
ebybei
ngcr
eat
ive.Thej
udge’
sbasi
cwor
ryi
sther
efor
e
t
ocr
eat
eabal
ancebet
weenappl
yi
ngt
heor
igi
nalt
extasi
tisandbei
ng
cr
eat
ivei
nthepr
ocess.Thus,t
hej
udgemustr
emai
nfai
thf
ult
othet
extoft
he
l
awandshoul
dnoti
ndul
gehi
msel
f/
her
sel
finpur
einv
ent
ion.Att
hesamet
ime,
s/
hemustnotengagei
nmer
erest
atementofwhathasbeengener
all
yst
ated
wi
thnoi
ntel
l
ect
ual
exer
ciseofl
egal
reasoni
ng,
orcr
eat
ivi
ty.

Thi
s bei
ng t
he conceptofi
nter
pret
ati
on,t
hose f
undament
alr
ight
s and
f
reedoms i
nthe const
it
uti
on ar
elaws t
hatneed appl
i
cat
ion and t
hus
i
nter
pret
ati
on.Howev
er,t
hist
askofi
nter
pret
ati
on hasbeen gi
ven t
othe
HouseofFeder
ati
onexpr
essl
yunderAr
ti
cl
e83oft
heFDREconst
it
uti
on,as
wehav
eseeni
nourpr
evi
ousdi
scussi
ons.Andi
tist
ruet
hati
nEt
hiopi
a’
s
hi
stor
yofconst
it
uti
onall
aw,t
her
ehasbeennot
imewher
ethecour
tshav
e
beenent
rust
edwi
tht
het
askofconst
it
uti
onalr
evi
ewandi
nter
pret
ati
on.Dear
st
udent
,doest
hatmeant
hatt
hecour
tshav
enopowert
oint
erpr
ett
hose
pr
ovi
si
onsoft
heconst
it
uti
onr
elat
ingt
othef
undament
alr
ight
sandf
reedoms
aswel
l
?Thi
squest
ionhasbeenr
aisedbymanyacademi
ci
ansandmosthav
e
r
espondedt
oiti
nfav
oroft
hei
deat
hatcour
tsdohav
ethepowert
odot
hat
.

Basi
cal
l
y,t
hisar
gumenti
smadeont
hebasi
sofAr
ti
cl
e13oft
heconst
it
uti
on
whi
chr
eads;
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 88

Ar
ti
cl
e13:
ScopeofAppl
i
cat
ionandI
nter
pret
ati
on

1. Al
lFeder
alandSt
atel
egi
slat
ive,execut
iveandj
udi
cialor
gansatal
l
l
evel
sshal
lhavet
her
esponsi
bil
i
tyanddut
ytor
espectandenf
orcet
he
pr
ovi
sionsoft
hisChapt
er.
2.The f
undament
alr
ight
sand f
reedomsspeci
fi
ed i
nthi
sChapt
er
shal
lbe
i
nter
pret
edi
namannerconf
ormi
ngt
othepr
inci
plesoft
heUni
ver
sal
Decl
arat
ion ofHuman Ri
ght
s,I
nter
nat
ionalCovenant
s on Human
Ri
ght
sandI
nter
nat
ionali
nst
rument
sadopt
edbyEt
hiopi
a.

The f
actt
hatt
he const
it
uti
on i
mposes on al
lst
ate or
gans,t
he j
udi
ci
ary
i
ncl
uded,t
her
esponsi
bil
i
tyt
orespectandenf
orcet
hef
undament
alr
ight
sand
f
reedomsi
mpl
i
es,i
psof
act
o,t
hepowert
oint
erpr
ett
hepr
ovi
si
onswhenev
er
t
heyar
econf
ront
edwi
thsuchi
ssuesofconcer
n.Forexampl
e,wher
eev
idence
hasbeenobt
ainedt
hrought
ort
ure,andwher
etheaccusedpet
it
ionsf
ort
he
excl
usi
onofsuchev
idencet
hecour
tmustdeci
deont
hismat
terbasedon,
among ot
her
s,Ar
ti
cl
e 19(
5) of t
he const
it
uti
on. Whi
l
e appl
yi
ng t
hat
const
it
uti
on,t
hecour
twi
l
lhav
etoengagei
nthet
asksofl
egali
nter
pret
ati
on
aswesai
dabov
ebyr
eadi
ngt
het
extaswel
lasmaki
ngl
egalr
easoni
ngt
o
br
ingi
ntol
i
fet
hepr
ovi
si
onoft
heconst
it
uti
onasappl
i
cabl
eint
hatpar
ti
cul
ar
si
tuat
ion.

Howev
er,
thepr
act
icei
sfarf
rom whati
ssai
dher
esi
ncemostoft
hemember
s
oft
hej
udi
ci
aryar
ehesi
tanti
nbuy
ingt
hisar
gumentf
ort
heybel
i
evet
hatt
he
t
askofi
nter
pret
ati
onoft
heconst
it
uti
oni
stheexcl
usi
vet
askoft
heHouseof
Feder
ati
on.Dearst
udent
,whatwoul
dbey
ourr
eact
iont
othi
sissue?Doy
ou
t
hinkt
hecour
tsdohav
ethepowert
oint
erpr
ett
heconst
it
uti
onatl
easti
n
r
elat
iont
othosef
undament
alr
ight
sandf
reedoms?
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 89

TheDut
ytoEnf
orcet
heConst
it
uti
onandConst
it
uti
onal
Int
erpr
etat
ion

“
Thecour
t,i
tisar
gued,i
sfacedwi
th[
the]“
unav
oidabl
edut
y”ofi
nter
pret
ing
t
heConst
it
uti
onbot
hinci
vi
landcr
imi
nalcases.Thef
oll
owi
ngi
ssuesar
e
of
ten r
aised t
oil
l
ust
rat
ethatconst
it
uti
onali
nter
pret
ati
on i
s a necessar
y
cor
oll
aryt
oadj
udi
cat
ionofcr
imi
nal
cases:

Wast
her
espondentgr
ant
edasuf
fi
cienthear
ingbef
orehi
sdr
iver
’sl
i
cense
wasr
evoked?Di
dtheent
ryi
ntot
hebur
glar
’shouser
equi
reasear
chwar
rant
?
Does hear
say vi
olat
ethe r
ightofconf
ront
ati
on? …Has t
he def
endant
’s
det
ent
ionf
orsevent
eenconsecut
ivedaysvi
olat
edt
her
ightofspeedyhear
ing?
Wast
hezoni
ngor
dinancet
hatshutdownt
hel
oudspeaker
satt
hel
ocal
cat
hedr
alavi
olat
ionoff
reespeech,[
rel
i
gion]andsepar
ati
onofchur
chand
st
ate?

Ther
efor
e,t
otheex
tentt
hatt
hecour
tsenf
orcet
her
ight
sand f
reedoms
enshr
ined i
ntheConst
it
uti
on,t
heyexer
ciset
hepowerofi
nter
pret
ing t
he
Const
it
uti
on.Tot
hisext
ent
,theyconcl
ude,t
hecour
tshav
ethepowert
ost
ate
whatt
heconst
it
uti
onal
lawi
s.

I
tis,howev
er,notcl
earwhet
heral
lenf
orcement
sofr
ight
sunderchapt
er
t
hreeoft
heConst
it
uti
onpr
esupposei
nter
pret
ati
on.Ofcour
se,mostof
ten
cour
tsar
erequi
redt
oint
erpr
ett
hel
aw i
nor
dert
odet
ermi
net
hemeani
ngof
t
heappl
i
cabl
elaw andappl
yitt
otheoper
ati
vef
act
soft
hecasebr
ought
bef
oret
hem.I
tissel
dom t
hatcour
tsmechani
cal
l
yappl
yapr
e-exi
sti
ngr
ule.
Thi
s,howev
er,
doesnotmeant
hatt
her
ear
enocaseswher
ethecour
tscannot
enf
orceapr
ovi
si
onoft
heConst
it
uti
onbysi
mpl
yappl
yi
ngi
t,wi
thoutgoi
ngi
nto
t
he busi
ness of i
nter
pret
ati
on. Howev
er f
ew t
hey mi
ght be, i
tis
submi
tt
ed,t
her
ear
est
il
lcaseswher
ethecour
tscanenf
orcet
hepr
ovi
si
ons
of
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 90

t
heConst
it
uti
onwi
thouti
nter
pret
ati
on.

I
tisal
sobecausenotev
eryenf
orcementofapr
ovi
si
onofaconst
it
uti
on,
oranyl
awf
ort
hatmat
ter
,requi
resi
nter
pret
ati
ont
hati
tissomet
imessai
dthat
oneshoul
dappl
ythel
aw wheni
tsmeani
ngi
scl
ear
.Whent
hel
anguageofa
const
it
uti
on pr
ovi
des a pl
ain,cl
earmeani
ng,t
he pl
ain meani
ng oft
he
l
anguagei
stobeappl
i
edandt
her
eisnor
oom f
orj
udi
ci
alconst
ruct
ion.I
n
suchcases,i
tissubmi
tt
ed,t
hej
udi
ci
aryi
slef
twi
thl
i
ttl
etodoot
hert
han
st
ri
ctl
yandl
i
ter
all
ytoappl
yandenf
orcet
hepr
ovi
si
onsoft
heConst
it
uti
on.

Ofcour
se,
ther
eisav
iewt
hatsay
sacour
tcannotgi
vemeani
ngt
oapr
ovi
si
on
of a const
it
uti
on,‘
howev
er pl
ain’
,wi
thout engagi
ng i
n t
he wor
k of
i
nter
pret
ati
on.Accor
dingt
othi
svi
ew,al
llegalmeani
ngi
sfundament
all
ya
mat
terofcont
extandi
nter
pret
ati
on.Thepr
oponent
soft
hisv
iewal
sobel
i
eve
t
hatwor
dsonl
ytakeont
hei
rrealmeani
ngwhenpl
acedi
ncont
ext
.Int
he
wor
ds ofDe Vi
l
le,i
nter
pret
ati
on i
sa“
mode ofexi
stence r
athert
han a
met
hodol
ogy
”.Accor
dingt
ohi
m,wear
eal
way
sint
erpr
eti
ng.

Thi
stheor
yofi
nter
pret
ati
on,whi
chdeni
est
heexi
stenceofa‘
nonposi
ti
onal
’
i
nter
pret
erunderal
lci
rcumst
ances,ent
ail
sthe v
iew t
hatal
ltext
s ar
e
i
ndet
ermi
nat
e.Thi
s,howev
er,i
sdi
ff
icul
ttoaccepti
nacount
ryl
i
keEt
hiopi
a,
whi
chf
oll
owst
heci
vi
llaw t
radi
ti
onwher
edet
ail
edr
ulesar
eenact
edand
j
udgesar
eexpect
edt
ost
ri
ctl
yappl
ythem wi
thoutengagi
ngi
nint
erpr
etat
ion.

I
nEt
hiopi
a,asmayal
sobet
hecasei
nmanyot
herci
vi
llaw count
ri
es,t
he
l
egi
sl
atur
eenact
slawswhi
char
edet
ail
ed,expl
i
citand cl
ear
.Undersuch
ci
rcumst
ances,howev
erunr
easonabl
ethel
aw maysound,t
hej
udgesar
e
expect
edt
oappl
yitconsi
stent
ly.Manyoft
hepr
ovi
si
onsoft
heEt
hiopi
an
Const
it
uti
on,especi
all
ythoset
hatt
hecour
tsar
eexpect
edt
oinv
okei
nthei
r
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 91

dai
l
yfunct
ioni
ng,ar
est
atedi
nanexpl
i
citandcl
earmanner
.Thi
sbecomes

cl
earwhenonel
ookscl
osel
yatsomeoft
hepr
ovi
si
onsofchapt
ert
hreeoft
he
Const
it
uti
on.Ar
ti
cl
e 19,f
ori
nst
ance,pr
ovi
des f
ort
he r
ight
s ofper
sons
ar
rest
ed.Oneoft
hei
mpor
tantst
ipul
ati
onsoft
hisar
ti
cl
eist
hatper
sons
ar
rest
edhav
ether
ightt
obebr
oughtbef
oreacour
twi
thi
n48hour
soft
hei
r
ar
rest
.Thi
sisav
eryi
mpor
tantpr
inci
pleofanycr
imi
nalj
ust
icesy
stem t
hat
cour
tsneedt
oenf
orcev
igor
ousl
y.I
tli
esatt
hehear
toft
hedut
yofast
atet
o
pr
otectci
ti
zensf
rom anyar
bit
rar
yandunl
awf
ulpr
e-t
ri
alar
restordet
ent
ion.
Howev
er,t
he appl
i
cat
ion oft
his ar
ti
cl
e needs no i
nter
pret
ati
on.I
tonl
y
r
equi
resa j
udget
o ascer
tai
nthet
ime ofar
restand t
huscomput
est
he
t
imet
hatwentonbef
oret
hear
rest
edper
soni
spr
esent
edbef
oret
hecour
t.

Ar
ti
cl
e21,whi
ch pr
ovi
desf
ort
her
ight
sofper
sonshel
din cust
odyand
conv
ict
edpr
isoner
s,i
sanot
hergoodexampl
e.Undersubar
ti
cl
e2,i
tst
ates
t
hat“
allper
sonsshal
lhav
etheoppor
tuni
tyt
ocommuni
cat
ewi
thandt
obe
v
isi
ted by t
hei
r spouses or par
tner
s,cl
ose r
elat
ives,f
ri
ends,r
eli
gious
counci
l
ors,medi
caldoct
ors and t
hei
rlegalcounsel
”.I
fa det
ainee ora
pr
isonerpr
esent
sacl
aim bef
oret
hecour
tal
l
egi
ngt
hathewasdeni
edcont
act
wi
thanyoft
hesei
ndi
vi
dual
s,t
hecour
tneedonl
ytoi
nvoket
hepr
ovi
si
onsof
t
hisar
ti
cl
eandor
dert
hedef
endantt
ocompl
ywi
tht
heconst
it
uti
onal
prov
isi
on.
Todoso,
thecour
tagai
nneednotengagei
tsel
fini
nter
pret
ingt
heConst
it
uti
on.
I
tonl
yneedst
omechani
cal
l
yappl
ythi
sspeci
fi
cpr
ovi
si
onoft
heConst
it
uti
on
t
othef
act
soft
hecase.Thesameal
sogoesf
orar
ti
cl
e23,
whi
chpr
ovi
desf
or
t
hepr
ohi
bit
ionofdoubl
ejeopar
dyandar
ti
cl
e32,whi
chdecr
eesf
reedom of
mov
ement
.”

Thei
mpl
i
cat
ionoft
hisar
gumenti
sthatt
hecour
tsar
eexpect
edt
oenf
orcet
he
pr
ovi
si
onsofchapt
ert
hreeoft
heConst
it
uti
ononl
ytot
heex
tentt
hati
tdoes
notengaget
hem i
nint
erpr
etat
ion.Howev
er,“
ifi
ssuesofConst
it
uti
onal
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 92

i
nter
pret
ati
onar
isei
nthecour
ts”[
thewor
dsoft
heConst
it
uti
oni
tsel
f]i
nthe

pr
ocessofenf
orci
ngt
heConst
it
uti
on,
thecour
tsshoul
dref
ert
hemat
tert
othe
Counci
l
.Theyshoul
drest
rai
nfr
om gi
vi
ngmeani
ngt
othepr
ovi
si
onsoft
he
Const
it
uti
on and r
esol
ve t
he const
it
uti
onal di
sput
e. Under such
ci
rcumst
ances,
theyar
eexpect
edt
odef
ert
othei
nter
pret
ati
onoft
heHouse.

(
Excer
ptf
rom Tesf
aye,Y.
,‘Who I
nter
pret
stheConst
it
uti
on:A Descr
ipt
ive
andNor
mat
iveDi
scour
seont
heEt
hiopi
anAppr
oacht
oConst
it
uti
onalRev
iew’
,
1Nov
.2004,LLM Di
sser
tat
ion,(
Unpubl
i
shed)
,Pr
etor
ia,Sout
hAf
ri
ca)

Dearst
udent
,whati
sthe di
ff
erence bet
ween t
he actofenf
orci
ng t
he
const
it
uti
on and const
it
uti
onali
nter
pret
ati
on accor
ding t
othi
s wr
it
er?
Accor
dingt
ohi
m,docour
tshav
ethepowert
oint
erpr
ett
heconst
it
uti
on?

1.
4.Cl
assi
fi
cat
ionofFundament
alRi
ght
sandFr
eedoms
Dearst
udent
,now wear
egoi
ngt
oseet
hecl
assi
fi
cat
ioni
ngener
alofr
ight
s
andf
reedomsandt
henweshal
lbel
ooki
ngi
ntot
hewayt
hatt
heEt
hiopi
an
const
it
uti
ont
ri
est
ocl
assi
fyt
her
ight
s.Ev
eni
fthesear
enotexhaust
ivel
i
sti
ngs
ofal
lty
pesofcl
assi
fi
cat
ions,weshal
lbedi
scussi
ngsomef
ourway
sof
cat
egor
izat
ion,i
.
e.,ci
vi
landpol
i
ticalr
ight
svs.economi
c,soci
alandcul
tur
al
r
ight
s;Fi
rst
,secondandt
hir
dgener
ati
onr
ight
s;Nor
msofAspi
rat
ionand
enf
orceabl
eri
ght
s;andt
heonet
heFDREconst
it
uti
onhasadopt
edwhi
chi
s
humanr
ight
sanddemocr
ati
cri
ght
s.
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 93

a)Ci
vi
landPol
i
tical
right
svs.Economi
c,Soci
alandCul
tur
alr
ight
s

Thi
swasacl
assi
fi
cat
ionadopt
edbyt
hei
nter
nat
ionalBi
l
lofRi
ght
saf
tera
pr
olongedcont
rov
ersy
.Whi
l
etheUni
ver
salDecl
arat
ionofHumanRi
ght
smade
nodi
sti
nct
ionbet
weent
hesef
ormsofr
ight
s,dur
ingt
hedr
aft
ingoft
het
wo
ot
herCov
enant
sther
ehadar
oseadi
ff
erenceofopi
nioni
nei
thercomi
ngup
wi
thasi
ngl
eanduni
ver
salhumanr
ight
sinst
rumentt
hati
ncl
uded,asdi
dthe
UDHR,bot
hci
vi
landpol
i
ticalr
ight
saswel
lasEconomi
c,Soci
alandCul
tur
al
Ri
ght
s,orspl
i
tti
ngt
hem i
ntot
wosepar
atei
nst
rument
s.Thel
att
eri
deawas
suppor
tedbycapi
tal
i
stcount
ri
essuchast
heUSt
hatf
avour
edonl
ytheci
vi
l
andpol
i
ticalr
ight
swhi
l
ethef
ormerhadbeenhi
ghl
ysuppor
tedbyt
het
hen
soci
ali
stcount
ri
es.Fi
nal
l
y,t
he l
att
erv
iew had been accept
ed and t
wo
cov
enant
shadbeenadopt
edi
n1966,whi
chcamei
ntof
orceaf
tert
eny
ear
s,
i
n
1976.Whati
sthedi
ff
erencebet
weent
het
wot
ypesofhumanr
ight
s?

Ci
vi
landpol
i
ticalr
ight
sar
ethoser
ight
sthatar
esomet
imesr
efer
redt
oas
f
ir
st-
gener
ati
onr
ight
sthatpr
imar
il
ypr
otecti
ndi
vi
dualr
ight
ssuchasr
ightt
o
l
i
fe,pr
ohi
bit
ion of t
ort
ure,cr
uel
,inhuman or degr
adi
ng t
reat
ment or
puni
shment
,the r
ightt
oli
ber
ty and secur
it
y ofper
son,t
he f
reedom of
mov
ement
,fr
eedom of associ
ati
on,f
reedom of r
eli
gion,f
reedom of
expr
essi
on,
rightt
oequal
i
ty,
ther
ightt
ovot
eandbeel
ect
ed,
etc.

Theeconomi
c,soci
alandcul
tur
alr
ight
s,ont
heot
herhand,ar
e,asi
tsname
i
mpl
i
es,ar
eri
ght
sthatr
elat
etot
hesoci
o-economi
c,andcul
tur
alwel
l
bei
ngof
i
ndi
vi
dual
sandgr
oupswi
thi
nthecount
ry,andt
heyar
eref
err
edsomet
imes
assecondgener
ati
onr
ight
s.I
nthesecat
egor
yofr
ight
sar
ether
ightt
onon-
di
scr
imi
nat
ion,t
her
ightt
owor
k,t
her
ightt
ojustandf
avour
abl
econdi
ti
ons
ofwor
k,t
her
ightt
ofor
mtr
adeuni
on,t
her
ightt
osoci
alsecur
it
y,t
her
ightt
o
pr
otect
ionoff
ami
l
yli
fe,t
her
ightt
oadequat
est
andar
dofl
i
ving,t
her
ightt
o
heal
th,
ther
ightt
oeducat
ion,
andt
her
ightt
opar
ti
ci
pat
eincul
tur
all
i
fe.
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 94

Dearst
udent
,whatki
ndofdi
ff
erencedoy
ouseei
nthesel
i
sti
ngofr
ight
s?

Whatcany
ousay
,fori
nst
ance,aboutt
hedi
ff
erencebet
weent
her
ightt
o
f
reedom ofexpr
essi
onandt
her
ightt
oheal
th?(
Byt
her
ightt
oheal
thwe
mean,amongot
her
s,t
hepr
ovi
si
onofatl
eastbasi
cheal
thcar
eser
vices
t
o
i
ndi
vi
dual
sbyt
hest
ate)
.Wr
it
eyouropi
nionont
hef
oll
owi
ngl
i
nes.

I
tisaquest
ionofwhati
ttakest
orespecti
ndi
vi
dual
’
sfr
eedom ofexpr
essi
on

andwhati
ttakest
opr
ovi
det
oindi
vi
dual
sandcommuni
ti
esbasi
cheal
thcar
e
ser
vicesbyt
hest
ate.Thef
ormeri
nvol
vesnoorl
i
ttl
eresour
cef
ori
tsr
endi
ti
on
whi
l
ethel
att
ermustbesuppor
tedbyi
nvest
inghugeamountofr
esour
cesby
t
hest
atet
oconst
ructheal
thcar
ecent
res,
empl
oyheal
thof
fi
cer
s,andpr
ovi
de
equi
pment
saswel
lasmedi
ci
nes.Thatdi
sti
ngui
shes t
het
wo r
ight
sand
accor
dingl
y,t
hewor
dingsoft
hecov
enant
sdi
ff
erf
undament
all
y.Oneoft
he
oper
ati
vepr
ovi
si
onsofeachoft
heCov
enant
sst
ipul
atest
hef
oll
owi
ngi
na
mannert
hatl
oudl
yspeakoft
hei
rbasi
cdi
ff
erence;

Ar
ti
cl
e2(
1)I
nter
nat
ional
Cov
enantonCi
vi
landPol
i
tical
Right
s12

EachSt
atePar
tyt
othepr
esentcov
enantunder
takest
orespectandensur
eto

al
lindi
vi
dual
swi
thi
nit
ster
ri
tor
yand subj
ectt
oit
sjur
isdi
cti
on t
her
ight
s

r
ecogni
sedi
nthepr
esentcov
enantwi
thoutdi
sti
nct
ionofanyki
nd,suchas

12
Et
hiopiaisapar t
ytot hi
sCovenant .I
nf actitisapar t
yt oat otalofsev enint
ernat
ionaland
regi
onalhumanr i
ghtsinst
ruments. Thesear eInternational Cov enantonEconomi c,Social
andCul t
uralRi
ghts(ICESCR),t
heI nternati
onal Conv entionont heEliminati
onofAl l
Formsof
Raci
al Di
scriminati
on(ICERD),
theI nternati
onal Conv entionont heEli
mi nati
onofAllForms
ofDiscri
minati
onAgai nstWomen( CEDAW) ,t
heConv entionont heRightsoftheChild(CRC),
andtheAf ri
canChar t
eronHumanandPeopl e’sRight s(ACHPR)
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 95

r
ace,col
our
,sex,l
anguage,r
eli
gion,pol
i
ticalorot
heropi
nion,nat
ionalor

soci
alor
igi
n,pr
oper
ty,
bir
thorot
herst
atus.

Ar
ti
cl
e2(
1)oft
heI
nter
nat
ionalCov
enantonEconomi
c,Soci
alandCul
tur
al
Ri
ght
s

Each St
ate Par
tyt
othe pr
esent cov
enant under
takes t
otake st
eps,
i
ndi
vi
dual
l
yandt
hroughi
nter
nat
ionalassi
stanceandco-
oper
ati
on,especi
all
y
economi
candt
echni
cal
,tot
hemaxi
mum ofi
tsav
ail
abl
eresour
ces,wi
tha
v
iewt
oachi
evi
ngpr
ogr
essi
vel
ythef
ullr
eal
i
sat
ionoft
her
ight
srecogni
sedi
n
t
he pr
esentcov
enantbyal
lappr
opr
iat
e means,i
ncl
udi
ng par
ti
cul
arl
ythe
adopt
ionofl
egi
sl
ati
vemeasur
es.

I
nthesepr
ovi
si
onsweseev
erydi
sti
nctwor
dingst
hatmaket
het
wor
ight
sver
y
muchdi
ff
erent
.Thenat
ureofst
ates’obl
i
gat
ionsi
nthecaseoft
heci
vi
land
pol
i
ticalr
ight
sis a ki
nd ofan i
mmedi
ate ef
fectand notsubj
ectt
o any
f
orm ofr
esour
ceav
ail
abi
l
ity
.Andst
atesar
esupposedt
orespectandensur
e
t
hoser
ight
sto al
lindi
vi
dual
swi
thi
nthei
rter
ri
tor
y.Wheni
tcomest
othe
economi
c and soci
alr
ight
s,t
he obl
i
gat
ion oft
he st
ates i
sjustt
otake
st
eps.Andst
atesar
eonl
yrequi
redt
otakesuchst
epst
otheext
entoft
hei
r
av
ail
abl
eresour
cesi
nther
eal
i
sat
ionoft
hoser
ight
sandaccor
dingl
y,t
he
r
ight
sar
enoti
mmedi
atel
yachi
evabl
erat
heronl
ywi
thpr
ogr
essi
vi
ty.

b)Fi
rst
,SecondandThi
rdGener
ati
onr
ight
s

Thedi
vi
si
onofhumanr
ight
sint
othr
eegener
ati
onswasi
nit
ial
l
ypr
oposedi
n
1979byt
heCzechj
uri
stKar
elVasakatt
heI
nter
nat
ionalI
nst
it
uteofHuman
Ri
ght
sinSt
rasbour
g.Heusedt
het
erm atl
eastasear
lyasNov
ember1977.
Vasak'
stheor
ieshav
epr
imar
il
ytakenr
ooti
nEur
opeanl
aw,ast
heypr
imar
il
y
r
efl
ectEur
opeanv
alues.Hi
sdi
vi
si
onsf
oll
ow t
het
hreewat
chwor
dsoft
he
Fr
enchRev
olut
ion:
Liber
ty,
Equal
i
tyandFr
ater
nit
y.
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 96

Fi
rst
-gener
ati
on human r
ight
s(FGHR)dealessent
ial
l
y wi
thl
i
ber
ty and

par
ti
ci
pat
ioni
npol
i
tical
li
fe.Theyar
efundament
all
yci
vi
landpol
i
ticali
nnat
ure,
and ser
vet
o pr
otectt
he i
ndi
vi
dualf
rom excesses oft
he st
ate.Fi
rst
-
gener
ati
onr
ight
sincl
ude,amongot
hert
hings,f
reedom ofspeech,t
her
ightt
o
f
airt
ri
al,
freedom ofr
eli
gion,
andv
oti
ngr
ight
s.Theywer
efi
rstenshr
inedatt
he
gl
oball
evelbyt
he1948Uni
ver
salDecl
arat
ionofHumanRi
ght
s.Ther
ear
e
manywr
it
erswho pr
opound t
hatwhen f
ir
stgener
ati
on human r
ight
sar
e
l
i
mit
edt
hisdi
rect
lyl
i
mit
ssecondgener
ati
onr
ight
sint
hesenset
hatwher
e
t
her
ear
eli
mit
sonf
reedom ofspeechandexpr
essi
oni
tisnotl
i
kel
ythat
peopl
eint
hatst
atewi
l
lhav
eadequat
elyenf
orceabl
esoci
o-economi
cri
ght
s.

Second-
gener
ati
on human r
ight
sar
erel
ated t
o equal
i
tyand began t
o be
r
ecogni
zedbygov
ernment
saf
terWor
ldWarI
.Theyar
efundament
all
ysoci
al,
economi
c,and cul
tur
ali
n nat
ure.Theyensur
e di
ff
erentmember
s oft
he
ci
ti
zenr
yequalcondi
ti
onsandt
reat
ment
.Secondar
yri
ght
swoul
dincl
udea
r
ightt
obeempl
oyed,r
ight
stohousi
ngandheal
thcar
e,aswel
lassoci
al
secur
it
yandunempl
oymentbenef
it
s.Li
kef
ir
st-
gener
ati
onr
ight
s,t
heywer
e
al
socov
eredbyt
heUni
ver
sal
Decl
arat
ionofHumanRi
ght
s.

Thi
rd-
gener
ati
onhumanr
ight
sar
ethoser
ight
sthatgobey
ondt
hemer
eci
vi
l
andsoci
al,asexpr
essedi
nmanypr
ogr
essi
vedocument
sofi
nter
nat
ionall
aw.
Becauseoft
hepr
inci
pleofsov
erei
gnt
yandt
hepr
eponder
anceofwoul
d-be
of
fendernat
ions,t
heser
ight
shav
ebeen har
dto enacti
nlegal
l
ybi
ndi
ng
document
s. The t
erm "
thi
rd-
gener
ati
on human r
ight
s" r
emai
ns l
argel
y
unof
fi
ci
al,andt
husencompassesanext
remel
ybr
oadspect
rum ofr
ight
s,
i
ncl
udi
ng:

 Gr
oupandcol
l
ect
iver
ight
s

 Ri
ghtt
osel
f-
det
ermi
nat
ion
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 97

 Ri
ghtt
oeconomi
candsoci
aldev
elopment

 Ri
ghtt
oaheal
thyenv
ironment

 Ri
ghtt
onat
ural
resour
ces

 Ri
ghtt
ocommuni
cat
e

 Ri
ghtt
opar
ti
ci
pat
ioni
ncul
tur
alher
it
age

 Ri
ght
stoi
nter
gener
ati
onal
equi
tyandsust
ainabi
l
ity

 Ri
ghtt
opeaceandsecur
it
y

c)Nor
msofAspi
rat
ionandEnf
orceabl
eri
ght
s

Thi
s f
orm of cl
assi
fi
cat
ion basi
cal
l
y owes i
ts base i
n t
he I
ndi
an
const
it
uti
ont
hatpr
ovi
dest
heBi
l
lofRi
ght
sint
hreegr
oups:Fundament
al
Fi
ght
s,Di
rect
ivePr
inci
plesofSt
atePol
i
cyandFundament
alDut
ies. Whi
l
e
sect
ion32oft
heconst
it
uti
onpr
ovi
des‘
ther
ightt
omov
etheSupr
emeCour
t
byappr
opr
iat
epr
oceedi
ngsf
ort
heenf
orcementoft
her
ight
sconf
err
edbyt
his
Par
t(whi
chenumer
atest
hef
undament
alr
ight
s)i
sguar
ant
eed’
,thosedi
rect
ive
pr
inci
plesofst
atepol
i
cyar
ejustconsi
der
edasnor
msofaspi
rat
ion.Par
tIV
Sect
ion 37 oft
he const
it
uti
on,whi
ch pr
ovi
des aboutt
hose ‘
nor
ms of
aspi
rat
ion’st
ates ‘
The pr
ovi
si
ons cont
ained i
nthi
s Par
t shal
lnot be
enf
orceabl
ebyanycour
t,butt
hepr
inci
plest
her
einl
aiddownar
enev
ert
hel
ess
f
undament
ali
nthegov
ernanceoft
hecount
ryandi
tshal
lbet
hedut
yoft
he
St
atet
oappl
ythesepr
inci
plesi
nmaki
ngl
aws.
’Thus,
thosedi
rect
ivepr
inci
ples,
whi
ch pr
edomi
nant
lyr
elat
eto economi
c,soci
aland cul
tur
alr
ight
s,ar
e
supposedt
ober
eal
i
zedbyt
hest
ate’
slegi
sl
ati
on pr
ogr
essi
vel
y. They onl
y
ser
ve as pol
i
cy gui
des f
ort
hegov
ernment
.

d)HumanRi
ght
sandDemocr
ati
cRi
ght
s

Ourconst
it
uti
on’
sappr
oachi
sdi
sti
ncti
nthati
tcl
assi
fi
est
hef
undament
al
r
ight
sandf
reedomsi
ntohumanr
ight
sanddemocr
ati
cri
ght
s.Theappar
ent
under
standi
ngoft
het
ermsmi
ghtsuggestt
hatt
hecl
assi
fi
cat
ioni
smeant
t
o
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 98

putdi
sti
ngui
shbet
weenci
vi
lri
ght
sandpol
i
ticalr
ight
s,t
hought
hecont
entof

t
heenumer
atedr
ight
sdoesnotsuppor
tthi
sunder
standi
ng.

Let
’sseet
hel
i
sti
ngsoft
hehumanr
ight
sanddemocr
ati
cri
ght
sasi
ncl
udedi
n
ourconst
it
uti
on.

HumanRi
ght
s Democr
ati
cRi
ght
s

 Ther
ightt
oli
fe(
Art
.15)  Ri
ghtofThought
,

 Ther
ightt
osecur
it
yofPer
son Opi
nionandExpr
essi
on

(
Art
.16) (
Art
.29)
 Ri
ghtofAssembl
y,
 TheRi
ghtt
oLi
ber
ty(
Art
.17)
Demonst
rat
ionand
 Pr
ohi
bit
ionAgai
nstI
nhuman
Pet
it
ion(
Art
.30)
Tr
eat
ment(
Art
.18)
 Fr
eedom ofAssoci
ati
on(
Art
.
 Ri
ghtofPer
sonsAr
rest
ed
31)
(
Art
.19)
 Fr
eedom ofMov
ement(
Art
.
 RightofPer
sonsAccused
32)
(
Art
.
20)  Ri
ghtofNat
ional
i
ty(
Art
.33)

 Ri
ghtofPer
sonsHel
d  Mar
it
al,
Per
sonal
andFami
l
y

i
n Cust
ody and Ri
ght
s(Ar
t.34)

Conv
ict
ed Per
sons  Ri
ghtofWomen(
Art
.35)
(
Art
.21)  Ri
ghtofChi
l
dren(
Art
.36)
 Non-
Ret
roact
ivi
tyofCr
imi
nal  RightofAccesst
oJust
ice
Law(
Art
.22) (
Art
.

 Pr
ohi
bit
ionofDoubl
e 37)

Jeopar
dy(
Art
.23)  Ther
ightt
ovot
eand
beel
ect
ed(
Art
.38)
 Ri
ghtt
oHonorand
 Ri
ghtofNat
ions,
Reput
ati
on(
Art
.24)
Nat
ional
i
tiesandPeopl
est
o
 Ri
ghtt
oEqual
i
ty(
Art
.25)
Sel
f-Det
ermi
nat
ion
 Ri
ghtt
oPr
ivacy(
Art
.26)
I
ncl
udi
ng
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 99

 Fr
eedom ofRel
i
gion,
Bel
i
ef Secessi
on(
Art
.39)
andOpi
nion(
Art
.27)  TheRi
ghtt
oPr
oper
ty(
Art
.40)

 Economi
c,Soci
alandCul
tur
al
Ri
ght
s(Ar
t.41)

 Ther
ightofLabor(
Art
.42)

 TheRi
ghtt
oDev
elopment
(
Art
.43)

 Env
ironment
alRi
ght
s(Ar
t.44)

Dearst
udent
,fr
om whatwehav
eseenabov
egener
all
yint
hecl
assi
fi
cat
ionof

humanr
ight
s,whi
choneoft
het
hreedoy
out
hinkdoesourconst
it
uti
onf
oll
ow?
I
tappear
sthatourconst
it
uti
onf
oll
owednei
theroft
heabov
ecl
assi
fi
cat
ions.
Whenweseet
hecont
ent
soft
hehumanr
ightpar
t,t
heyar
epur
elyt
hatofci
vi
l
andpol
i
ticalr
ight
s.Wheni
tcomest
othecl
assesofdemocr
ati
cri
ght
s,wef
ind
bot
hci
vi
landpol
i
ticalr
ight
s,aswel
laseconomi
c,soci
alandcul
tur
alr
ight
s.
So,t
hedemocr
ati
cri
ght
spar
tisami
xofal
lthet
hree gener
ati
on r
ight
s.
Cany
out
ellmeexampl
esf
oreachgener
ati
onof
r
ight
sfr
om t
hedemocr
ati
cri
ght
sincl
udedi
ntheFDREconst
it
uti
on?

1.
5.Der
ogat
ionsi
nSt
ateofEmer
gency
Ast
ateofemer
gencyi
sagov
ernment
aldecl
arat
iont
hatmaysuspendcer
tai
n
nor
malf
unct
ionsofgov
ernment
,maywor
kto al
ertci
ti
zenst
o al
tert
hei
r
nor
mal behav
ior
s,or may or
der gov
ernment agenci
es t
o i
mpl
ement
emer
gency pr
epar
edness pl
ans.I
tcan al
so be used as a r
ati
onal
efor
suspendi
ng f
undament
alr
ight
s and f
reedoms.Such decl
arat
ions usual
l
y
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 100

comedur
ingat
imeofnat
uraldi
sast
er,dur
ingper
iodsofci
vi
lunr
est
,or

f
oll
owi
ngadecl
arat
ionofwar(
ther
efor
e,i
ndemocr
ati
ccount
ri
esmanycal
l
t
hismar
ti
all
aw,
mostwi
thnon-
cri
ti
cal
int
ent
).

I
nsomecount
ri
es,
thest
ateofemer
gencyandi
tsef
fect
sonci
vi
lli
ber
ti
esand
gov
ernment
alpr
ocedur
ear
eregul
atedbyt
heconst
it
uti
onoral
awt
hatl
i
mit
s
t
hepower
sthatmaybei
nvokeddur
inganemer
gencyorr
ight
ssuspended.I
t
i
sal
sof
requent
lyi
l
legalt
omodi
fyt
heemer
gencyl
aw orConst
it
uti
ondur
ing
t
heemer
gency
.Dearst
udent
,nowweshal
lbr
ief
lyseewhoandhowi
sast
ate
ofemer
gencyt
obedecl
aredunderEt
hiopi
anl
aw,andt
henwhi
choft
he
f
undament
alr
ight
sandf
reedomsar
esuscept
ibl
eforsuspensi
onbysuch
decl
arat
ion.

I
tisv
eryi
mpor
tantt
haty
ouunder
standcl
ear
lyt
hepr
ovi
si
ononSt
ateof
Emer
gencywhi
chi
spr
ovi
dedundert
heFDREconst
it
uti
onasoneoft
he
‘
miscel
l
aneous’i
ssues.Thi
sbynomeansi
stoi
mpl
ythatt
hoseAr
ti
cl
esar
e
mer
elyor
dinar
ylef
t-
over
shav
ingnosi
gni
fi
cance.Howev
er,mat
ter
sofgr
eat
si
gni
fi
cancesuchasconcur
rentpower
soft
het
wo l
evel
sofgov
ernment
(
rel
ati
ng t
otaxat
ion)
,and t
he pr
ocedur
es f
or t
he amendmentof t
he
const
it
uti
onar
esomeoft
hemat
ter
sdeal
tint
hismi
scel
l
aneouspar
tincl
udi
ng
St
ateofEmer
gencypr
ovi
si
onAr
ti
cl
e93.Ihav
edupl
i
cat
edt
hatpr
ovi
si
onf
or
y
ouher
eforeasyaccess;

Ar
ti
cl
e93:
Decl
arat
ionofSt
ateofEmer
gency

1.
a) TheCounci
lofMi
nist
ersoft
heFeder
alGover
nmentshal
lhave
t
hepowert
odecr
eeast
ateofemer
gency,shoul
danext
ernal
i
nvasi
on,abr
eak down ofl
aw and or
derwhi
ch endanger
s
t
heConst
it
uti
onalor
derand whi
ch cannotbe cont
rol
l
ed by
t
he
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 101

r
egul
arl
aw enf
orcementagenci
es and per
sonnel
,a nat
ural
di
sast
er,
oranepi
demi
coccur
.
b) St
ateexecut
ivescandecr
eeaSt
ate-
Widest
ateofemer
gency
shoul
danat
uraldi
sast
eroranepi
demi
coccur
.Par
ti
cul
arsshal
l
be det
ermi
ned i
n St
ate Const
it
uti
ons t
o be pr
omul
gat
ed i
n
conf
ormi
tywi
tht
hisConst
it
uti
on.

2.A stat
eofemer
gencydecl
aredi
naccor
dancewi
thsub-
Art
icl
e1(
a)
oft
his
Ar
ti
cle:

a) I
fdecl
aredwhent
heHouseofPeopl
es’Repr
esent
ati
vesi
sin
sessi
on,t
he decr
ee shal
lbe submi
tt
ed t
othe House wi
thi
n
f
ort
y-ei
ghthour
sofi
tsdecl
arat
ion.Thedecr
ee,i
fnotappr
oved
by a t
wo-
thi
rds maj
ori
tyvot
eofmember
soft
heHouseof
Peopl
es'
Repr
esent
ati
ves,shal
lber
epeal
edf
ort
hwi
th.
b) Subj
ectt
othe r
equi
red vot
e ofappr
ovalsetouti
n(a)of
t
his sub-Ar
ti
cle,t
hedecr
eedecl
ari
ngast
ateofemer
gency
whent
heHouseofPeopl
es’Repr
esent
ati
vesi
snoti
n sessi
on
shal
lbesubmi
tt
edt
oitwi
thi
nfi
ft
eendaysofi
tsadopt
ion.

3.Ast
ateofemer
gencydecr
eedbyt
heCounci
lofMi
nist
ers,i
fappr
oved
byt
heHouseofPeopl
es’Repr
esent
ati
ves,canr
emai
ninef
fectupt
o
si
xmont
hs.TheHouseofPeopl
es’Repr
esent
ati
vesmay,byat
wo-
t
hir
dsmaj
ori
tyvot
e,al
l
owt
hest
ateofemer
gencypr
ocl
amat
iont
obe
r
enewedever
yfourmont
hssuccessi
vel
y.
4.

a) When a st
ate ofemer
gency i
s decl
ared,t
he Counci
lof
Mi
nist
ersshal
l
,inaccor
dancewi
thr
egul
ati
onsi
tissues,have
al
lnecessar
ypower
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 102

t
opr
otectt
hecount
ry’
speaceandsover
eignt
y,andt
omai
ntai
n
publ
i
csecur
it
y,l
awandor
der
.
b)TheCounci
lofMi
nist
ersshal
lhavet
hepowert
osuspendsuch
pol
i
ticalanddemocr
ati
cri
ght
scont
ainedi
nthi
sConst
it
uti
ont
o
t
he ext
entnecessar
yto aver
tthe condi
ti
ons t
hatr
equi
red
t
hedecl
arat
ionofast
ateofemer
gency.
c) I
nt heexer
ciseofi
tsemer
gencypower
stheCounci
lof
Mini
sterscan
not
,however
,suspendorl
i
mitt
her
ight
spr
ovi
dedf
ori
nAr
ti
cles1,
18,
25,
andsub-
Art
icl
es1and2ofAr
ti
cl
e39oft
hisConst
it
uti
on.

5. TheHouseofPeopl
es’Repr
esent
ati
ves,whi
l
edecl
ari
ngast
ateof
emer
gency,
shal
lsi
mul
taneousl
yest
abl
i
shaSt
ateofEmer
gencyI
nqui
ry
Boar
d,compr
isi
ngofsevenper
sonst
obechosenandassi
gnedbyt
he
Housef
rom amongi
tsmember
sandf
rom l
egalexper
ts.
6. The St
ate ofEmer
gency I
nqui
ry Boar
d shal
lhave t
he f
oll
owi
ng
power
sandr
esponsi
bil
i
ties:

a) Tomakepubl
i
cwi
thi
nonemont
hthenamesofal
lindi
vi
dual
s
ar
rest
edonaccountoft
hest
ateofemer
gencyt
oget
herwi
tht
he
r
easonsf
ort
hei
rar
rest
.
b)Toinspectandf
oll
ow upt
hatnomeasur
etakendur
ingt
he
st
ateof
emer
gencyi
sinhumane.
c) To r
ecommend t
othePr
imeMi
nist
erort
otheCounci
lof
Mi
nist
erscor
rect
ivemeasur
esi
fitf
indsandcaseofi
nhumane
t
reat
ment
.
d)Toensur
ethepr
osecut
ionofper
pet
rat
orsofi
nhumaneact
s.
e) To submi
t i
ts vi
ews t
o t
he House of Peopl
es’
Repr
esent
ati
vesonar
equestt
oext
endt
hedur
ati
onoft
hest
ate
ofemer
gency.
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 103

Dearst
udent
,itwoul
dreal
l
ybehel
pfuli
fyour
eadt
hispr
ovi
si
onatl
east

t
wicef
orabet
terunder
standoft
hei
ssuesdescr
ibedandwhi
chweshal
lbe
di
scussi
ngi
nabi
t.Fi
rstofal
lwhohast
hepowert
odecl
areast
ateof
emer
gencyorasmostcount
ri
escal
li
tmar
ti
all
awaccor
dingt
othi
spr
ovi
si
on?

I
tist
heCounci
lofMi
nist
erswhi
chi
sgi
vent
hepowert
odecl
areast
ateof
emer
gency
.Wheni
tcomest
other
egi
ons,t
hest
atecounci
l
sar
egi
vensuch
power
s,t
hespeci
fi
csofwhi
char
egoi
ngt
obedet
ermi
nedi
nthepar
ti
cul
ar
st
ateconst
it
uti
on.Howev
er,t
heCounci
lofMi
nist
ers’deci
si
onf
ordecl
ari
ng
anemer
gencysi
tuat
ioni
stobecheckedbyt
hehi
ghestpol
i
ticalor
ganoft
he
count
ry,whi
ch i
sthe House ofPeopl
es’Repr
esent
ati
ves.Ther
efor
e,t
he
Counci
l
’sdeci
si
onr
emai
nst
obepr
ovi
si
onalunt
ili
tget
sat
wo-
thi
rdsmaj
ori
ty
appr
ovalwi
thi
ntheHousewhi
chshal
llooki
ntot
hemat
ter
,wher
eiti
sin
sessi
on,wi
thi
n48hour
s.Wher
esuchdecl
arat
ionhasbeeni
ssueddur
ing
t
hosemont
hswher
etheHousei
sinr
ecess,t
heSpeakeroft
heHouseshal
l
cal
lforameet
ingt
oconsi
dert
hemat
terasst
ipul
atedunderAr
t58(
4).Si
nce
suchemer
gencycal
l
ingoft
hemember
soft
heHousef
orameet
ingwi
l
ltake
t
ime,
15day
sar
egi
venf
ort
heCounci
ltopr
esentt
hemat
tert
otheHousef
or
appr
oval
.

ButunderAr
t55(
8)i
tispr
ovi
dedt
hatt
heHousePeopl
es’Repr
esent
ati
v i
n
es,‘
conf
ormi
ty wi
th Ar
ti
cle 93 of t
he Const
it
uti
on,shal
ldecl
are st
ate of
emer
gency;i
tshal
lconsi
der and r
esol
ve on a decr
ee of a st
ate of
emer
gency decl
ared by t
heexecut
ive.
’Whatdoest
hatmean?I
sitt
omean
t
hatapar
tfr
om t
heCounci
lofMi
nist
ers’power
,the House al
so hasan
i
ndependentpr
erogat
ivet
odecl
areast
ateofemer
gency
,ori
sitr
efer
ri
ngt
o
t
heappr
ovalpr
ocesst
hati
sdescr
ibedunderAr
t93(
3)?I
tiscl
earf
rom t
he
pr
ovi
si
on t
hatt
he appr
ovalaspecti
s a separ
ate deci
si
on t
han decl
ari
ng
i
ndependent
lyofast
ateofemer
gency
.Ther
efor
e,wecanseet
hatt
heHouse
hasi
tsownpowert
odecl
areast
ateof
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 104

emer
gencyf
ort
hepur
posesdescr
ibedunderAr
t93.Butt
hef
actt
hati
tist
he

Counci
lwhi
chi
ssupposedt
oimpl
ementt
hedecl
arat
ionandal
soconsi
der
ing
t
he f
actt
hatt
he cl
osesti
nst
it
uti
on t
othe publ
i
c’s day-
to-
dayl
i
fei
sthe
Counci
l
,iti
ssomehow super
fl
uoust
opr
ovi
deasepar
atepr
erogat
ivef
ort
he
Houset
oissuesuchemer
gencypr
ocl
amat
ions.Ordoy
out
hinkt
her
ear
e
ci
rcumst
ances wher
ethe House’
sindependentpowermi
ghtbe ofsome
pur
pose?Pl
easedi
scusst
hispoi
ntwi
thy
ourf
ri
end.

Dearst
udent
,whati
sthemaxi
mum dur
ati
ont
hatast
ateofemer
gency
,once

decl
ared,
mayr
emai
ninf
orce?

Byi
tsnat
ure,ast
ateofemer
gencyi
stempor
aryandper
mit
sthegov
ernment

t
osuspendsomeoft
hef
undament
alr
ight
sandf
reedomsoft
hepeopl
e.And
ourconst
it
uti
oni
scl
eari
nter
msoft
het
empor
ari
nessoft
hemeasur
eint
he
senset
hati
tpr
ovi
desv
ari
ousl
evel
sofper
iodsf
orwhi
chadecl
aredst
ateof
emer
gencycoul
dlast
.Thef
ir
stmaxi
mum i
sst
ipul
atedt
obesi
xmont
hs,or
l
ess.Wi
thi
nthese mont
hs t
he Counci
lis expect
ed t
o make r
epor
tst
o
t
heHouset
hrought
heEmer
gencyI
nqui
ryBoar
daboutt
hemeasur
est
aken
andot
hermat
ter
sasdescr
ibedunderAr
t93(
6)andt
hiswayt
heexecut
ive’
s
exer
ciseofemer
gencypowerwi
l
lhav
etobecheckedbyt
hel
egi
sl
ati
veor
gan.
Wher
ethese si
xmont
hsar
e notenough t
orest
ore a st
ate ofnor
mal
cy
i
nwhi
cht
hef
ullr
espectoft
hef
undament
alr
ight
sandf
reedomscanagai
nbe
secur
ed,peace,secur
it
yandr
uleofl
aw mai
ntai
ned,t
hent
heCounci
lmay
r
equestf
oran ext
ensi
on oft
he per
iod oft
he emer
gency
.Butf
oreach
ext
ensi
on,t
heHousecanonl
ygi
vef hs successi
ourmont vel
y.Ast
ohow
many
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 105

ti
mescant
heHousegi
vesuchext
ensi
oni
sfourmont
hseach,howev
er,
not

cl
ear
.

Thei
nter
nat
ionalst
andar
donder
ogat
iont
ell
sust
hatanyder
ogat
ionmustbe
except
ional and t
empor
ary
. Ther
e i
s no and can not be,howev
er,
i
nter
nat
ional
l
yagr
eedanddef
ini
ti
vet
imel
i
mitf
ort
heper
iodofwhi
chast
ate
ofemer
gencymayl
astsi
ncet
hisdependsupont
hepar
ti
cul
arci
rcumst
ance
t
hatcal
l
sfort
hedecl
arat
ion.Theonl
yli
mitt
hatt
hepr
ovi
si
ononst
ateof
emer
gencyi
mposesi
sthatt
heder
ogat
ionmustbel
i
mit
edt
o’t
heext
ent
st
ri
ctl
yrequi
redbyt
heexi
genci
esoft
hesi
tuat
ion.
’

Ar
ti
cl
e4:
ICCPR
1.I
nti
meofpubl
i
cemer
gencywhi
cht
hreat
enst
hel
i
feoft
henat
ionand
t
heexi
stenceofwhi
chi
sof
fi
ci
all
ypr
ocl
aimed,
theSt
atesPar
ti
est
othe
pr
esentCov
enantmayt
akemeasur
esder
ogat
ingf
rom t
hei
robl
i
gat
ions
undert
he pr
esentCov
enantt
othe ex
tentst
ri
ctl
yrequi
red byt
he
exi
genci
es oft
he si
tuat
ion,pr
ovi
ded t
hatsuch measur
es…do not
i
nvol
ve di
scr
imi
nat
ion sol
ely on t
he gr
ound of r
ace,col
or,sex,
l
anguage,
rel
i
gionorsoci
alor
igi
n.
2. Noder
ogat
ionf
rom ar
ti
cl
es6(
Rightt
oli
fe)
,7(
Prohi
bit
ionofTor
tur
e,
I
nhumanand Degr
adi
ng t
reat
mentorPuni
shment
),8 (
par
agr
aphsI
(
Prohi
bit
ion of Sl
aver
y) and 2 (
Prohi
bit
ion of Ser
vit
ude)
), 11
(
Prohi
bit
ionofi
mpr
isonmentf
orf
ail
uret
oful
fi
llcont
ract
ual
obl
i
gat
ions)
,
15(
Prohi
bit
ionoft
henon-
ret
roact
iveappl
i
cat
ionofcr
imi
nall
aw)
,16
(
Ther
ightt
orecogni
ti
onev
ery
wher
easaper
son)and
18(
Freedom oft
hought
,consci
enceandr
eli
gion)maybemadeunder
t
hispr
ovi
si
on.
3.AnySt
atePar
tyt
othepr
esentCov
enantav
ail
i
ngi
tsel
foft
her
ightof
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 106

der
ogat
ionshal
limmedi
atel
yinf
ormt
heot
herSt
atesPar
ti
est
othe

pr
esentCov
enant
,thr
ought
hei
nter
medi
aryoft
heSecr
etar
y-Gener
al
oft
heUni
tedNat
ions,oft
hepr
ovi
si
onsf
rom whi
chi
thasder
ogat
ed
andoft
her
easonsbywhi
chi
twasact
uat
ed.Af
urt
hercommuni
cat
ion
shal
lbemade,t
hrought
hesamei
nter
medi
ary
,ont
hedat
eonwhi
chi
t
t
ermi
nat
essuchder
ogat
ion.

Dearst
udent
,cany
out
ellmet
het
woi
mpor
tantcondi
ti
onsf
ort
heexi
stence

ofaj
ust
if
iedder
ogat
ion?

TheHumanRi
ght
sCommi
tt
eet
hati
sest
abl
i
shedundert
heUNt
oov
erseet
he

i
mpl
ement
ati
onoft
hisCov
enanti
nit
sgener
alcommentst
atedt
hef
oll
owi
ng:
‘
Measur
esder
ogat
ingf
rom t
hepr
ovi
si
onsoft
heCov
enantmustbeofan
except
ionalandt
empor
arynat
ure.Bef
oreaSt
atemov
est
oinv
okear
ti
cl
e4,
t
wof
undament
alcondi
ti :t
onsmustbemet hesi
tuat
ionmustamountt
oa
publ
i
cemer
gencywhi
cht
hreat
enst
hel
i
feoft
henat
ion,andt
heSt
atepar
ty
musthaveof
fi
ci
all
ypr
ocl
aimedast
ateofemer
gency.Thel
att
err
equi
rement
i
sessent
ialf
ort
hemai
ntenanceoft
hepr
inci
plesofl
egal
i
tyandr
uleofl
awat
t
imeswhent
heyar
emostneeded. Whenpr
ocl
aimi
ngast
ateofemer
gency
wi
thconsequencest
hatcoul
dent
ailder
ogat
ionf
rom anypr
ovi
si
onoft
he
Cov
enant
,St
atesmustactwi
thi
nthei
rconst
it
uti
onalandot
herpr
ovi
si
onsof
l
awt
hatgov
ernsuchpr
ocl
amat
ionandt
heexer
ciseofemer
gencypower
s.’

The nextand mosti

mpor
tantpoi
ntt
hatwe shal
ldi
scuss r
elat
es t
he

ci
rcumst
ancest
hatper
mitt
hedecl
arat
ionofst
ateofemer
gencyt
hatwi
l
lgi
ve
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 107

t
heexecut
ivebr
anchoft
hegov
ernment‘
al
lthenecessar
ypowert
opr
otect
t
he

count
ry’
speaceandsov
erei
gnt
y,andt
omai
ntai
npubl
i
csecur
it
y,l
aw and
or
der
.’Thi
sisqui
tescar
ysi
tuat
ionwher
etheor
gant
hatcont
rol
sthear
med
f
orcesi
sbei
ngt
oldt
odowhat
everi
tcanf
ort
hepur
posesofr
est
ori
ngpeace
andsecur
it
ythathasbeendi
stur
bedbyt
hepar
ti
cul
arci
rcumst
ancet
hatcal
l
ed
f
ort
he decl
arat
ion.So,whatmi
ghtbe consi
der
ed as a si
tuat
ion t
hat
j
ust
if
iest
he i
ssuance ofst
ate ofemer
gency i
s an i
mpor
tantaspectof
t
heov
eral
lconceptofder
ogat
ion.Theanswert
othi
squest
ioni
sinI
CCPRAr
t
4(
1)bysay
ingt
hati
thast apubl
obe‘ i
cemer
gencyt
hatt
hreat
enst
hel
i
fe
oft
henat
ion.
’Thi
s i
s f
ar f
rom bei
ng cl
ear i
n pr
ovi
ding an
under
standi
ng of t
heci
rcumst
ancest
hatgi
vest
atest
her
ightt
osuspend
someoft
her
ight
soft
hecov
enant
.Howev
ert
hedet
ail
edci
rcumst
ancesar
eto
bepr
ovi
dedundereachcount
ry’
slegi
sl
ati
on,andi
nmostoft
het
imesi
tis
gi
veni
nthei
rconst
it
uti
ons.Thus,Ar
t93mustbeanal
yzedt
ogetanswert
o
whatconst
it
utesa‘
thr
eatt
othel
i
feoft
henat
ion.
’

Ihav
etoasky
out
oonceagai
nreadAr
t93(
1)(
a).Di
dyour
eadi
t?Gr
eat
!Thi
s
pr
ovi
si
ongi
vesust
heanswert
oourquer
y.Theci
rcumst
ancescanbeputi
n
f
ourmai
nheadi
ngsandaf
if
thpoi
ntwhi
chi
sappl
i
cabl
etomostoft
hosef
our
ci
rcumst
ances.Accor
dingl
y,t
hesi
tuat
ionst
hatmi
ghtj
ust
if
ythedecl
arat
ionof
st
ateofemer
gencyundert
heEt
hiopi
anconst
it
uti
onal
syst
em ar
e;

 Ext
ernal
inv
asi
on,

 Abr
eakdownofl
aw andor
derwhi
chendanger
stheconst
it
uti
onal
or
der
,
 Anat
ural
disast
er,
and

 Anepi
demi
c.
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 108

Thesear
ethef
ourmai
npoi
ntst
hatmi
ghtbeci
tedbyt
heCounci
lofMi
nist
ers

whi
l
edecl
ari
ngast
ateofemer
gency
.Howev
erf
ort
hel
astt
hreeheadi
ngs,an
addi
ti
onalt
estmustbe metbef
oret
hey become as v
ali
d gr
ounds f
or
suspensi
on.Thi
sist
hef
actt
hatwher
eabr
eakdownofl
aw andor
der
,a
nat
uraldi
sast
eroranepi
demi
ccanadequat
elybecont
rol
l
edbyt
her
egul
ar
l
aw enf
orcementagenci
esandper
sonnelsuchast
heci
vi
li
anpol
i
cef
orce,
t
hosegr
oundsmaynotber
aisedasj
ust
if
icat
ionf
ort
hedecl
arat
ionofst
ateof
emer
gency
.Thus,whi
l
ethe gr
ounds t
hemsel
ves can be consi
der
ed as
r
equi
rement
sofl
egal
i
ty,
thi
slat
tercondi
ti
oni
sar
equi
rementofpr
opor
ti
onal
i
ty
i
nthe sense t
hatt
he st
ate ofemer
gency may notbe pr
opor
ti
onali
n
ci
rcumst
anceswher
etheor
dinar
ypol
i
cef
orcecanquel
ltheunr
estwi
thoutany
needofsuspensi
onoft
hef
undament
alr
ight
sandf
reedomst
hrought
hest
ate
ofemer
gency
.

Howev
er,t
hisr
equi
rementas i
s phr
ased i
nthe pr
ovi
si
on seems t
o be
appl
i
cabl
eonl
ytot
hesecondpoi
nt.Nonet
hel
ess,
ther
eisnor
easont
oisol
ate
t
hepr
opor
ti
onal
i
tyt
estasappl
i
cabl
eonl
ytoabr
eakdownofl
aw andor
der
andnotf
ornat
uraldi
sast
erorepi
demi
c.I
tiswor
thnot
ingt
heHumanRi
ght
s
Commi
tt
ee’
sst
atementwi
thr
egar
dtoAr
ti
cl
e4(
1)oft
heI
CCPRwhi
chi
sof
t
hei
dent
ical
nat
urewi
thAr
t93(
1)oft
heourconst
it
uti
on;

Thei
ssuesofwhenr
ight
scanbeder
ogat
edf
rom,andt
owhat
ext
ent
,cannotbe separ
ated f
rom t
he pr
ovi
si
on i
n ar
ti
cl
e 4,
par
agr
aph1,oft
heCovenantaccor
dingt
owhi
chanymeasur
es
der
ogat
ingf
rom aSt
atepar
ty’
sobl
i
gat
ionsundert
heCovenant
mustbel
i
mit
ed“
tot
heext
entst
ri
ctl
yrequi
redbyt
heexi
genci
es
of t
he si
tuat
ion”
. Thi
s condi
ti
onr
equi
rest
hatSt
atespar
ti
es
pr
ovi
decar
efulj
ust
if
icat
ionnotonl
yfort
hei
rdeci
siont
opr
ocl
aim
ast
ateofemer
gencybutal
sof
oranyspeci
fi
cmeasur
esbasedon
suchapr
ocl
amat
ion.I
fSt
atespur
por
ttoi
nvoket
he
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 109

ri
ghtto der
ogat
efr
om t
he Covenantdur
ing,f
ori
nst
ance,a
natur
al
cat
ast
rophe,a mass demonst
rat
ion i
ncl
udi
ng i
nst
ances of
vi
olence,oramaj
ori
ndust
ri
alacci
dent
,theymustbeabl
eto
j
ust
if
ynotonl
ythatsuchasi
tuat
ionconst
it
utesat
hreatt
othel
i
fe
oft
henat
ion,butal
sot
hatal
lthei
rmeasur
esder
ogat
ingf
rom t
he
Covenantar
est
ri
ctl
yrequi
redbyt
heexi
genci
esoft
hesi
tuat
ion.
I
nthe opi
nion oft
he Commi
tt
ee,t
he possi
bil
i
tyofr
est
ri
cti
ng
cer
tai
nCovenantr
ight
sundert
het
ermsof
,fori
nst
ance,f
reedom
ofmovement(
art
.12)orf
reedom ofassembl
y(ar
t.21)i
s
gener
all
ysuf
fi
ci
entdur
ingsuchsi
tuat
ionsandnoder
ogat
ionf
rom
t
hepr
ovi
sionsi
nquest
ionwoul
dbej
ust
if
iedbyt
heexi
genci
esof
t
hesi
tuat
ion.(
UN HumanRi
ght
sCommi
tt
eeGener
alComment
Number
29,onArt
icl
e4:Der
ogat
ionsdur
ingast
ateofEmer
gency,
Para5)

Accor
dingl
y,t
her
efor
e,der
ogat
ion t
hrough t
he decl
arat
ion of st
ate of
emer
gency wi
l
lnotbe j
ust
if
ied f
ir
stwher
e ei
theroft
he gr
ounds f
or
der
ogat
iondonotex
ist
,andsecondwher
ethoseemer
genci
esot
hert
han
ext
ernali
nvasi
onmustbet
ri
edt
hroughnor
mall
awenf
orcementagenci
esand
onl
ywher
esuchat
tempti
snotsuccessf
ult
hatast
ateofemer
gencymaybe
j
ust
if
ied.Whi
l
efai
l
uret
omeett
hef
ir
str
equi
rementv
iol
atest
hepr
inci
pleof
l
egal
i
tyi
nrel
ati
ont
ost
ateofemer
gency
,fai
l
uret
omeett
hesecondv
iol
ates
t
her
equi
rement
sofpr
opor
ti
onal
i
ty,whi
chshal
lbecheckedbyt
heHouseof
Peopl
es’Repr
esent
ati
veswhent
hemat
teri
spr
esent
edt
oitf
orappr
ovalby
t
heCounci
lofMi
nist
ers.

Dearst
udent
,ar
eyouf
oll
owi
ngt
hedi
scussi
on?Doesi
tgi
veanysenset
oyou?
Ionl
ywi
sht
hati
tdoes.Weshal
lal
sobedi
scussi
ngsomeoft
hei
ssueswhi
ch
happent
obedi
ff
icul
tfory
out
ounder
stand,
thoughIhopet
hatt
hingsar
ever
y
cl
eart
oyou.
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 110

Fi
nal
l
y,weshal
lbedi
scussi
ngt
hosepr
ovi
si
onst
hatmi
ghtl
egi
ti
mat
elybe

suspendedbymeasur
esoft
hest
ateofemer
gency
.Ther
ulei
spr
ovi
dedunder
Ar
t93(
4)(
b)whi
chi
sacont
inuat
ionoft
hebl
anketpowergi
venunderAr
t
93(
4)a)st
ati
ng t
hatt
he execut
ive has‘
al
lthe necessar
ypower
s’f
ort
he
pur
posesofr
est
ori
ngpeaceandor
der
.Itpr
ovi
des

TheCounci
lofMi
nist
ersshal
lhavet
hepowert
osuspend
suchpol
i
ticaland democr
ati
cri
ght
s cont
ained i
nthi
s
Const
it
uti
ont
otheext
entnecessar
ytoaver
tthecondi
ti
ons
t
hatr
equi
redt
hedecl
arat
ionofast
ateofemer
gency.

Thus,i
tcansuspendal
lthepol
i
ticalanddemocr
ati
cri
ght
scont
ainedi
nthe
const
it
uti
onsol
ongassodoi
ngi
snecessar
ytoav
ertt
het
hreat
sthatr
equi
red
t
hedecl
arat
ion.Thi
spr
ovi
si
onagai
nconf
usest
heappr
oachonceadopt
edf
or
cl
assi
fi
cat
ion of t
he r
ight
s by i
ntr
oduci
ng a new appr
oach,whi
ch i
s
cl
assi
fi
cat
ionoft
her
ight
sandf
reedomsi
nto‘
pol
i
ticalanddemocr
ati
cri
ght
s.’
Nowonewi
l
lhav
etol
ooki
ntot
hoser
ight
sfr
om t
hehumanr
ight
spar
tthatar
e
ofpol
i
ticali
nnat
ureandwhi
char
enot
,orwewi
l
lhav
etoassumet
hatby
‘
pol
i
ticalr
ight
s’t
heconst
it
uti
oni
sref
err
ingt
otheoneswhi
char
eal
ready
r
efer
redt
oas‘
humanr
ight
s.’Dearst
udent
,whi
chonedoy
out
hinki
sthe
appr
opr
iat
eli
neoft
hinki
ng?Iwoul
d sayt
hati
tisv
erymuchunl
i
kel
yto
f
oll
ow t
hel
att
erl
i
neoft
hinki
ngf
orhumanr
ight
scannotbeconsi
der
edas
sy
nony
mouswi
thpol
i
ticalr
ight
s,ev
eni
fpol
i
ticalr
ight
sar
epar
tofhuman
r
ight
s.

Most
lyt
het
erm pol
i
ticalr
ighti
saddr
essedt
oget
herwi
thci
vi
lri
ght
sas‘
ci
vi
l
andpol
i
ticalr
ight
s’t
houghi
tnott
hatdi
ff
icul
ttodi
sti
ngui
sht
hoser
ight
sthat
ar
epr
inci
pal
l
ytobeconsi
der
edaspol
i
ticalones.Theymost
lyr
elat
ewi
thf
ree
andf
airel
ect
ions,f
reedom oft
hepr
ess,f
reedom ofassembl
y,demonst
rat
ion
andpet
it
ion,noneoft
hesei
swi
thi
nthehumanr
ight
spr
ovi
si
onsl
i
stoft
he
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 111

const
it
uti
on.Thus,
ifwehav
etof
oll
owt
hisnor
mal
under
standi
ngoft
het
erm

‘
pol
i
ticalr
ight
s’,t
hepr
ovi
si
oni
sthensupposedonl
ytodescr
ibet
hoser
ight
s
st
atedi
ntheconst
it
uti
onas‘
democr
ati
cri
ght
s.’I
fthi
sisso,agai
nwewi
l
l
hav
etof
urt
herasser
tthatt
hepr
ovi
si
oni
smaki
ngunnecessar
yrepet
it
ioni
n
say
ing‘
suchpol
i
ticalanddemocr
ati
cri
ght
s’becauset
het
woar
ethesamei
n
meani
ng.Wewi
l
lonceagai
ncomebackt
othi
spoi
ntasi
tisv
eryi
mpor
tant
i
nrel
ati
ont
othenextpoi
ntt
hatwear
egoi
ngt
odi
scuss.

Dearst
udent
,Iwi
l
lhav
etoasky
ouonceagai
ntogobackandr
eadAr
t
93(
4)(
b)&(
c)whi
chdi
scusswhi
chf
undament
alr
ight
sandf
reedomsmi
ghtbe
der
ogat
edf
rom i
nti
mesofemer
gencyandwhi
chcannev
erbeder
ogat
edor
suspended,
eveni
nemer
gencysi
tuat
ions.Hav
eyouf
ini
shedr
eadi
ng?Ver
yfi
ne!
Whatdoy
ounot
ice?Now,onceagai
nreadAr
t4(
2)oft
heI
CCPRt
hatIhav
e
dupl
i
cat
edf
ory
ouabov
eandseet
hedi
ff
erencebet
weent
het
wo.Youwi
l
l
hav
etobeari
nyourmi
ndt
hatEt
hiopi
aisapar
tyt
otheI
CCPRsi
nce11
June1993,andal
socar
eful
l
yconsi
derAr
t13(
2).Ar
t1,whi
chest
abl
i
shes
the

f
eder
alst
ate st
ruct
ure,Ar
t18,whi
ch pr
ohi
bit
sinhuman,cr
uel
,inhuman
t
reat
mentorpuni
shment
,sl
aver
y,ser
vit
ude and saf
eguar
d agai
nstbei
ng
i
mpr
isonmentf
orf
ail
uret
oful
fi
llcont
ract
ualobl
i
gat
ions,Ar
t25,whi
ch
pr
ovi
dest
her
ightt
oequal
i
ty,Ar
t39(
1)&(
2)whi
chst
ipul
ateaboutt
her
ight
t
osel
f-
det
ermi
nat
ioni
ncl
udi
ngsecessi
onar
etheonest
hatar
enon-
der
ogabl
e
r
ight
s undert
he FDRE const
it
uti
on.Howev
er,t
he I
CCPR adds t
othese
l
i
sti
ngst
her
ightt
oli
fe,
prohi
bit
ionoft
her
etr
oact
iveappl
i
cat
ionofcr
imi
nal
law,
t
her
ightt
orecogni
ti
onev
ery
wher
easaper
son,andf
reedom oft
hought
,
consci
ence and r
eli
gion.Thus,t
her
eisav
erydi
ff
icul
tsi
tuat
ion her
eto
r
espondt
obecausewhi
l
ethei
nter
nat
ionalst
andar
dst
ipul
atest
hatt
her
ight
t
oli
feandt
heot
herr
ight
sar
enott
obesuspendedunderanyci
rcumst
ance,
t
henat
ionalst
andar
daspr
ovi
dedi
ntheconst
it
uti
onmakesi
tader
ogabl
e
r
ight
.Doy
out
hinki
nsuchci
rcumst
ancest
hei
nter
nat
ionalobl
i
gat
ionoft
he
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 112

stat
e i
s goi
ng t
o hav
e pr
ecedence ov
er i
ts nat
ional commi
tment
and

accor
dingl
ypeopl
ewhomi
ghtbeki
l
ledorwhoser
ightt
orel
i
gionhasbeen
cur
tai
l
edt
hroughadecl
aredst
ateofemer
gencycanbr
inganact
ionagai
nst
t
hest
ateundert
hei
nter
nat
ional
cov
enantt
hatEt
hiopi
aisapar
ty?

Thi
sisqui
tecont
rov
ersi
alani
ssuet
hati
tcal
l
sfort
hei
nter
pret
ati
onoft
he
const
it
uti
on.AndAr
t13(
2)pr
ovi
dest
hatt
hepr
ovi
si
onsofChapt
erI
IImust
bei
nter
pret
edi
nconf
ormi
tywi
tht
hecount
ry’
sint
ernat
ionalhumanr
ight
s
obl
i
gat
ions.Howev
er,Ar
t93i
snotpar
tofchapt
erI
II
,appar
ent
lymaki
ngi
t
outoft
heambi
tofAr
t13(
2).Nonet
hel
ess,
thi
spr
ovi
si
oni
sspeaki
ngaboutt
he
f
undament
alr
ight
sandf
reedomsandt
hequest
ioni
swhet
herornott
hose
f
undament
alr
ight
s and f
reedoms ar
e subj
ectt
o der
ogat
ion i
nti
mes of
emer
gency
.Tot
hatex
tent
,thei
nter
nat
ionalhumanr
ight
sinst
rument
smust
beconsul
tedev
eni
ftheMar
ti
alLawpr
ovi
si
on(
Art93)i
soutofchapt
erI
IIof
t
heconst
it
uti
on.Agai
nthepr
obl
em i
showt
oby
passt
hesupr
emacycl
auseof
Ar
t9(
1)whi
l
eint
erpr
eti
ngChapt
erI
IIi
nli
ghtoft
hei
nter
nat
ionalst
andar
ds.
Dearst
udent
,whati
syouropi
nion on t
his poi
nt? Can t
he Counci
lof
Mi
nist
erssuspendt
hef
reedom oft
houghtt
hroughast
ateofemer
gency
?

TheHumanr
ight
sCommi
tt
eeev
engoesf
urt
herandst
ipul
atest
hatev
eni
f
somer
ight
sar
enotment
ionedasnon-
der
ogabl
einAr
t4(
2),t
her
ear
e,i
nthe
Commi
tt
ee’
sopi
nion,someot
herf
undament
alr
ight
sandf
reedomswhi
char
e
notsubj
ectt
o der
ogat
ion i
n a decl
ared st
ate ofemer
gency
.Thus,i
tis
suggest
ingt
hatl
etal
onet
oreducef
rom t
hosel
i
stedasnon-
der
ogabl
ethe
i
deai
stoexpandt
hosef
undament
alr
ight
sandf
reedomst
hatcannev
erbe
der
ogat
ed,andt
hiswayt
her
eisapr
ogr
essi
vel
ygr
owi
ngt
endencyt
ouse
onl
ypeacef
ulandl
essaggr
essi
vemeasur
est
ocal
m anyst
ateofunr
est
.
Car
eful
l
yread t
hef
oll
owi
ng excer
ptf
rom t
heHumanRi
ght
sCommi
tt
ee’
s
gener
alcommenti
nrel
ati
ont
othi
smat
ter
.
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 113

13.I
nthosepr
ovi
si
onsoft
heCov
enantt
hatar
enotl
i
stedi
nar
ti
cle4,

par
agr
aph2,
ther
ear
eel
ement
sthati
ntheCommi
tt
ee’
sopi
nioncannot
bemadesubj
ectt
olawf
ulder
ogat
ionunderar
ti
cl
e4.Somei
l
lust
rat
ive
exampl
esar
epr
esent
edbel
ow.
a)Al
lper
sonsdepr
ivedoft
hei
rli
ber
tyshal
lbet
reat
edwi
thhumani
ty
and wi
th r
espect f
or t
he i
nher
ent di
gni
ty of t
hehuman
per
son. Al
though t
hisr
ight
,pr
escr
ibed i
n ar
ti
cl
e 10 oft
he
Cov
enant
,is notsepar
atel
y ment
ioned i
nthe l
i
stofnon-
der
ogabl
eri
ght
sin ar
ti
cl
e 4,par
agr
aph 2,t
he Commi
tt
ee
bel
i
evest
hather
etheCov
enantexpr
essesanor
m ofgener
al
i
nter
nat
ionall
awnotsubj
ectt
oder
ogat
ion.Thi
sissuppor
tedby
t
her
efer
encet
othei
nher
entdi
gni
tyoft
hehumanper
soni
nthe
pr
eambl
etot
heCov
enantandbyt
hecl
oseconnect
ionbet
ween
ar
ti
cl
es7and10.

b)The pr
ohi
bit
ions agai
nstt
aki
ng ofhost
ages,abduct
ions or
unacknowl
edgeddet
ent
ionar
enotsubj
ectt
oder
ogat
ion. The
absol
ute nat
ure of t
hese pr
ohi
bit
ions,ev
en i
n t
imes of
emer
gency
,isj
ust
if
ied byt
hei
rst
atus as nor
ms ofgener
al
i
nter
nat
ional
law.

c)The Commi
tt
ee i
s of t
he opi
nion t
hat t
he i
nter
nat
ional
pr
otect
ion oft
he r
ight
s ofper
sons bel
ongi
ng t
o mi
nor
it
ies
i
ncl
udesel
ement
sthatmustber
espect
edi
nal
lci
rcumst
ances.
Thi
s i
s r
efl
ect
ed i
n t
he pr
ohi
bit
ion agai
nst genoci
de i
n
i
nter
nat
ionall
aw,
int
hei
ncl
usi
onofanon-
discr
imi
nat
ioncl
ause
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 114

i
nar
ti
cl
e4i
tsel
f(Par
a1)
,aswel
lasi
nthenon-
der
ogabl
enat
ure

ofar
ti
cl
e18.

d) Depor
tat
ionorf
orci
blet
ransf
erofpopul
ati
onwi
thoutgr
ounds
per
mit
ted under i
nter
nat
ionall
aw,i
nthe f
orm of f
orced
di
spl
acementbyexpul
si
onorot
hercoer
civ
emeansf
rom t
he
ar
ea i
n whi
ch t
he per
sons concer
ned ar
elawf
ull
y pr
esent
,
const
it
utesacr
imeagai
nsthumani
ty. Thel
egi
ti
mat
eri
ghtt
o
der
ogat
efr
om t
hisr
ightdur
ingast
ateofemer
gencycannev
er
beaccept
edasj
ust
if
yingsuchmeasur
es.

e)Nodecl
arat
ionofast
ateofemer
gencymadepur
suantt
oar
ti
cl
e
4,par
agr
aph1,maybei
nvokedasj
ust
if
icat
ionf
oraSt
atepar
ty
t
oengagei
tsel
f,cont
rar
ytoar
ti
cl
e20,i
npr
opagandaf
orwar
,or
i
nadv
ocacyofnat
ional
,raci
alorr
eli
gioushat
redt
hatwoul
d
const
it
utei
nci
tementt
odi
scr
imi
nat
ion,
host
il
it
yorv
iol
ence.

14.Ar
ti
cl
e2,par
agr
aph3,oft
heCov
enantr
equi
resaSt
atepar
tyt
othe
Cov
enantt
opr
ovi
der
emedi
esf
oranyv
iol
ati
onoft
hepr
ovi
si
onsoft
he
Cov
enant
. Thi
scl
ausei
snotment
ionedi
nthel
i
stofnon-
der
ogabl
e
pr
ovi
si
onsi
nar
ti
cl
e4,
par
agr
aph2,
buti
tconst
it
utesat
reat
yobl
i
gat
ion
i
nher
enti
ntheCov
enantasawhol
e. Ev
eni
faSt
atepar
ty,dur
inga
st
ateofemer
gency
,andt
otheex
tentt
hatsuchmeasur
esar
est
ri
ctl
y
r
equi
redbyt
heexi
genci
esoft
hesi
tuat
ion,mayi
ntr
oduceadj
ust
ment
s
t
othe pr
act
icalf
unct
ioni
ng ofi
tspr
ocedur
esgov
erni
ng j
udi
ci
alor
ot
herr
emedi
es,t
heSt
atepar
tymustcompl
ywi
tht
hef
undament
al
obl
i
gat
ion,underar
ti
cl
e2,par
agr
aph3,oft
heCov
enantt
opr
ovi
dea
r
emedyt
hati
sef
fect
ive.
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 115

15.I
tisi
nher
enti
nthepr
otect
ionofr
ight
sexpl
i
cit
lyr
ecogni
zedasnon-

der
ogabl
ein ar
ti
cl
e4,par
agr
aph 2,t
hatt
heymustbe secur
ed by
pr
ocedur
alguar
ant
ees,i
ncl
udi
ng,of
ten,j
udi
ci
alguar
ant
ees. The
pr
ovi
si
ons oft
he Cov
enantr
elat
ing t
o pr
ocedur
alsaf
eguar
ds may
nev
erbe made subj
ectt
o measur
es t
hatwoul
d ci
rcumv
entt
he
pr
otect
ionofnon-
der
ogabl
eri
ght
s.Ar
ti
cl
e4maynotber
esor
tedt
oin
a way t
hatwoul
dresul
tin der
ogat
ion f
rom non-
der
ogabl
eri
ght
s.
Thus,f
orexampl
e,asar
ti
cl
e6oft
heCov
enanti
snon-
der
ogabl
eini
ts
ent
ir
ety
,anyt
ri
all
eadi
ngt
othei
mposi
ti
onoft
hedeat
hpenal
tydur
inga
st
ateofemer
gencymustconf
ormt
othepr
ovi
si
onsoft
heCov
enant
,
i
ncl
udi
ngal
lther
equi
rement
sofar
ti
cl
es14and15.

16.Saf
eguar
ds r
elat
ed t
o der
ogat
ion,as embodi
ed i
n ar
ti
cl
e 4 of
t
heCov
enant
,ar
ebasedont
hepr
inci
plesofl
egal
i
tyandt
her
uleofl
aw
i
nher
enti
ntheCov
enantasawhol
e.Ascer
tai
nel
ement
soft
her
ight
t
o a f
air t
ri
al ar
e expl
i
cit
ly guar
ant
eed under i
nter
nat
ional
humani
tar
ian l
aw dur
ing ar
med conf
li
ct,t
he Commi
tt
ee f
inds no
j
ust
if
icat
ion f
or der
ogat
ion f
rom t
hese guar
ant
ees dur
ing ot
her
emer
gencysi
tuat
ions. TheCommi
tt
eei
soft
heopi
nion t
hatt
he
pr
inci
ples ofl
egal
i
tyand t
he r
ule ofl
aw r
equi
ret
hatf
undament
al
r
equi
rement
s of f
airt
ri
almustbe r
espect
ed dur
ing a st
ate of
emer
gency
. Onl
yacour
tofl
aw mayt
ryandconv
ictaper
sonf
ora
cr
imi
nalof
fence.Thepr
esumpt
ionofi
nnocencemustber
espect
ed.I
n
or
dert
opr
otectnon-
der
ogabl
eri
ght
s,t
her
ightt
otakepr
oceedi
ngs
bef
oreacour
tto enabl
ethecour
tto deci
dewi
thoutdel
ayont
he
l
awf
ulnessofdet
ent
ion,mustnotbedi
mini
shedbyaSt
atepar
ty’
s
deci
si
ont
oder
ogat
efr
om t
heCov
enant
.(Gener
alCommentbyt
heUN
HumanRi
ght
sCommi
tt
ee,
Number29,
Par
a13-
16)
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 116

Dearst
udent
,can y
ou be abl
eto mat
ch t
hese l
i
sti
ngs wi
th anyoft
he

f
undament
alr
ight
s and f
reedoms ofChapt
erI
IIoft
he const
it
uti
on of

Et
hiopi
a?

 Humant
reat
mentofper
sonshel
dincust
odyi
spr
ovi
dedunderAr
t21
oft
heConst
it
uti
on;
 The r
ight
s r
elat
ing t
o l
i
ber
ty and pr
ohi
bit
ion of i
l
legal or
unacknowl
edgeddet
ent
ionsar
epr
ovi
dedunderAr
ts17and19;
 Pr
ohi
bit
ion ofdepor
tat
ions,f
orcef
uldi
spl
acementofper
sonsf
rom

t
hei
rlawf
ulpl
acesofr
esi
dencecanmemadet
ofal
lunderAr
t32oft
he
const
it
uti
on;
 Pr
ohi
bit
ionofpr
opagandaf
orwar
,raci
alorot
herdi
scr
imi
nat
ioni
san

obl
i
gat
ionf
orbot
hthest
ateandi
ndi
vi
dual
sint
hesenset
hatev
eni
f
f
reedom ofexpr
essi
oni
sguar
ant
eed,nei
thert
hest
atenori
ndi
vi
dual
s
maybeabl
etodef
endt
hei
ract
ionsont
hepr
etextoft
hisf
reedom i
f
t
hei
ract
sar
emeantf
orpr
opagandat
ocal
lforet
hni
corot
herconf
li
cts.
Thi
sis gener
all
ypr
ovi
ded underAr
t29(
6)oft
he const
it
uti
on and
accor
dingl
ya st
ate can notj
ust
if
ysuch act
sbya decl
ared st
ate
ofemer
gencyei
ther
;
 Accesst
ojust
icei
sar
ightpr
ovi
dedunderAr
t37;

 The r
ight
srel
ati
ng t
ofai
rtr
ialand ot
herj
udi
ci
alguar
ant
ees ar
e
pr
ovi
dedunderAr
t20.

The quest
ion i
s,t
her
efor
e,can t
he Et
hiopi
an Counci
lofMi
nist
ers,f
or
i
nst
ance,denyt
her
ightt
ofai
rtr
ialt
oindi
vi
dual
sont
hepr
etextofst
ateof
emer
gencyast
hispr
ovi
si
oni
snotment
ionedunderAr
t93(
4)(
c)asanon-
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 117

der
ogabl
e r
ight
? Can i
tfor
cef
ull
y di
spl
ace i
ndi
vi
dual
s? Can i
t ki
l
l

i
ndi
vi
dual
s?Cani
tmakepr
opagandaf
oret
hni
chat
red?Et
c,et
c.

1.
6.Concl
usi
onsandRevi
ewQuest
ions
Dearst
udent
,iti
sti
met
owi
ndupourdi
scussi
onandst
artconsi
der
ingeach
oneoft
heenumer
atedf
undament
alr
ight
sandf
reedoms.Wehav
econspi
red
i
nthepr
ecedi
ngsect
ionst
hesi
gni
fi
cancet
hatourconst
it
uti
onhasat
tachedt
o
t
heser
ight
s,t
hev
ari
ousway
sofcl
assi
fyi
ngf
undament
alr
ight
sandf
reedoms
and t
he pr
inci
ples ofder
ogat
ion.We hav
e asser
ted t
he uni
queness of
appr
oach our const
it
uti
on has f
oll
owed i
n t
he cl
assi
fi
cat
ion of t
he
f
undament
alr
ight
sandf
reedoms.Wheni
tcomest
oder
ogat
ion,
wehav
eseen
bot
hthenat
ionalandi
nter
nat
ionalf
ramewor
kappl
i
cabl
etot
hei
ssue.Ev
eni
f
t
her
ear
emanypr
ovi
si
onswhi
char
enotspeci
fi
cal
l
yst
atedasnon-
der
ogabl
e
i
nAr
t93oft
heconst
it
uti
on,wehav
ear
guedt
hatt
hei
nter
nat
ionalst
andar
d
t
owhi
chEt
hiopi
ahasexpr
essedi
tsassentt
obeboundmaybeconsul
tedv
ia
Ar
t13(
2).Now l
etmebot
hery
ouwi
thf
ew r
evi
ew quest
ionsasameansof
t
ransi
ti
ont
othenextchapt
er.
Rev
iewQuest
ions

1.Whati
ndi
cat
ionscanwef
indi
ntheFDREconst
it
uti
onast
othe
si
ncer
e commi
tment concer
ning t
he f
undament
al r
ight
s and
f
reedoms,
atl
easti
nguar
ant
eei
ngt
hem ont
heconst
it
uti
on?

2.Whati
sthedi
ff
erencebet
weensoci
o-economi
cri
ght
sandci
vi
land
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 118

pol
i
tical
right
s?

3.Whati
sthe appr
oach ofcl
assi
fi
cat
ion f
oll
owed by t
he I
ndi
an

const
it
uti
on?

4.Megal
omani
aisacount
ryt
hatf
oll
owsaf
eder
alst
atest
ruct
ureanda

homef
ormul
ti
plesofr
eli
giousbel
i
ever
s,et
hni
cgr
oupsaswel
las
cul
tur
alpr
act
ices.Thepeacef
ulexi
stenceoft
hedi
ver
seet
hni
cgr
oups
ar
egonebyl
ongagoandi
thasbecomet
heor
deroft
hedayt
hatt
he
st
atehast
owor
konbot
hpeacef
ulaswel
lasaggr
essi
vebasi
sto
r
esol
vesuchdi
ff
erences.

Themi
nor
it
yet
hni
cgr
oup’
spar
tyhascont
rol
l
edt
hepol
i
ticalpowerf
or
t
hel
astf
if
tyy
ear
swi
thouti
nter
rupt
ionandar
epeat
edr
equestf
or
powershar
ing f
rom ot
heret
hni
cgr
oups’par
ti
eshad beent
urned
downbyt
hisr
uli
ngpar
ty.Recent
ly,Megal
omani
aDemocr
ati
cPar
ty
(
MDP)
-apar
tyest
abl
i
shedf
ort
heent
renchmentoft
ruedemocr
acy
and mul
ti
-par
ty sy
stem i
nthe count
ry,poi
soned a publ
i
c wat
er
r
eser
voi
rint
hear
eawher
ether
uli
ngpar
ty’
set
hni
cgr
oupi
ssai
dto
r
esi
de.Thatactr
esul
tedi
nthedeat
hofov
er1500peopl
emostof
whi
chwer
esai
dtobechi
l
drenundert
heage10.

I
n anot
her ar
ea,wher
e t
he maj
ori
ty of t
he popul
ati
ons of
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 119

Megal
omani
aresi
deandoccupi
edhi
stor
ical
l
ybyoneet
hni
cgr
oup

cal
l
edShal
ala,ar
oseapopul
arpar
ty(
Shal
alaLi
ber
ati
onFr
ont(
SLF)
t
hatcal
l
sfort
hesecessi
onoft
hatpar
toft
hecount
ry,whi
chwasnot
accept
edbyt
her
uli
ngpar
ty.Andbecauseoft
hef
ail
uret
ogetwhati
t
want
edt
hroughapeacef
ulmeans,i
tdecl
aredwaront
hest
atei
nthe
nameofsel
f-
det
ermi
nat
ion.Si
ncet
hesi
tuat
ionwentoutofcont
rol
,
t
he gov
ernment deci
ded t
o decl
are a st
ate of emer
gency
.
Megal
omani
ahast
hecar
boncopyoft
heFDREconst
it
uti
onwhi
chi
s
cur
rent
lyi
nfor
ce.And i
tisa par
tyt
othe I
CCPR f
rom t
hev
ery
begi
nni
ngofi
tsadopt
ioni
n1966.

As a memberoft
he House ofPeopl
es Repr
esent
ati
ves,what
quest
ionswoul
dyour
aisewhent
heCounci
lofMi
nist
ers,t
hroughi
ts
Chai
rman-
the Pr
ime Mi
nist
er-
present
s t
he decl
ared st
ate of
emer
gencyf
orappr
oval
?

I
nthest
ateofemer
gency
,iti
spr
ovi
dedt
hatany
onewhoi
sfound

associ
ati
nghi
msel
f/
her
sel
ftoei
therMDPorSLFshal
lbesent
enced
t
odeat
hpenal
tyaf
tert
ri
albyami
l
itar
ycour
tandwi
thoutanyappeal
t
othef
ir
sti
nst
ancedeci
si
on.Di
amoshasbeendet
ainedduet
ohi
s
member
shi
ptoSLFandhasbeensent
encedt
odeat
h.Ri
ght
sforAl
l
,
anNGOt
owhi
chy
ouar
eanempl
oyeeasahumanr
ight
sexper
t,has
l
ear
ned t
he whol
e si
tuat
ion i
n Megal
omani
a and deci
ded i
nit
s
execut
ivemeet
ingt
hati
twi
l
lhav
etochal
l
enget
hedeat
hsent
ence
whi
chi
sgoi
ngt
obeexecut
edonDi
amost
hrought
hecount
ry’
slegal
sy
stem.You ar
e sel
ect
ed as a l
ead pr
ofessi
onalon t
he case.
Out
li
ne
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 120

t
hepossi
blear
gument
sthaty
ouwi
l
lhav
etopr
esenti
ndef
enseof

Di
amos.

5.Whatwoul
dbet
hepur
poseofAr
t13(
2)i
nunder
standi
ngChapt
erI
II

oft
he const
it
uti
on i
nli
ghtoft
hose i
nter
nat
ionalhuman r
ight
s

i
nst
rument
sthatEt
hiopi
ahasadopt
ed?

6.Howdoy
oudescr
ibet
hedi
ff
erencebet
weenhumananddemocr
ati
c

r
ight
s?
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 122122

Suggest
edanswer
stot
heRev
iewQuest
ions(
Modul
eIIChapt
erI
)

1. Ext
ensi
vepar
twhi
chi
slef
tfort
hoser
ight
sandf
reedoms,t
hest
ri
ngent
amendmentpr
ocedur
e,t
heexi
stenceofAr
t13(
1)t
hatpr
ovi
desf
ort
he
dut
yandr
esponsi
bil
i
tyoneachoft
hef
eder
alaswel
lasst
ates’
legi
sl
ati
ve,
execut
iveaswel
lasj
udi
cialor
gansofgov
ernmentt
orespectandenf
orce
t
her
ight
sandf
reedoms.

2. The soci
o-economi
c r
ight
s ar
e r
esour
ce-
int
ensi
ve and as such
notsuscept
ibl
etoi
mmedi
atei
mpl
ement
ati
on.Theci
vi
landpol
i
ticalr
ight
s
ar
eofani
mmedi
atenat
ure.Howev
ert
her
ear
emanywhoar
guet
hatbot
h
t
hesoci
o-economi
caswel
lasci
vi
landpol
i
ticalr
ight
srequi
rer
esour
ces
andasuchi
tisnotpossi
blet
oconsi
dert
heSoci
o-economi
cri
ght
sas
l
essi
mmedi
atet
hant
heci
vi
landpol
i
ticalr
ight
s.Theysay
,fori
nst
ance,
to
r
espectf
airand speedy t
ri
alwe need t
o hi
re and t
rai
n many l
egal
pr
ofessi
onal
saswel
lasbui
l
dthenecessar
ycour
tfaci
l
iti
es.Topr
act
ice
t
hel
awf
ulhandl
i
ngar
rest
sanddet
ent
iont
her
eisaneedt
otr
ainl
aw-
enf
orcementof
fi
ci
alswhi
chi
sequal
l
yresour
ce-
int
ensi
veasi
spr
ovi
ding
adequat
emedi
cal
ser
vices.

3. TheI
ndi
anconst
it
uti
oncl
assi
fi
esr
ight
sint
otwoandwi
thanaddi
ti
onal
par
ton f
undament
aldut
ies.The f
ir
stpr
ovi
des j
udi
ci
all
y enf
orceabl
e
f
undament
alr
ight
swhi
l
ethesecondpr
ovi
desf
ordi
rect
ivepr
inci
plesof
st
atepol
i
cywhi
char
enotj
udi
ci
all
yenf
orceabl
ebutonl
yar
emeantt
o
ser
veasgui
dingpr
inci
plesi
nthef
ormul
ati
onofgov
ernment
’spol
i
cies.
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 123123

4.Fi
rstofal
l
,accor
dingt
oMegal
omani
a’
sconst
it
uti
onAr
t93,
ther
eisaneed

t
oseei
fthel
egal
i
tyaswel
last
hepr
opor
ti
onal
i
typr
inci
plesar
emet
.Does
i
tfal
lunderanyoneoft
hosegr
oundst
hatar
epr
ovi
dedasl
awf
ulgr
ounds
f
ort
hedecl
arat
ionofst
ateofemer
gency
?Secondl
y,woul
ditbepossi
ble
f
ort
heexecut
ivet
ocal
mthoseunr
est
scausedbyt
heon-
goi
ngdi
sput
es
wi
thoutr
esor
ti
ngt
ost
ateofemer
gencydecl
arat
ion?Wher
etheCounci
lof
Mi
nist
ersi
sabl
etomeett
heset
wor
equi
rement
s,t
henex
tquest
ionwoul
d
bewhi
choft
her
ight
smi
ghtneedt
obesuspendedf
ort
hepur
poseof
r
est
ori
ngor
derandsecur
it
ywi
thi
nthecount
ry?Thi
sisi
mpor
tantbecause
t
he f
actt
hatt
her
ear
e gr
oundst
ojust
if
ythe decl
arat
ionofst
ateof
emer
gencydoesn’
tgi
veabl
anketr
ightt
osuspendanyoft
hef
undament
al
r
ight
sand f
reedomsand t
heHouseofPeopl
esRepr
esent
ati
vesmust
cl
osel
ylooki
ntot
hesi
tuat
iont
ospeci
fywhi
chr
ight
sneedt
obeder
ogat
ed
f
rom consi
der
ingt
heexi
genci
esoft
hepar
ti
cul
arsi
tuat
ion…

5.Accor
ding t
o Megal
omani
a’
sconst
it
uti
onall
aw,t
he r
ightt
oli
fei
sa
der
ogabl
eri
ght
.Ev
eni
fthi
sist
henat
ionalst
andar
d,t
hecount
ryhasan
i
nter
nat
ionalcommi
tmentasi
tisapar
tyt
otheI
CCPR,andal
sohasAr
t
13(
2)whi
chdi
ctat
est
hatChapt
erI
IIoft
heconst
it
uti
onbei
nter
pret
edi
n

l
i
ghtofsuchi
nter
nat
ionalcommi
tment
s.I
fthati
sso,t
heder
ogat
ionf
rom
t
he r
ightt
oli
fe,i
n pr
inci
ple,i
s agai
nstsuch i
nter
nat
ionalst
andar
d.
Mor
eov
er,
thedeni
aloft
heduepr
ocessofl
aw,andj
udi
ci
alguar
ant
eesof
f
airt
ri
al,i
ncl
udi
ngt
ri
albef
oreor
dinar
ycour
ts,i
snon-
der
ogabl
eunder
suchi
nter
nat
ional
standar
ds.
Thesear
eal
sobeendeni
edf
orDi
amos.Ev
en
i
fast
atei
sinanemer
gencysi
tuat
ion,i
tisunl
i
kel
ythatt
hedeni
aloft
he
r
ightt
o appeal
,fai
rtr
ial
,and t
ri
albef
oreor
dinar
ycour
tsf
orci
vi
li
an
def
endant
s,andnotbef
oremi
l
itar
ytr
ibunal
s,i
srequi
redf
orr
est
ori
ngl
aw
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 124124

andor
der
.Thi
sissomet
hingt
hatt
heHousePeopl
es’Repr
esent
ati
ves

shoul
dhav
econsi
der
edi
n appr
ovi
ng,i
fithasappr
ovedi
tatal
l
,thi
s
emer
gency decr
ee…(
You can al
so add mor
e poi
ntst
o suppor
tyour
ar
gument
)Itwoul
dal
sobegoodi
fyout
ryt
oar
gueagai
nsti
t!

6.‘
HumanRi
ght
s’ar
eri
ght
sthatar
egi
vent
oal
lhumanper
sonsf
ort
hef
act
t
hatt
heyar
ehuman.Whenwesay‘
democr
ati
cri
ght
s’wear
eref
err
ingt
o
t
hoser
ight
sthatexi
stbecauseoft
heexi
stenceofademocr
ati
csy
stem.
Wewi
l
llooki
ntot
hesedi
sti
nct
ionswhi
l
ewedi
scusseachoft
hehuman
anddemocr
ati
cri
ght
s.
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 125125

Chapt
erI
I:TheRi
ghtt
oLi
fe,
Liber
tyandSecur
it
yof

Per
son

2.
1.I
ntr
oduct
ion
Dearst
udent
,inourpr
evi
ousdi
scussi
onwehav
eseent
hesi
gni
fi
canceoft
hose
r
ight
s and f
reedoms,t
he cl
assi
fi
cat
ion,and possi
bil
i
ties ofder
ogat
ion as
pr
ovi
dedi
nthenat
ionalaswel
lasi
nter
nat
ionalhumanr
ight
sregi
mes.Now we
shal
lbel
ooki
ngi
ntoeachoneoft
her
ight
sst
art
ingf
rom t
heonewhi
chcanbe
consi
der
edast
hecor
ner
stonef
oral
lot
herr
ight
s,i
.
e.,t
her
ightt
oli
fe.Wher
ethe
r
ightt
oli
fei
snotr
espect
edal
ltheot
herr
ight
swi
l
lhav
enomeani
ngsi
ncei
tis
onl
yifsomeonei
sal
i
vet
hats/
hecanenj
oyt
hef
reedom ofexpr
essi
on,
rel
i
gionor
ot
her
s.Equal
l
yimpor
tantar
ether
ightt
oli
ber
tyandsecur
it
yofper
son.These
r
ight
sar
eint
err
elat
edasar
eequal
l
yimpor
tant
.Thepl
ainl
anguageoft
hese
r
ight
stel
l
sust ever
hat‘ yonehast
her
ightt
oli
ve,andt
oli
vei
nfr
eedom and
saf
ety.
’Theappr
oachadopt
edbyourconst
it
uti
oni
sdi
rect
lyr
elat
edt
owhatt
he
UDHR hadf
oll
owedi
nthati
tfi
rstst
ipul
atesunderAr
t3al
lthet
hreer
ight
s
t
oget
herbysay
ing‘
ever
yonehast
her
ightt
oli
fe,
li
ber
tyandsecur
it
yofper
son’
as
i
s done byAr
t14 oft
he FDRE const
it
uti
on.And t
hen goes on pr
ovi
ding
separ
atel
yabouteachr
ighti
nthesubsequentAr
tswhi
chi
sal
sodonebyAr
ts15,
16,
and17oft
heFDREconst
it
uti
on.

Ar
t14 pr
ovi Ever
des‘ yper
sonhast
hei
nvi
olabl
eandi
nal
i
enabl
eri
ghtt
oli
fe,
t
hesecur
it
yofper
son and l
i
ber
ty.
’Thi
s pr
ovi
si
on adds t
othe UDHR t
he
el
ement
sof
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 126126

‘
i
nvi
olabi
l
ityandi
nal
i
enabi
l
ity
’tot
heset
hreer
ight
simpl
yi
ngt
hesacr
ednat
ure

oft
heser
ight
sandt
hei
rbei
ngder
ivat
ivesofbei
nghuman.

Sunday
,Oct
ober17,
2004(
SIRI
S)
I
nal
i
enabl
eandI
nvi
olabl
e
Whatdoesi
tmeant
osayt
hatsomeonehas'
i
nal
i
enabl
eri
ght
s'or'
i
nvi
olabl
e
r
ight
s'?Oneof
tenf
indspeopl
etal
ki
ngaboutt
heset
hingsasi
f(e.
g.)hav
inga
r
ightt
oli
ber
tymeantnoonecoul
dev
erdoany
thi
ngt
oinf
ri
ngeonone'
sli
ber
ty.
Butt
hisi
snotwhatt
hephr
aseshav
etr
adi
ti
onal
l
ymeant
.Tosayt
hatsomeone
has'
i
nvi
olabl
eri
ght
s'si
mpl
ymeanst
hatt
heyhav
eri
ght
stoo sacr
edort
oo
i
mpor
tantt
o bebr
okenbyf
orceorv
iol
ence;andt
o sayt
hatsomeonehas
'
i
nal
i
enabl
eri
ght
s'(
or'
unal
i
enabl
eri
ght
s')i
stosayt
hatt
heyhav
eri
ght
sthat

cannotbe handed ov
ert
o someone el
se.The r
eason Jef
fer
son appeal
ed
to
'
i
nal
i
enabl
eri
ght
s'i
ntheDecl
arat
ionofI
ndependencecanbeseeni
ncont
ext
:

Wehol
dtheset
rut
hst
obesel
f-
evi
dent
,thatal
lmenar
ecr
eat
edequal
,thatt
hey
ar
eendowedbyt
hei
rCr
eat
orwi
thcer
tai
nunal
i
enabl
eRi
ght
s,t
hatamongt
hese
ar
eLi
fe,Li
ber
tyand t
he pur
sui
tofHappi
ness.
--
Thatt
o secur
etheser
ight
s,
Gover
nment
sar
einst
it
utedamongMen,der
ivi
ngt
hei
rjustpower
sfr
om t
he
consentoft
hegover
ned,-
-ThatwheneveranyFor
m ofGover
nmentbecomes
dest
ruct
iveoft
heseends,
iti
stheRi
ghtoft
hePeopl
etoal
terort
oabol
i
shi
t,and
t
oinst
it
ute new Gover
nment
,layi
ng i
tsf
oundat
ion on such pr
inci
ples and
or
gani
zi
ngi
tspower
sinsuchf
orm,ast
othem shal
lseem mostl
i
kel
ytoef
fect
t
hei
rSaf
etyandHappi
ness.

Theappealt
ori
ght
sthatcannotbeal
i
enat
edi
sther
etoi
nsi
stt
hatt
her
ear
e
somer
ight
sci
ti
zenscannotsi
mpl
ytur
nov
ert
othegov
ernment
-t
o'al
i
enat
e'
meanst
o
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 127127

sel
lof
forgi
veov
ert
osomeoneel
se.Whenwef
orm pol
i
ticalsoci
eti
es,
wehand

ov
eroral
i
enat
eri
ght
stoourgov
ernment
,sot
hati
tcandot
hewor
kweal
lneed
i
ttodo.Somer
ight
s,howev
er,
cannotbeal
i
enat
edatal
l
:wecannotl
oset
hem by
gi
vi
ngt
hem t
osomeoneel
se.Nogov
ernmentcancl
aimt
ohav
etakenawayor
r
ecei
vedi
tspeopl
e'
sri
ght
stol
i
fe,l
i
ber
ty,ort
hepur
sui
tofhappi
ness;t
hepeopl
e
cannotgi
ve such r
ight
sawayt
othe gov
ernmentunderanyci
rcumst
ances.
I
nal
i
enabl
e r
ight
s, i
n ot
her wor
ds, ar
e r
ight
s no one can wai
ve.

Li
kewi
se,i
nvi
olabl
eri
ght
sar
eri
ght
sthatar
etoo i
mpor
tantorsacr
edt
o be
i
nfr
ingedbyv
iol
ence.I
tdoesnotf
oll
ow f
rom ourhav
ingani
nvi
olabl
eri
ghtt
o
l
i
ber
ty,howev
er,t
hatnoonewi
l
lev
erhav
ether
ightt
ocur
tai
lourl
i
ber
ty;i
tonl
y
meanst
heycannotdov
iol
encet
oourr
ightt
oli
ber
ty.Now,i
tmaywel
lbet
hat
wehav
einv
iol
abl
eri
ght
stoxt
hatar
esucht
hatnoonecanev
erhav
ether
ightt
o
t
akeawayorcur
tai
lx.I
t'
spossi
blet
oar
gue,
fori
nst
ance,
thatouri
nvi
olabl
eri
ght
t
oli
fei
ssucht
hatnoonecanev
erhav
ether
ightt
oputust
odeat
h;butt
his
r
equi
resf
urt
herar
gument
.Ther
ight
'sbei
ngi
nvi
olabl
eisnotsuf
fi
ci
entar
gument
;
f
ori
tmaywel
lbet
hatt
her
ear
eway
stocur
tai
lyourl
i
ber
tyt
hatdon'
tdov
iol
ence
t
oyourr
ightt
oli
ber
ty(
e.g.
,ift
her
eissomer
ightt
hati
smor
efundament
alt
han
t
her
ightt
oli
ber
ty,anduponwhi
cht
her
ightt
oli
ber
tywasf
ounded,cur
tai
l
ing
someone'
sli
ber
tyt
opr
otectt
hatr
ightwoul
dn'
tbedoi
ngv
iol
encet
other
ightt
o
l
i
ber
ty,becauset
her
ightt
oli
ber
tyi
tsel
frequi
rest
hepr
otect
ionoft
hatmor
e
f
undament
alr
ight
).

Obj
ect
ive:

Ast
udentwhof
ini
shesr
eadi
ngt
hischapt
erwi
l
l

 Beabl
etounder
standt
heel
ement
soft
her
ightt
oli
fe,
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 128128

 Bei
naposi
ti
ont
oanal
yzet
hemeani
ng,
nat
ureandscopeoft
her
ightt
o
l
i
ber
ty,
 Beabl
etoscr
uti
nizet
her
ightt
osecur
it
yofper
son,

 Bei
n a posi
ti
ont
orespondt
o anypr
act
icalort
heor
eti
calquest
ions
r
elat
ingt
other
ightt
oli
fe,
li
ber
tyandsecur
it
yofper
son.

2.
2.Ther
ightt
oLi
fe
Theki
l
li
ngofahumanper
sonhasbeenst
rongl
ycondemnedbymostr
eli
gions
andphi
l
osophi
esf
orcent
uri
es.Thehumanr
ight
slawr
egi
mehasi
ntur
nsought
t
ouphol
dthi
smostsacr
edofr
ight
sinanumberoft
reat
ies.Thel
i
feofan
i
ndi
vi
dual
iscl
ear
lypr
otect
edf
rom bei
ngar
bit
rar
il
ytakenbyt
hest
ate.Ther
ightt
o
l
i
fei
snot
,howev
er,asi
nvi
olabl
easi
tmi
ghtseem atf
ir
stsi
ght
.Ther
ear
ea
numberofsi
tuat
ionswher
est
atesmaydepr
ivei
ndi
vi
dual
sofl
i
fei
tsel
fandt
o
whi
chhumanr
ight
slawdoesnotr
aiseanobj
ect
ion.Theuseoft
hedeat
hpenal
ty
i
sonesuchexampl
e.Humanr
ight
slaw doesnotpr
ohi
bitt
heuseoft
hedeat
h
penal
tyasapuni
shmentf
orcr
imesbutdoesencour
agei
tsabol
i
tionandseekt
o
l
i
miti
ts use.Theuseofv
iol
encei
n sel
f-
def
ensel
i
esatt
hebaseofot
her
j
ust
if
icat
ionsf
ort
het
aki
ngofhumanl
i
fe.Ki
l
li
ngi
sper
mit
tedatt
imesofwar
sav
efort
hemur
derofci
vi
li
ansandpr
isoner
sofwar
.Humanr
ight
slaw t
hus
t
ri
est
orespondt
othemul
ti
tudeofet
hicaldi
l
emmasr
aisedbyt
her
ightt
oli
feby
est
abl
i
shi
ngar
angeofpr
ohi
bit
ionsandexhor
tat
ions.

Let
’sseet
hel
egalbasi
sfort
her
ightt
oli
fe,bot
hnat
ionalandi
nter
nat
ionaland
t
henweshal
ltr
ytor
aisemanyi
ssuest
hatneedel
abor
ati
on.Thesel
egalgr
ounds
ar
eAr
t15oft
heFDREconst
it
uti
onandAr
t6oft
heI
CCPR.

Ar
t15:Ri
ghtt
oLi
fe
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 129129

Everyper
sonhast
her
ightt
oli
fe.Noper
sonmaybedepr
ivedofhi
sli
fe
exceptasa
puni
shmentf
oraser
iouscr
imi
nalof
fencedet
ermi
nedbyl
aw.

Ar
t6:I
CCPR

1. Ever
yhumanbei
nghast
hei
nher
entr
ightt
oli
fe.Thi
sri
ghtshal
lbe
pr
otect
edbyl
aw.Nooneshal
lbear
bit
rar
il
ydepr
ivedofhi
sli
fe.
2.I
ncount
ri
eswhi
chhavenotabol
i
shedt
hedeat
hpenal
ty,
sent
enceofdeat
h
maybei
mposedonl
yfort
hemostser
iouscr
imesi
naccor
dancewi
tht
he
l
aw i
nfor
ceatt
het
imeoft
hecommi
ssi
onoft
hecr
imeandnotcont
rar
y
t
othepr
ovi
sionsoft
hepr
esentCovenantandt
otheConvent
ionont
he
Pr
event
ionandPuni
shmentoft
heCr
imeofGenoci
de.Thi
spenal
tycan
onl
ybecar
ri
edoutpur
suantt
oaf
inalj
udgmentr
ender
edbyacompet
ent
cour
t.
3.Whendeprivat
ionofl
i
feconst
it
utest
hecr
imeofgenoci
de,i
tis
under
stoodt
hat
not
hing i
nthi
s ar
ti
cl
e shal
laut
hor
izeanySt
ate Par
tyt
othe pr
esent
Covenantt
oder
ogat
einanywayf
rom anyobl
i
gat
ionassumedundert
he
pr
ovi
sionsoft
heConvent
ionont
hePr
event
ionandPuni
shmentoft
he
Cr
imeofGenoci
de.
4. Anyonesent
enced t
o deat
h shal
lhave t
he r
ightt
o seekpar
don or
commut
ati
onoft
hesent
ence.Amnest
y,par
donorcommut
ati
onoft
he
sent
enceofdeat
hmaybegr
ant
edi
nal
lcases.
5.Sent
enceofdeat
hshal
lnotbei
mposedf
orcr
imescommi
tt
edbyper
sons
bel
ow ei
ght
eenyear
sofageandshal
lnotbecar
ri
edoutonpr
egnant
women.
6. Not
hing i
nthi
s ar
ti
cle shal
lbe i
nvoked t
o del
ayort
o pr
eventt
he
abol
i
tionofcapi
talpuni
shmentbyanySt
atePar
tyt
othepr
esentCovenant
.

Not
eal
sot
hatAr
t4(
2)oft
heI
CCPRt
hatwesaw i
nourchapt
erIdi
scussi
on
makes t
his pr
ovi
si
on one oft
he non-
der
ogabl
eri
ght
s ev
en i
nti
mes of
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 130130

emer
genci
est
hatt
hreat
enst
hel
i
feoft
henat
ion.

Dearst
udent
,thebr
ief
lywr
it
tenAr
tont
her
ightt
oli
fei
ntheFDREconst
it
uti
on

t
ell
susagr
eatdeal
,andwhenwel
ooki
ntoi
tincompar
isonwi
tht
heI
CCPR,
whi
chhasal
mostanequalsi
gni
fi
cancei
nunder
standi
ngwhatt
her
ightt
oli
fe
encompassesundert
henat
ionalpl
anet
hrought
hei
nst
rument
ali
tyofAr
t13(
2),
it
becomes much mor
e cl
ear
er.Bot
h Ar
ts ar
ethe openi
ng pr
ovi
si
ons oft
he
subst
ant
ivepar
toft
hef
undament
alr
ight
sand f
reedomswhi
cht
ell
sust
he
al
ready ment
ioned poi
ntofi
mpor
tance t
hatt
he r
ightt
oli
fe has f
ort
he
i
mpl
ement
ati
on oft
he ot
herr
ight
s.We shal
lbe l
ooki
ng i
ntot
he v
ari
ous
obl
i
gat
ionsoft
hest
atei
mposedbyt
hepr
ovi
si
onandt
hent
hepossi
blel
i
mit
son
t
her
ightt
oli
fe.

2.
2.1.
TheSt
ate’
sObl
i
gat
iont
o‘r
espect
’ther
ight

Anyhumanr
ight
spr
ovi
si
onatl
easti
mposest
heobl
i
gat
iont
o‘r
espect
’and
‘
prot
ect
’ont
hegov
ernmentandaccor
dingl
ywhenwespeakoft
hehumanr
ight
t
oli
fe,
wear
efi
rstofal
lspeaki
ngaboutt
hest
ate’
sobl
i
gat
iont
orespectt
her
ight
t
oli
fe.Whi
chpar
toft
hepr
ovi
si
oni
nourconst
it
uti
onandi
nAr
t6oft
heI
CCPR
doy
out
hinkspeaksaboutt
hisobl
i
gat
ionoft
hest
atet
orespectt
her
ightt
oli
fe?

Whenwesay‘
respect
’wear
esay
ingt
hatt
hest
atemustr
efr
ainf
rom,among

ot
her
s,ar
bit
rar
ytaki
ngofhumanl
i
vesbyi
tssecur
it
yormi
l
itar
yfor
ces.Thi
sis
st
atedi
nthesecondsent
enceofAr
t15andi
nthet
hir
dsent
enceofAr
t6(
1)of
I
CCPR.Depr
ivat
ionofone’
sli
fear
bit
rar
il
yisapr
ohi
bit
iont
hathasat
tai
neda
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 131131

uni
ver
salr
ecogni
ti
onwor
ld-
wideandf
orqui
teal
ongper
iodoft
ime.Thi
s

obl
i
gat
iont
orespectwi
l
lbev
iol
atednotonl
ythr
oughadi
rectki
l
li
ngbyt
he
st
ate,but al
so t
hrough ot
her act
s such as t
hrough act
s of enf
orced
di
sappear
anceswhi
char
equi
tef
requentt
heseday
s.

Dearst
udentwhati
sdi
sappear
ance?Hav
eyouev
erhear
dofi
t,orwi
tnessed
suchki
ndofsi
tuat
ion?Di
sappear
ancei
sconsi
der
edt
obet
he‘
actofdepr
ivi
nga
per
sonorper
sonsofhi
sort
hei
rfr
eedom,i
n what
everway
,per
pet
rat
edby
agent
s oft
he st
ate orby per
sons orgr
oups ofper
sons act
ing wi
tht
he
aut
hor
izat
ion,suppor
t,oracqui
escenceoft
hest
ate,f
oll
owedbyanabsenceof
i
nfor
mat
ionorar
efusalt
oacknowl
edget
hatdepr
ivat
ionoff
reedom ort
ogi
ve
i
nfor
mat
ionont
hewher
eabout
soft
hatper
son,t
her
ebyi
mpedi
nghi
sorher
r
ecour
set
otheappl
i
cabl
elegal
remedi
esandpr
ocedur
alguar
ant
ees.
’

Thus,wher
eaper
sonhasbeenmadet
odi
sappeari
nthi
sway
,iti
sconsi
der
ed
t
hati
tconst
it
utes an ar
bit
rar
y ki
l
li
ng because bot
hli
fe and deat
hremai
n
uncer
tai
nforani
ndef
ini
tef
utur
eanddeat
hismor
eli
kel
ythannott
ohappeni
n
t
hissi
tuat
ion.It
hi ouknowwhoBe’
nky al
uGi
rmawas.Doest
hisnamesoundt
o
y
ou f
ami
l
iar
?Thi
sisar
enowned wr
it
eroft
he 1970s whose deat
h orl
i
fe
r
emai
neduncer
tai
nfort
hel
astmanyy
ear
saf
terhewast
akenf
rom hi
shomeby
uni
dent
if
ied peopl
e.Ther
efor
e,f
ort
he st
atet
o be gui
l
tyofv
iol
ati
on ofi
ts
obl
i
gat
iont
orespectt
her
ightt
oli
fe,t
her
eneednotexi
stadi
rectshoot
ingofa
per
son.

I
naddi
ti
ont
odi
sappear
ancef
ail
uret
oinv
est
igat
eandpr
osecut
ethosewhoar
e
gui
l
tyofar
bit
rar
yki
l
li
ngsconst
it
utesav
iol
ati
onoft
hisobl
i
gat
ionoft
hest
ate.
Forexampl
e,t
hesecur
it
yfor
cesmi
ghthav
ebeeni
nvol
vedi
nat
askofcal
minga
r
iott
hatr
esul
tedi
nani
nter
nalunr
esti
nthepr
ocessofwhi
chmanypeopl
ehad
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 132132

di
ed.Suchdeat
hsar
ever
ymuchl
i
kel
ytobear
bit
rar
ythanl
awf
ulandt
hust
he

st
atei
sunderobl
i
gat
iont
ounder
takeat
hor
oughi
nvest
igat
ionoft
heov
eral
l
scene,i
dent
if
ythoser
esponsi
blef
ort
hear
bit
rar
yki
l
li
ngs,andt
henpr
osecut
e
t
hem f
ort
hei
rconduct
.If
,howev
er,
thi
sisnotdoneorev
eni
fitwasi
nvest
igat
ed
butnot
ri
alhasf
oll
owedaf
terf
indi
ngt
heexcessesofuseoff
orce,t
hent
he
st
atei
sgui
l
tyofv
iol
ati
onoft
her
ightt
oli
fe,whi
chi
thasunder
takent
orespect
.
Thus,
theobl
i
gat
iont
oinv
est
igat
eisnotamer
efor
mal
i
tyr
equi
rement
,rat
heri
t
i
sadut
ytoseej
ust
icebedonef
ort
hosewhohav
elostt
hei
rli
vesandt
hei
r
descendant
swhoal
soneedt
obecompensat
edf
ort
hei
rlosses.

Dearst
udent
,doy
ouunder
standt
heobl
i
gat
iont
orespectt
her
ightt
oli
fe?Gr
eat
!
Thephr
ase‘
noper
sonmaybedepr
ivedofhi
sli
fe’i
sav
eryi
mpor
tantst
ipul
ati
on
i
ntheFDREconst
it
uti
onandt
heI
CCPRAr
t6(
1)t
hir
dsent
encehaspr
ovi
dedon
t
hissamepoi
ntbysay
ing‘
noonshal
lbear
bit
rar
il
ydepr
ivedofhi
sli
fe.
’Weshal
l
bel
ooki
ngl
ateroni
ntot
hosei
nst
ancest
hatar
econsi
der
edasl
awf
ulki
l
li
ngsand
accor
dingt
otheI
CCPRwhi
char
enotar
bit
rar
y.Now weshal
lbel
ooki
ngi
nto
t
heobl
i
gat
ionoft
hest
atet
opr
otectt
her
ightt
oli
fe.

2.
2.2.
TheSt
ate’
sobl
i
gat
iont
o‘pr
otect
’ther
ight

Ast
het
erm speaksf
ori
tsel
f,t
o‘pr
otect
’meanst
otakeposi
ti
vemeasur
est
hat
ar
econcr
eteandt
arget
edt
owar
dssaf
eguar
dingi
ndi
vi
dual
s’r
ightt
oli
fe.Dear
st
udent
,whatki
ndofmeasur
esdoy
ouconsi
dermi
ghtbei
mpor
tantt
opr
otect
t
her
ightt
oli
fe?Do y
ou r
ead such an obl
i
gat
ionoft
hest
atei
ntheFDRE
const
it
uti
onAr
t15?Whatabouti
nICCPR?
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 133133

I
tiscl
earf
rom t
her
eadi
ngsoft
het
ext
soft
het
wost
andar
dst
hatwhi
l
ether
eisa

r
efer
encet
otheobl
i
gat
ionoft
hest
atet
opr
otecti
nICCPRt
her
eisnosi
mil
ar
phr
asei
nAr
t15ofourconst
it
uti
on.
Art6(
1)secondsent
encesay
s‘t
her
ightshal
l
bepr
otect
edbyl
aw.
’Thi
sissi
mil
arl
ypr
ovi
dedi
nvar
iousnat
ionalconst
it
uti
ons
andot
herr
egi
onalconv
ent
ions.Howev
er,t
heEt
hiopi
anconst
it
uti
onhasomi
tt
ed
t
hispar
t.Thef
actt
hati
tisnotst
atedi
ntheconst
it
uti
onwi
l
lnotbeagr
ound,
howev
er,t
osayt
hatt
heEt
hiopi
angov
ernmentdoesnothav
etheobl
i
gat
iont
o
pr
otectt
her
ightt
oli
feexceptt
heobl
i
gat
ionnott
oshooti
tspeopl
e.Thatwoul
d
r
endert
hei
nal
i
enabl
eandi
nvi
olabl
eri
ghtt
oli
feal
lit
smeani
ngf
ulcont
ent
.The
quest
ion,t
hen,i
swhatar
ethemeasur
est
hatneedt
obet
akensot
hatt
hest
ate
woul
dbeconsi
der
edt
ohav
eli
vedupt
oit
sobl
i
gat
iont
opr
otectt
hisbasi
cri
ght
ofev
ery
one?

TheHumanRi
ght
sCommi
tt
eeonceaddr
essedi
nit
sgener
alcommentaboutt
his
i
ssuei
nthef
oll
owi
ngwor
ds;

‘
…Mor
eov
er,t
heCommi
tt
eehasnot
edt
hatt
her
ightt
oli
fehasbeen
t
ooof
tennar
rowl
yint
erpr
eted. Theexpr
essi
on“
inher
entr
ightt
o
l
i
fe”cannotpr
oper
lybeunder
stoodi
nar
est
ri
cti
vemanner
,andt
he
pr
otect
ionoft
hisr
ightr
equi
rest
hatSt
atesadoptposi
ti
vemeasur
es.
I
nthi
s connect
ion,t
he Commi
tt
ee consi
der
sthati
twoul
d be
desi
rabl
efor St
ates par
ti
es t
otake al
lpossi
ble measur
es t
o
r
educe i
nfantmor
tal
i
ty and t
o i
ncr
ease l
i
fe expect
ancy,
especi
all
y i
n adopt
ingmeasur o el
est i
minat
emal
nut
ri
ti
onand
epi
demi
cs.(
HRC,Gener
alCommentNumber6ont
her
ightt
oli
fe,
Par
a5,
1982)
Thus,we can see t
hatt
he obl
i
gat
ion i
stot
ake posi
ti
ve measur
es t
hat
are

necessar
yfort
hef
ullenj
oymentoft
her
ightt
oli
fe.Wher
ether
ear
ehi
ghi
nfant
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 134134

mortali
ti
es ormat
ernalmor
tal
i
ties because oft
he l
ack ofbasi
c medi
cal
ser
vices,

t
heni
tisnotpossi
blet
osayt
hatt
hest
atehasl
i
vedupt
oit
sobl
i
gat
ionof
pr
otect
ingi
ndi
vi
dual
s’r
ightt
oli
fe.Mor
eov
er,t
hest
atei
sal
soobl
i
gedt
ocome
upwi
thef
fect
iveandadequat
elegi
sl
ati
onst
hatout
lawmur
derandest
abl
i
sht
he
j
udi
ci
alaswel
lasadmi
nist
rat
ivei
nst
it
uti
onsf
ort
hei
nvest
igat
ion,pr
osecut
ion
andpuni
shmentoft
hosewhov
iol
atet
hel
awofhomi
cide.

I
tis,f
ori
nst
ance,t
hepr
act
iceoft
heI
ndi
anSupr
emeCour
t,whi
chi
sgi
vent
he
ul
ti
mat
epowert
oint
erpr
ett
heconst
it
uti
on,t
ohol
dthest
ater
esponsi
blef
ort
he
v
iol
ati
onofi
tsobl
i
gat
iont
o pr
otectt
her
ightt
oli
fewher
eitunf
air
lyev
ict
s
i
ndi
vi
dual
sfr
om t
hei
rpl
aceofr
esi
denceeveni
ftheyoccupyt
hear
eai
l
legal
l
y.
Thecour
tti
meandagai
nasser
tedt
hatev
eni
fthest
atei
sent
it
ledt
omov
esl
um
dwel
l
ersf
rom t
hei
rpl
acewher
etheyi
l
legal
l
yoccupy
,iti
sst
il
lav
iol
ati
onoft
he
r
ightt
oli
fei
fthe st
ate doesn’
tgi
ve a subst
it
ute pl
ace ofr
esi
dence f
or
t
hoseev
ict
edpeopl
easapl
acet
oli
vei
nispar
tofaper
son’
sli
vel
i
hood.Though
ext
remet
hisi
nter
pret
ati
onoft
her
ightt
oli
femi
ghtappear
,yougett
hepi
ctur
eof
whati
tmeansbyt
heobl
i
gat
ionoft
hest
atet
opr
otectt
her
ightt
oli
fe.

2.
2.3.
Lawf
ult
aki
ngsofl
i
fe

a)Deat
hPenal
ty

Dearst
udent
,nomat
terhow f
undament
alandsacr
edt
her
ightt
oli
femi
ghtbe,
y
oumusthav
enot
icedbynowt
hatt
her
ear
est
il
lexcept
ionsf
rom i
t.Accor
dingl
y
t
her
ear
efewi
nst
anceswher
eaki
l
li
ngcoul
dbeconsi
der
edast
ohav
ebeendone
byt
hebook,andwi
thnov
iol
ati
onoft
her
ightt
oli
fe.Onesuchexcept
ioni
sthe
deat
hpenal
tywhi
chi
s,ev
eni
fnotpr
ohi
bit
edundert
hei
nter
nat
ionalhuman
r
ight
sfr
amewor
k,i
s a hi
ghl
y di
scour
aged way ofsanct
ioni
ng a cr
imi
nal
behav
ior
.Asy
oucanr
eadf
rom t
heI
CCPRAr
t6(
2)t
hatIhav
epr
ovi
dedabov
e,
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 135135

t
hecov
enantt
ri
edt
orest
ri
ctt
heappl
i
cabi
l
ityoft
hissent
encet
hroughv
ari
ous

pr
ocedur
alguar
ant
ees,most of whi
ch ar
e al
so pr
ovi
ded i
nthe FDRE
const
it
uti
on.

Fi
rst
,ther
eisaneedt
ohav
eacl
earl
awst
ipul
ati
ngt
hedeat
hpenal
tyasoneof
t
hepuni
shment
sint
hecount
ry.Thi
sisal
egal
i
tyr
equi
rementandi
tsaf
eguar
ds
agai
nstanar
bit
rar
ysent
enci
ngofi
ndi
vi
dual
sandsummar
yexecut
ions13wi
thout
l ound.Thel
egalgr egal
i
tyr
equi
rementi
sal
soonewayofhol
dingt
hest
atet
o
accountaswel
lasmaket
hel
egalsy
stem pr
edi
ctabl
e.Thi
sisoneoft
het
win
pr
inci
plesofcr
imi
nall
aw whi nol
chgoes‘ aw nocr
ime;nol
aw nopuni
shment
.’
Thati
swhysubpar
agr
aph(
2)oft
heI
CCPRbegi
nsbysay
ing‘
i
ncount
ri
eswhi
ch
hav
enotabol
i
shedt
hedeat
hpenal
ty,
sent
enceofdeat
hmaybei
mposedonl
y..
.
i
naccor
dancewi
tht
he l
aw i
nfor
ce att
he t
ime oft
he commi
ssi
onoft
he
cr
ime…’
Thi
sismor
eorl
esst
hesameast
heFDREconst
it
uti
on’
sAr
t15l
ast
sent
encewhi
chsay
s‘…aspuni
shment
…det
ermi
nedbyl
aw.
’

Secondl
y,t
her
eisal
soar
est
ri
cti
onont
hecont
entoft
hel
awt
hatpr
ovi
desdeat
h
sent
enceasapuni
shment
.Iti
ssai
dthatcapi
tal
puni
shmentcanonl
ybei
mposed
f
ort
he‘
mostser
iouscr
imes’accor
dingt
otheI
CCPRandf
or‘
aser
iouscr
imi
nal
of
fence’accor
dingt
otheFDREconst
it
uti
on.Thi
sisal edpr
socal
l opor
ti
onal
i
ty
r
equi
rementi
nthesenset
hatt
hel
ossofl
i
femustbepr
opor
ti
onalt
othei
nter
est
t
hati
tai
mst
opr
otectandi
nthi
scaset
hepuni
shmentofmostser
iouscr
imei
s
consi
der
edt
obeani
mpor
tanti
nter
estt
owar
rantt
hei
mposi
ti
onoft
hedeat
h
penal
ty.

13
Dearstudent
,summaryexecutionisatypeofext
raj
udi
cial
puni
shmenti
nwhichanaccused
orreport
edsuspectofcr
iminalacti
vi
tyiskil
l
ed,of
tenatt
hetimeandpl
aceoft
heirbei
ng
di
scov er
ed.
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 136136

I
tisobv
ioust
hatt
hemostser
iousi
smor
est
ri
ngentt
hanser
ioust
houghi
nany

ev
entt
heul
ti
mat
eresponsi
bil
i
tyofdet
ermi
ningwhatconst
it
utesei
thermost
ser
iousorser
iouscr
imi
nalof
fencei
slef
ttot
hel
egi
sl
ati
veor
ganoft
hecount
ry
concer
ned.TheRev
isedCr
imi
nalCode,
asdi
dit
spr
edecessoraf
fi
rmst
hisf
acti
n
Ar
t117(
1)bysay
ing‘
Sent
enceofdeat
hshal
lbepassedonl
yincasesofgr
ave
cr
imesandonexcept
ional
l
ydanger
ouscr
imi
nal
s…’Accor
dingt
othi
spr
ovi
si
on,
heobj
t ect
ivel
yassessedgr
avi
tyoft
heof
fenceal
onewhi
chi
ssol
elyal
egi
sl
ati
ve
det
ermi
nat
ionwoul
d notbeenought
o war
rantt
hei
mposi
ti
onoft
hedeat
h
penal
tyandt
her
eist
oita subj
ect
iveassessmentoft
hedanger
ousnessof
t
hecr
imi
nalas wel
l
,whi
ch i
sto be det
ermi
nedbyt
he j
udi
ci
ary
.Based on
t
hepar
ti
cul
arci
rcumst
ances,
iti
sgener
all
yaccept
edt
hatt
hedeat
hpenal
tymay
notbepr
ovi
dedf
orsuchl
essgr
aveof
fencesl
i
keeconomi
ccr
imes,pol
i
tical
cr
imes,et
c.Andf
ir
st-
ti
meof
fender
smayal
sobeexcl
udedf
rom t
heappl
i
cat
ion
oft
hedeat
h sent
encebased on t
hecr
imi
nalcodeofEt
hiopi
aasi
tisl
ess
l
i
kel
ytoconsi
dersuchki
ndofof
fender
sasdanger
ouscr
imi
nal
s,t
hought
he
par
ti
cul
arsi
tuat
ionwoul
dst
il
lber
elev
antt
oconcl
udeonewayoranot
her
.

Thet
hir
drel
ateswi
tht
hecondi
ti
onofj
udi
ci
alpr
ocess.Adeat
hsent
encecanonl
y
beappl
i
edaf
teradeci
si
onhasbeenpassedbycour
tofl
awasapuni
shment
.The
r
efer
encet
o‘asapuni
shmentf
oraser
iouscr
imi
nalof
fencedet
ermi
nedbyl
aw’
notonl
yimpl
i
esa l
egal
i
tyr
equi
rementt
hatshoul
dexi
statt
het
imeoft
he
commi
ssi
onoft
heof
fencebutal
sot
her
equi
rementofadeci
si
onbyt
hej
udi
ci
ary
asapuni
shmentf
oracr
imet
hati
tconsi
der
stobeaser
iousonebasedont
he
exi
sti
ng l
aw as wel
las i
ts own assessmentoft
he obj
ect
ive as wel
las
t
hesubj
ect
iveci
rcumst
ances.Thi
spoi
nti
sev
ent
akenf
urt
herbyt
heCr
imi
nal
Codewhi
ch i
mposes on t
he cour
tfi
rst t
o consi
derany ext
enuat
ing
ci
rcumst
ancesbef
oresent
enci
ngacr
imi
nalt
odeat
h.I
nfactt
heI
CCPRi
sver
y
cl
earont
hispoi
nt
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 137137

bysay
ing‘
Thi
spenal
tycanonl
ybecar
ri
edoutpur o af
suantt inalj
udgment
r
ender
edbyacompet
entcour
t.
’

Fi
nal
l
yther
ear
evar
iouspr
ocedur
alsaf
eguar
dst
hatsur
roundt
hisi
mpor
tant
except
ionoft
hef
undament
alr
ightt
oli
fe.I
twoul
dbegoodf
ir
stt
oreadAr
ts117-
120oft
heRev
isedCr
imi
nalCodef
ort
hecompl
eteunder
standi
ngoft
hese
pr
ocedur
alsaf
eguar
ds.
Ihav
e,t
her
efor
e,dupl
i
cat
edt
hoseAr
tsf
ory
ouher
e.
Ar
ti
cl
e117:
Gener
alPr
inci
ples

1.Sent
enceofdeat
hshal
lbepassedonl
yincasesofgr
avecr
imesandon
except
ional
l
ydanger
ouscr
imi
nal
s,i
nthecasesspeci
fi
cal
l
ylai
ddownby
l
aw asa puni
shmentf
orcompl
eted cr
imes and i
nthe absence of
anyext
enuat
ingci
rcumst
ances.Asent
enceshal
lbepassedonl
yona
cr
imi
nalwho,att
het
imeoft
hecommi
ssi
onoft
hecr
ime,hasat
tai
ned
t
heageofei
ght
eenyear
s.
2.Deathsent
enceshal
lnotbecar
ri
edoutunl
essconf
ir
medbyt
heHeadof
St
ate.I
t
shal
lnotbe execut
ed bef
ore ascer
tai
nmentofi
ts non-
remi
ssi
on
ornon-commut
ati
onbypar
donoramnest
y.
3.Thesent
enceofdeat
hshal
lnotbecar
ri
edouti
npubl
i
cbyhangi
ngorby
anyot
heri
nhumanmeans.Thepenal
tyshal
lbeexecut
edbyahumane
meanswi
thi
nthepr
eci
nct
soft
hepr
ison.Themeansofexecut
ionshal
l
bedet
ermi
nedbyt
heexecut
ivebodyhavi
ngaut
hor
it
yovert
heFeder
alor
Regi
onalpr
ison admi
nist
rat
ion concer
ned. The execut
ion of t
he
sent
enceshal
lbecar
ri
edoutwi
thoutanycr
uel
ti
es,mut
il
ati
onsorot
her
physi
cal
suf
fer
ing.
4. Af
terexecut
iont
hebodyshal
l
,uponr
equest
,be-
handedt
ohi
sfami
l
y.
Fai
l
ingsuchr
equest
,i
tshal
lbegi
venadecentbur
ial
.
Ar
ti
cl
e118:
Treat
mentofPr
isonerAwai
ti
ngExecut
ion
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 138138

Whil
eawait
ingt
heconf
ir
mat
ionandt
heexecut
ionoft
hesent
encet
he
pr
isoner
shal
lbe det
ained undert
he same condi
ti
ons as a pr
isoner
-ser
ving
sent
enceofr
igor
ousi
mpr
isonment
.Thedi
rect
orofpr
isonsshal
ltake
suchst
epsasmaybenecessar
yfort
hesaf
etyoft
hepr
isoner
.Wher
ethe
pr
isonersodesi
resandwher
eiti
spossi
bleheshal
lbegi
vensomewor
kto
dowi
thi
nhi
scel
l
.
Ar
ti
cl
e119:
CasesWher
eDeat
hPenal
tyMaybeSuspended

Deat
hsent
enceshal
lnotbecar
ri
edoutonf
ull
yorpar
ti
all
yir
responsi
bl
eorser
iousl
yil
lper
sonoronapr
egnantwoman,whi
l
etheycont
inuet
o
bei
nthatSt
ate.
Ar
ti
cl
e120:
Commut
ati
onofSent
enceofDeat
h

1.I
nthecaseofawomanwi
thchi
l
dandsuchchi
l
disbor
nal
i
veandt
he
mot
herhast
onur
sesuchchi
l
d,t
hedeat
hsent
encemaybecommut
ed
t
ori
gor
ousi
mpr
isonmentf
orl
i
fe.
2. A sent
ence ofdeat
h maybe commut
ed orr
emi
tt
ed by wayof
par
donoramnest
yinaccor
dancewi
tht
hepr
ovi
sionsoft
hisCode(
Art
s.
229and230)
.

Thesepr
ocedur
alsaf
eguar
dscanbesummar
izedasf
oll
ows.
Deat
hsent
ence

 Cannotbei
mposedf
ori
ncompl
etecr
imes,
suchasat
tempt
14;

 Cannotbei
mposedonacr
imi
nalwhoi
sundert
heageof18y
ear
s
att
het
imeofcommi
ssi
onoft
he
cri
me;
 Mustbeappr
ovedbyt
heHeadofSt
atebef
orei
tisexecut
ed;

 I
thast
obeconsi
der
edf
oramnest
yorpar
don;
 The deat
hsent
enceshal
lbe car
ri
edouthumanel
yand wi
thout

cr
uel
tyandspeci
fi
cal
l
yexecut
ionofdeat
hsent
encebyhangi
ngt
he

per
sonpubl
i
clyi
sconsi
der
edasexcept
ional
l
yinhuman;

14
I
tisgoodt
onotethatcr
iminal
actsofatt
emptarepuni
shabl
ewi
tht
hesamepuni
shmentas
complet
edcr
imesinthenormalcir
cumstances.
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 139139

 The deat
h sent
ence shal
lbe suspended i
fitr
elat
es wi
tha
per
son who,att
he t
ime oft
he sent
ence,i
sful
l
y orpar
ti
all
y
i
rr
esponsi
ble,
ser
iousl
yil
l
,oronaper
sonwhoi
spr
egnant
;
 Thedeat
hpenal
tyshal
lbecommut
edt
ori
gor
ousi
mpr
isonmenti
f

i
trel
ateswi
thawomanwi
thachi
l
dwhom shei
ssupposedt
olook
af
ter
.
Dearst
udent
,thesear
ethemai
npr
ocedur
alguar
ant
eest
hatst
il
lar
emeantt
o

i
nfor
m ust
hesi
gni
fi
canceoft
her
ightt
oli
feandt
heneedt
ost
ri
ctl
yconst
ruet
he
except
ion.Let
’sseet
heot
herexcept
ionst
other
ightt
oli
feandt
hengot
othe
f
inalpoi
ntwher
eweshal
lbel
ooki
ngsomecont
empor
aryi
ssuesr
elat
ingt
othe
r
ightt
oli
fet
hatar
eget
ti
ngt
oomuchschol
arl
yat
tent
ion,
suchaseut
hanasi
aand
t
her
ightt
odi
e.Bef
oret
hatr
eadcar
eful
l
ythef
oll
owi
ngf
act
saboutt
hedeat
h
penal
ty.

Atl
eastsi
nceWor
ldWarI
I,t
her
ehasbeenaconsi
stentt
rendt
owar
dsabol
i
shi
ng
t
hedeat
hpenal
ty.I
n1977,16count
ri
eswer
eabol
i
tioni
st,whi
l
ethef
igur
ehas
si
nce now gone up t
o 128.Cur
rent
ly,89 count
ri
es hav
e abol
i
shed capi
tal
puni
shment f
or al
lof
fences,10 f
or al
lof
fences except under speci
al
ci
rcumst
ances,and29ot
her
shav
enotusedi
tforatl
east10y
ear
s.At
otalof
69count
ri
es r
etai
nit
.Among r
etent
ioni
stcount
ri
es,sev
eralused capi
tal
puni
shmentonj
uveni
l
es(
under18)
.In2006I
ranexecut
edf
ourchi
l
dof
fender
s
andPaki
stanone.ThePeopl
e’
sRepubl
i
cofChi
naper
for
medmor
ethan3400
execut
ionsi
n2004,amount
ingt
omor
ethan90% ofexecut
ionswor
ldwi
de.I
n
Chi
na,somei
nmat
esar
eex
ecut
edbyf
ir
ingsquad,buti
thasbeendeci
dedt
hat
al
lexecut
ions wi
l
lbe byl
ethali
nject
ion i
nthe f
utur
e.I
ran per
for
med 159
execut
ionsi
n2004.Texasconduct
smor
eex
ecut
ionst
hananyoft
heot
herU.
S.
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 140140

st
ates,wi
th 370 execut
ions bet
ween 1976 and 2006.Si
ngapor
e has t
he
hi
ghest

execut
ionr
atepercapi
ta,wi
th70hangi
ngsf
orapopul
ati
onofabout4mi
l
li
on
andi
tal
so(
wit
hJapan)hast
hel
owestmur
derr
ate.

Theuseoft
hedeat
hpenal
tyi
sbecomi
ngi
ncr
easi
ngl
yrest
rai
nedi
nret
ent
ioni
st
count
ri
es.Japan,Sout
hKor
ea,Tai
wan,Si
ngapor
e,andt
heU.
S.ar
etheonl
yful
l
y
dev
elopedcount
ri
est
hathav
eret
ainedt
hedeat
hpenal
ty.Thedeat
hpenal
tywas
ov
erwhel
mingl
y pr
act
iced i
n poor and aut
hor
it
ari
an st
ates,whi
ch of
ten
empl
oyedt
hedeat
hpenal
tyasat
oolofpol
i
ticaloppr
essi
on…Somecount
ri
es
hav
eresumedpr
act
ici
ngt
hedeat
hpenal
tyaf
terhav
ingsuspendedexecut
ions
f
orl
ongper
iods.Not
abl
y,t
heUni
tedSt
ateshadsuspendedexecut
ionsi
n1973
butr
esumedt
hem i
n1977,t
her
ewasnoexecut
ioni
nIndi
abet
ween1995and
2004,andSr
iLankar
ecent
lydecl
aredanendt
oit
smor
ator
ium ont
hedeat
h
penal
ty but has not per
for
med any execut
ions.The Phi
l
ippi
nes had r
e-
i
ntr
oduced t
he deat
h penal
tyi
n 1993 af
terabol
i
shi
ng i
tin 1987 buthav
e
abol
i
shedi
tagai
nin2006.

b)Lawf
ulki
l
li
ngsot
hert
hant
hedeat
hpenal
ty

Thedeat
hpenal
tyi
sonl
yoneexcept
ionf
rom t
her
ightt
oli
feandt
her
ear
eot
her
except
ionst
oo.Howev
er,ourconst
it
uti
onseemst
oimpl
ythati
tisonl
ydeat
h
penal
tywhi
chi
stheexcept
iont
other
ightt
oli
fewhi
chseemst
oov
erl
ookmany
ot
herki
l
li
ngswhi
chmi
ghtbeconsi
der
edasl
awf
ulorj
ust
if
ied.Thati
swhyt
he
I
CCPRphr
asi
ngoft
hemat
terseemsapr
efer
redonesi
ncei
tsay
sgener
all
y‘no
oneshal
lbear
bit
rar
il
ydeni
edhi
sri
ghtt
oli
fe.
’Thatmeans,t
her
ighti
stobe
pr
otect
edf
rom ar
bit
rar
yki
l
li
ngsandt
her
emi
ghtbecaseswher
eone’
sli
femay
bet
akenl
awf
ull
yornon-
arbi
tr
ari
l
y.Acl
earexampl
ewi
tht
hisr
egar
diski
l
li
ngsi
n
wart
imes.Ev
eni
fthel
awsofwarwi
l
lst
il
lhav
etobeappl
i
cabl
etopr
otect
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 141141

excesses,
iti
sev
identt
hatt
aki
ngofl
i
vesi
nsi
tuat
ionsofwar
sisl
awf
ul,
andev
en

somet
imest
hati
stheonl
ywayt
owi
nthewar
.

Ki
l
li
ngi
nsel
f-
def
ensei
sanot
hersi
tuat
ionwher
eone’
sactoft
aki
ngl
i
femaybe
consi
der
edasj
ust
if
iedasl
ongast
her
equi
rement
soft
hel
awsofsel
f-
def
ense
ar
e adequat
ely met
.Thi
s appl
i
es al
so f
or t
he ki
l
li
ngs done by t
he l
aw
enf
orcementper
sonnel
oft
hest
ate.
Wher
elawenf
orcementof
fi
cer
sar
ehandl
i
ng,
f
orexampl
e,ar
restofa suspect
,cal
ming a r
iott
hathas br
oke outwhi
ch
t
hreat
enst
hei
nter
nalpeaceandsecur
it
yoft
hecount
ry,et
ctheymi
ghtendup
i
n usi
ng l
ethalf
orce.The r
equi
rementt
hatt
he I
CCPR i
mposes i
n such
ci
rcumst
ancesi
sthati
tmustnotbear
bit
rar
y,t
houghnotcl
earwhatmayormay
notbear
bit
rar
y.TheEt
hiopi
ancr
imi
nalpr
ocedur
ethathasbeeni
nfor
cesi
nce
1961say
snot
hingi
ncaseswher
eanar
rest
eer
esi
stsori
nter
fer
eswi
tht
he
l
awf
ulef
fect
uat
ionofanar
restwar
rant
.Itmer
elysay
s‘I
fsuchper
sonf
orci
bly
r
esi
stst
heendeav
orst
oar
restorat
tempt
stoev
adet
hear
rest
,suchof
fi
cermay
useal
lmeanspr
opor
ti
onat
etot
heci
rcumst
ancest
oef
fectt
hear
rest
.’(
SeeAr
t
56(
4)oft
heCr
imi
nalPr
ocedur
eCode)Thequest
ionofwhet
herornots/
hecan
usel
ethalf
orcewher
etheper
sont
obear
rest
edput
sthel
i
feoft
hepol
i
ceor
ot
herper
soni
ndangeri
ssomehow cont
rov
ersi
al,t
houghonemaysayt
hatt
he
nor
mal
rul
esofsel
f-
def
ensewi
l
lhav
etobeappl
i
cabl
e.

TheDr
aftCr
imi
nalPr
ocedur
eCodehasmadet
hisi
ssuel
esscont
rov
ersi
alby
say
ingt
hatwher
etheper
sont
obear
rest
edr
esi
stst
hear
restandput
sthe
pol
i
ce’
sli
fei
ndanger
,thel
att
ermayusel
ethalf
orcei
fthecr
imet
hatt
hear
rest
ee
i
s suspect
ed of i
s puni
shabl
e wi
th deat
h sent
ence. Thi
sis somehow
cumber
somef
ort
hepol
i
cewhoar
esupposedt
omakeav
aluej
udgmentt
her
e
andt
henast
owhet
herornott
heper
sons/
hei
schasi
ngi
ssomeonewhoar
e
goi
ngt
ofacet
he
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 142142

deathsent
ence.Ot
her
wise,onecangett
hepi
ctur
east
othesi
gni
fi
cancet
hat
the

cr
imi
nalpr
ocedur
e has at
tached t
othe r
ight t
oli
fe by i
mposi
ng st
ri
ct
r
equi
rement
stopr
otectar
bit
rar
yki
l
li
ngs.Amuchcl
ear
erst
andar
dhasbeenset
byt
heEur
opeanConv
ent
ionofHumanRi
ght
srel
ati
ngt
other
ightt
oli
fe.I
nit
s
Ar
t2i
tpr
ovi
dest
hef
oll
owi
ng;
Ar
ti
cl
e2:

1.Ever
yone'
sri
ghtt
oli
feshal
lbepr
otect
edbyl
aw.Nooneshal
lbedepr
ived
ofhi
sli
fei
ntent
ional
l
ysavei
ntheexecut
ionofasent
enceofacour
t
f
oll
owi
nghi
sconvi
cti
onofacr
imef
orwhi
cht
hispenal
tyi
spr
ovi
dedbyl
aw.
2.Depr
ivat
ionofl
i
feshal
lnotber
egardedasi
nfl
i
ctedi
ncont
ravent
ionoft
his
art
icl
e
wheni
tresul
tsf
rom t
heuseofforcewhichi
snomor
ethanabsol
utel
y
necessar
y:
a)I
ndef
enseofanyper
sonf
rom unl
awf
ulvi
olence;
b)I
nor
dert
oef
fectal
awf
ular
restort
opr
eventescapeofaper
son
l
awf
ull
ydet
ained;
c)Inact
ionlawf
ull
ytakenf
ort
hepur
poseofquel
l
ingar
iotor
i
nsur
rect
ion.

Whi
l
esubsect
ion(
1)pr
ovi
dest
hedeat
hpenal
tyasanexcept
ion,subsect
ion(
2)
st
ipul
atest
hoseki
l
li
ngsot
hert
hant
hedeat
hpenal
tyandwhi
char
econsi
der
ed
asl
awf
ul.Whi
l
etheyal
lhav
ethe‘
absol
utel
ynecessar
y’r
equi
rementi
ncommon,
t
he t
hree i
nst
ances pr
ovi
de i
ndependentsi
tuat
ions ofl
awf
ulki
l
li
ngs.Dear
st
udent
,doy
out
hinkt
hoseki
l
li
ngscanbeconsi
der
edasl
awf
ulundert
heFDRE
const
it
uti
onasi
tst
andsnow?Whataboutundert
heI
CCPR?Doy
out
hinkal
lof
t
hem canbecov
eredassel
f-
def
ense?

c)Somecont
rov
ersi
alI
ssuesaboutt
her
ight

Ther
ear
esomei
ssuest
hatar
ehot
lydebat
edi
nrel
ati
ont
other
ightt
oli
fe.Some
oft
hem ar
ether
ightt
odi
e,eut
hanasi
aandabor
ti
on.Mostoft
hesei
ssues
ar
e
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 143143

r
aisedbyt
hosepr soft
oponent hesanct
it
yofl
i
fe.Dearst
udent
,doy
out
hink
t
he

r
ightt
oli
fei
ncl
udesal
sot
her
ightt
odi
e?Whati
stheposi
ti
onofourcount
ry’
s
cr
imi
nall
awwi
tht
hei
ssueofsui
cide? Whatabouteut
hanasi
aormer
cyki
l
li
ng?
Thi
sisal
socal
l
edassi
steddeat
handusual
l
ypr
act
icedbydoct
orswher
ethei
r
pat
ient
sar
esuf
fer
ingf
rom non-
cur
abl
edi
sease.Do y
out
hinkadoct
orwho
admi
nist
ersamedi
ci
neorabst
ainsf
rom pr
ovi
dingsamesot
hatt
oshor
tent
he
l
i
feofapat
ientwhoi
sknownt
odi
esoon,t
houghnotknownhowsoonenough?
Whataboutabor
ti
on?Whendoesahumanl
i
fewhi
chdeser
vest
hepr
otect
ionof
t
hel
awoft
her
ightt
oli
fest
art
?Isi
tatconcept
ionorbi
rt
horwhen?

Thesear
ever
yimpor
tantquest
ionst
hathav
eabear
ingont
her
ightt
oli
fe.Some

peopl
ewoul
dar
guet
hatt
her
ightt
oli
fewi
l
lhav
etobechangedi
nto‘
thedut
yto
l
i
ve’i
fitdoesn’
tincl
udet
her
ightt
odi
e.Thet
erm"
ri
ghtt
odi
e"r
efer
stov
ari
ous
i
ssuesar
oundt
hedeat
hofani
ndi
vi
dualwhent
hatper
soncoul
dcont
inuet
oli
ve
wi
tht
heai
dofl
i
fesuppor
t,ori
nadi
mini
shedorenf
eebl
edcapaci
ty.I
nsome
cases,i
tref
erst
othei
deat
hataper
sonwi
that
ermi
nali
l
lnessandi
nser
ious
condi
ti
onshoul
dbeal
l
owedt
ocommi
tsui
ci
debef
oredeat
hwoul
dot
her
wise
occur
.The concepti
s of
ten r
efer
r o as, dy
ed t ing wi
th di
gni
ty.I
n most
count
ri
es

peopl
edonot
,legal
l
yspeaki
ng,hav
ether
ightt
odi
e.Sui
ci
dei
sof
tenf
rowned

upon,andeut
hanasi
aisonl
ylegali
nahandf
ulofcount
ri
es.I
nEt
hiopi
a,wehav
e
Ar
t66oft
heol
dPenalCodeandAr
t70(
1)oft
heRev
isedCr
imi
nalCodewhi
ch
appr
oacht
hei
ssueofconsentoft
hev
ict
imi
nadi
ff
erentway
.Readt
hem andsee
t
hedi
ff
erencebel
ow.

Ar
t66:
Consentoft
heVi
cti
m(1957Penal
Code)
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 144144

Theconsentofani
njur
edpar
tyt
othecommi
ssi
onofacr
imi
nalof
fenceagai
nst
hi
mselfor
ar
ighthepossessesdoesnotr
eli
evet
heof
fenderofcr
imi
nal
li
abi
l
ity.

Ar
t70:
Consentoft
heVi
cti
m(t
heCr
imi
nal
Code,
2004)

(
1)Acr
imei
snotl
i
abl
etopuni
shmentwher
eiti
spuni
shabl
euponcompl
aintand
wher
eiti
sdonewi
tht
heconsentoft
hevi
cti
m orhi
slegalr
epr
esent
ati
ve.

Whi
l
eint
heol
dcodeconsentasadef
ensewasbannedi
nal
lci
rcumst
ances,
the
newcodemadeal
i
ttl
emodi
fi
cat
iont
oiti
nthesenset
hati
nci
rcumst
anceswher
e
t
heof
fensei
slessgr
ave,
whi
chcl
ear
lyexcl
udesl
ossofl
i
fe,
aper
sonmi
ghtcl
aim
t
heconsentoft
hev
ict
im asadef
enset
oav
oidcr
imi
nal
responsi
bil
i
ty.
The
bot
tom-
li
neher
eishowev
ereut
hanasi
aisnotl
egal
inbot
hthenewandol
dcode.

Thi
s,howev
er,doesnotanswert
hequest
ionoft
her
ightt
odi
eful
l
y,becausei
t
onl
ytel
l
sust
hatnoonecanl
egal
l
yassi
staper
sont
odi
e.Theper
sonalt
aki
ngof
one’
sli
fei
snotcl
ear
lypr
ohi
bit
ed.Agai
nwhatt
hel
awcr
imi
nal
i
zesi
stheact
sof
t
hoseper
sonswhoassi
stani
ndi
vi
duali
nhi
s/herv
ent
ureofendi
nghi
s/herown
l
i
fe.
Readt
hef
oll
owi
ngpr
ovi
si
onwhi
chi
stheAr
tthatpr
ovi
desaboutsui
ci
de;

Ar
ti
cl
e542:
Inst
igat
ingorai
dinganot
hert
ocommi
tSui
cide

1. Whoeveri
nst
igat
esanot
hert
ocommi
tsui
cide,orai
dshi
mtodoso,i
s
puni
shabl
ewi
thsi
mpl
eimpr
isonmentwher
ethesui
cidei
sat
tempt
ed,and
wi
thr
igor
ous i
mpr
isonmentnot exceedi
ng f
ive year
s wher
eiti
s
consummat
ed.

2.Wher
etheper
sonwhohasbeeni
nst
igat
edorai
dedt
ocommi
tsui
cidehad
notat
tai
nedt
heageofmaj
ori
ty,orhadnocapaci
tybecauseofment
al
i
l
lnessorseni
l
ity,t
hepuni
shmentt
obei
mposedupont
hei
nst
igat
oror
assi
stantshal
lbe
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 145145

ri
gorousi
mpri
sonmentnotexceedi
ngf
iveyear
s,wher
ethesui
ci
dei
s
att
empted,
andrigor
ousi
mpri
sonmentnotexceedi
ngt
enyear
s,wher
eiti
s
consummated.

Thus,whati
sagai
npenal
i
zedi
stoassi
staper
son,nott
odot
heactofsui
cide.
Whatdo y
out
hinki
sthepr
obl
em her
eift
hel
aw wer
eto st
ipul
atef
ort
he
i
ncr
imi
nat
ionoft
heactofsui
cide?Thi
sispar
ti
all
ybecauseoft
hei
mpossi
bil
i
ty
off
indi
ngsomeonewhocanbemadet
oaccountsi
ncet
hev
eryactofsui
cidei
s
endi
ngal
i
feoft
heper
sonwhowant
stodi
eandcr
imi
nalr
esponsi
bil
i
tycannot
bei
nher
it
ed,unl
i
ker
esponsi
bil
i
tiest
hatar
iseoutofcont
ractl
aw.Ot
her
wise,
t
her
eisno cl
earper
missi
onorpr
ohi
bit
ionofsui
cidebasi
cal
l
ybecauset
he
saf
eguar
dst
hatwehav
etal
kedsof
arwoul
dber
ender
edi
rr
elev
anti
fthel
aw
wer
etoal
l
ow ei
thersel
f-
inf
li
ctedorassi
steddeat
hsandt
husi
tisgener
all
y
agr
eedt
hatdeat
hisaccept
abl
eonl
ywher
eithappensnat
ural
l
yorot
her
wisei
n
t
hoseexcept
ional
cir
cumst
ancesofl
awf
ulorj
ust
if
iedki
l
li
ngs.

Af
inalpoi
nti
stheonet
hatr
elat
eswi
thabor
ti
onwher
eitcompel
sust
oquest
ion
wher
edoest
hepr
otect
ionoft
her
ightt
oli
fest
art
?Accor
dingt
otheAmer
ican
St
ateshumanr
ight
sst
andar
ds,humanl
i
fei
spr
otect
edf
rom t
hev
erypoi
ntof
concept
ion.I
nit
sAr
t4(
1),t
heAmer
icanConv
ent
ionofHumanRi
ght
ssay
s
‘
Ever
yper
son has t
he r
ightt
o hav
e hi
sli
fer ed.Thi
espect sri
ghtshal
lbe
pr
otect
edbyl
aw and,i
ngener
al,f
rom t
hemomentofconcept
ion.Nooneshal
l
bear
bit
rar
il
ydepr
ived ofhi
sli
fe.
’Thi
sist
he f
ir
stofi
ts ki
nd i
nthe wor
ld
humanr
ight
sregi
mest
hatpr
otect
sther
ightt
oli
feofanunbor
nfet
us.Thus,
the
pr
ohi
bit
ionofabor
ti
oni
sconsi
der
edi
nthei
rsy
stem aspar
toft
hepr
otect
ionof
t
her
ightt
oli
fe.

I
nEt
hiopi
atoo,asar
ule,abor
ti
oni
spr
ohi
bit
ed.Awomani
sper
mit
tedt
oabor
t,
howev
er,amongot
her
s,wher
eshewasi
mpr
egnat
edbyr
ape.Dearst
udent
,do
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 146146

y
ou t
hinkt
hispr
ohi
bit
ionofabor
ti
on i
n Et
hiopi
aexi
stsbecausea human

per
son’
sri
ghtt
oli
fei
spr
otect
edf
rom t
hemomentofconcept
ionasi
sthecase
i
ntheAmer
icanconv
ent
ion?Fort
hisquest
iony
ouneedt
orecal
lyourr
eadi
ngsi
n
t
hel
awofper
sonscour
seespeci
all
yAr
t1oft
heci
vi
lcode.It
hinky
ouknowt
hat
pr
ovi
si
onbyhear
tbynow atl
eastbecausei
tist
hef
ir
stAr
tofov
ert
hree
t
housandAr
tsoft
heCi
vi
lCode.Di
dyour
ecal
lthati
tsay
s‘AHumanper
soni
s
subj
ectofr
i sf
ght r
om i
tsbi
rt
htoi
tsdeat
h.’
? Thi
spl
ainl
yanswer
sourquest
ion!
Thus,t
hef
actt
hatabor
ti
oni
spr
ohi
bit
edi
n Et
hiopi
aisnotbecauseoft
he
exi
stenceofar
ightt
oli
fef
oraconcei
vedchi
l
dbutbecauseofot
hermor
al
r
easons.It
hink we hav
eto end up ourdi
scussi
on her
e and gi
vey
ou t
he
oppor
tuni
tyt
oanswerf
ewexer
cisequest
ionsbef
orewegot
othenextsect
ion.

Exer
ciseI

1.Descr
ibet
het
woi
mpor
tantobl
i
gat
ionsoft
hest
atei
nrel
ati
ont
other
ight

t
oli
fe.

2.‘
Whenwesayt
hatar
ighti
sinv
iol
abl
ewear
esay
ingt
hatunderno

ci
rcumst
ance t
hatr
ightcan be r
est
ri
cted.
’Do y
ou agr
ee wi
tht
his

st
atement
?Why
/Whynot
?

3.Whatdoesi
tmeanby‘
i
nal
i
enabl
eri
ghtt
oli
fe’
?
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 147147

4.Br
ief
lyputt
heexcept
ionsf
rom t
her
ightt
oli
fe.

5.Whatcanbeconsi
der
edasast
ate’
sobl
i
gat
iont
orespectt
her
ightt
oli
feby

act
sot
hert
handi
rectki
l
li
ngsofaper
son/
s?

6.Whatdoest
heobl
i
gat
ionoft
hest
atet
opr
otectt
her
ightt
oli
femean?Do

y
ou t
hink t
he Et
hiopi
an gov
ernmenthas t
his obl
i
gat
ion undert
he

const
it
uti
on?

7.Whatar
ethev
ari
oussaf
eguar
dst
hatcondi
ti
ont
hei
mposi
ti
onoft
hedeat
h

penal
ty?

8.Aper
son,
whowasatt
het
ime,
15y
ear
sofage,
kil
l
edanot
herper
sonaf
ter

st
eal
i
nghi
sfat
her
’spi
stol
.Hewassoonappr
ehendedandputont
ri
alf
or
aggr
avat
edhomi
ci
de.Af
terat
ri
alof4y
ear
s,t
hecour
tfoundhi
m gui
l
tyas
char
gedandsent
encedhi
mtot
hedeat
hpenal
ty.Whatar
ethepossi
ble
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 148148

pr
econdi
ti
onst
hatmustbemetbef
oret
heexecut
ionoft
hesent
ence?Do

y
out
hinkt
hisper
sonwi
l
lbeki
l
ledundert
heexi
sti
ngEt
hiopi
anl
aws?

2.
3. Ther
ightt
osecur
it
yofper
sonandl
i
ber
ty
Dearst
udent
,ournextdi
scussi
onwi
l
lber
elat
ingt
oAr
t16and17oft
heFDRE
const
it
uti
onandy
oumustr
eadt
hosepr
ovi
si
onsbef
orewest
artourdi
scussi
on.
Accor
dingl
y,Ihav
e dupl
i
cat
ed t
hem f
ory
ou her
e.And f
ort
he pur
pose of
compar
isonIal
soi
nser
tedf
ory
out
her
elev
antpr
ovi
si
onoft
heI
CCPRanda
nat
ional
humanr
ightpr
ovi
si
onf
rom t
heSout
hAf
ri
can1996const
it
uti
on.
Ar
ti
cl
e16:
TheRi
ghtoft
heSecur
it
yofPer
son

Everyonehast
her
ightt
opr
otect
ionagai
nstbodi
l
y
harm.
Ar
ti
cl
e17:
Rightt
oLi
ber
ty

1.Nooneshal
lbedepr
ivedofhi
sorherl
i
ber
tyexceptonsuchgr
oundsand
i
naccor
dancewi
thsuchpr
ocedur
easar
eest
abl
i
shedbyl
aw.
2. Noper
sonmaybesubj
ect
edt
oar
bit
rar
yar
rest
,andnoper
sonmaybe
det
ainedwi
thoutachar
georconvi
cti
onagai
nsthi
m.

Ar
ti
cl
e9:
ICCPR

1. Ever
yonehast
her
ightt
oli
ber
tyandsecur
it
yofper
son.Nooneshal
lbe
subj
ect
edt
oar
bit
rar
yar
restordet
ent
ion.Nooneshal
lbedepr
ivedofhi
s
l
i
ber
tyexceptonsuchgr
oundsandi
naccor
dancewi
thsuchpr
ocedur
eas
ar
eest
abl
i
shedbyl
aw.
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 149149

2.Anyonewhoi
sar
rest
edshal
lbeinfor
med,att
het
imeofar
rest
,oft
he
r
easonsfor
hi
sar r
estand shal
lbe pr
ompt
lyi
nfor
med ofanychar
ges
agai
nsthi
m.
3. Anyone ar
rest
ed ordet
ained on a cr
imi
nalchar
ge shal
lbe br
ought
pr
ompt
lybef
oreaj
udgeorot
herof
fi
ceraut
hor
izedbyl
aw t
oexer
cise
j
udi
cialpowerandshal
lbeent
it
ledt
otr
ialwi
thi
nar
easonabl
eti
meort
o
r
elease.I
tshal
lnotbet
hegener
alr
ulet
hatper
sonsawai
ti
ngt
ri
alshal
lbe
det
ainedi
ncust
ody,butr
eleasemaybesubj
ectt
oguar
ant
eest
oappear
f
ort
ri
al,atanyot
herst
age oft
he j
udi
cialpr
oceedi
ngs,and,shoul
d
occasi
onar
ise,
forexecut
ionoft
hej
udgment
.
4.Anyonewhoi
sdepr
ivedofhisli
ber
tybyar
restordet
ent
ionshal
lbe
enti
tl
edto
t
akepr
oceedi
ngsbef
oreacour
t,i
n or
dert
hatt
hatcour
tmaydeci
de
wi
thoutdel
ayont
hel
awf
ulnessofhi
sdet
ent
ionandor
derhi
srel
easei
f
t
hedet
ent
ioni
snotl
awf
ul.
5.Anyonewhohasbeent
hevi
cti
m ofunl
awf
ular
restordet
ent
ionshal
l
havean
enf
orceabl
e r
ight t
o
compensati
on.
Sect
ion12:
Sout
hAf
ri
ca’
s1996Const
it
uti
on

1. Ever
yonehast
her
ightt
ofr
eedom andsecur
it
yoft
heper
son,whi
ch
i
ncl
udest
her
ight
a) Nott
obedepr
ivedoff
reedomar
bit
rar
il
yorwi
thoutj
ustcause;
b)Nott
obedet
ainedwi
thoutt
ri
al;
c)Tobef r
eef
rom al
lfor
msofvi
olencef
rom ei
therpubl
i
corpr
ivat
e
sour
ces;
d)Nott
obet
ort
uredi
nanyway;
and
e) Nott
obet
reat
edorpuni
shedi
nacr
uel
,i
nhumanordegr
adi
ngway.

2 ever
yone has t
he r
ightt
o bodi
l
y and psychol
ogi
cali
ntegr
it
y,whi
ch
i
ncl
udest
her
ight
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 150150
a)Tomakedeci
sionsconcer
ningr
epr
oduct
ion;
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 151151

b)Tosecur
it
yinandcont
rol
overt
hei
rbody;
and
c)Nott
o besubj
ect
edt
o medi
calorsci
ent
if
icexper
iment
s
wi
thoutt
hei
rinf
ormedconsent
.

2.
3.1.
Ther
ightt
osecur
it
yofper
son

Themosti
mpor
tantdi
ff
erencet
hatweseei
ntheabov
einst
rument
sist
hatt
he
Et
hiopi
anconst
it
uti
onput
sthet
wor
ight
s,i
.
e.,secur
it
yofper
sonandl
i
ber
ty,
separ
atel
ywhi
l
ebot
htheI
CCPRandt
heSout
hAf
ri
ca’
sBi
l
lofRi
ght
smer
get
he
t
wot
oget
her
.Howev
er,
itt
urnsoutt
obei
nal
lthei
nst
rument
sasf
arassecur
it
y
ofper
soni
sconcer
ned,t
heyt
ookt
hesameposi
ti
onbymaki
ngi
tanabsol
ute
r
ightsubj
ectt
onor
est
ri
cti
onunderanyci
rcumst
ance.Secur
it
yofper
son,as
under
stoodf
rom ourconst
it
uti
on,canbeseenasanexpansi
onofr
ight
sbased
onpr
ohi
bit
ionsoft
ort
ure and cr
ueland i
nhuman t
reat
mentorpuni
shment
aspr
ovi
dedunderAr
t18.I
tbasi
cal
l
yrel
atest
othesaf
etyofone’
sbodi
l
yint
egr
it
y
andpr
otect
ionf
rom anyf
orm ofbodi
l
yhar
m.

UnderEt
hiopi
anl
aw,t
his pr
ohi
bit
ionhas been separ
atedf
rom t
he r
ightt
o
l
i
ber
ty,whi
chi
ssubj
ectt
orest
ri
cti
onj
ustl
i
ket
her
ightt
oli
fe.I
nourol
dpenal
code,cor
por
alpuni
shmenthadbeenconsi
der
edasonef
orm ofpuni
shment
underi
tsAr
t20.Buti
nther
evi
sedcr
imi
nalcodet
hishasbeendr
oppedout
becausei
twoul
dbeunconst
it
uti
onal
tomai
ntai
nsuchf
orm ofpuni
shmenti
nthe
exi
stenceofanabsol
uter
ightt
osecur
it
yofper
sonaspr
ovi
dedunderAr
t16.
Li
kewi
se,cor
por
alpuni
shmentofchi
l
dreni
spr
ohi
bit
edi
ntheconst
it
uti
onagai
n
becauseoft
heabsol
utenat
ureoft
her
ightt
osecur
it
yofper
son.Thi
sispr
ovi
ded
underAr
t36(
1)(
e)oft
heconst
it
uti
onwhi
chsay
s‘Ev
erychi
l
dhast
her
ightt
obe
f
reeofcor
por
alpuni
shmentorcr
uelandi
nhumanet
reat
menti
nschool
sand
ot
heri
nst
it
uti
onsr
esponsi
blef
ort
hecar
eofchi
l
dren.
’Howev
er,t
heci
vi
lcode,
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 152152

mostoft
hepr
ovi
si
onsofwhi
char
est
il
lappl
i
cabl
e,st
ipul
atesasanexcept
ion

f
rom t
hepr
ohi
bit
ionofact
sofbodi
l
yhar
m,t
hatofcor
por
alpuni
shmenti
mposed
bypar
ent
s.I
not
herwor
ds,par
ent
scanbr
ingasadef
enset
hei
rri
ghtt
oimpose
cor
por
alpuni
shmentont
hei
rchi
l
drenwher
eanex
tra-
cont
ract
ualsui
thasbeen
br
oughtagai
nstt
hem.

Si
ncet
heconst
it
uti
oni
sthesupr
emel
awoft
hel
andandsi
nceAr
t9(
1)makesal
l
l
awst
hatar
einconsi
stentwi
thi
ttobev
oid,suchpr
ovi
si
onsoft
heci
vi
lcodewi
l
l
hav
enof
orce.
Howev
er,
cany
ousomeki
ndofpr
obl
em wi
tht
hewor
dingsofAr
t
36(
1)(
e)t
hatpr
ohi
bit
scor
por
alpuni
shmentofchi
l
dren?I
tsay
spuni
shment
s
i
mposedby‘
school
sandot
hersi
mil
ari
nst
it
uti
onsr
esponsi
blef
ort
hecar
eof
chi
l
dren’wi
thoutmaki
ng cl
earr
efer
ence t
o par
ent
s.Does t
hatmean t
hat
cor
por
alpuni
shmentbypar
ent
sisnotpr
ohi
bit
edundert
heFRDEconst
it
uti
on?I
t
i
sver
ydoubt
ful
,thoughar
guabl
eandIwi
l
lleav
ethi
spoi
ntf
ory
ourdebat
ewi
th
y
ourf
ri
ends.

2.
3.2.
Ther
ightt
oLi
ber
ty

Dearst
udent
,theot
herr
ightt
hatwewi
l
lhav
etoconsi
deri
stheonet
hatr
elat
es
wi
thl
i
ber
ty.Ther
ightt
oli
ber
tyi
sgener
all
yconsi
der
edasaconceptofpol
i
tical
phi
l
osophyandi
dent
if
iest
hecondi
ti
oni
nwhi
chani
ndi
vi
dualhast
heabi
l
ityt
o
actaccor
dingt
ohi
sherownf
reewi
l
l.Mostcomment
ator
sdi
sti
ngui
shbet
ween
negat
iveandposi
ti
vel
i
ber
tywhi
l
eaddr
essi
ngt ssue.Posi
hei ti
vel
i
ber
tyr
efer
sto
t
heoppor
tuni
tyandabi
l
ityt
oactt
oful
fi
llone’
sownpot
ent
ial
,asopposedt
o
negat
ivel
i
ber
ty,whi
chr
efer
stof
reedom f
rom r
est
rai
nt.Forexampl
e,onemay
hav
ethenegat
ivel
i
ber
tyof‘
fr
eedom oft
hepr
ess,
’buti
fhedoesnotowna
pr
int
ingpr
essorpr
int
er,t
henhel
ackst
heposi
ti
vel
i
ber
tyt
otakeadv
ant
ageof
hi
snegat
ivel
i
ber
ty.Or
,onemayhav
ethenegat
ivel
i
ber
tyof‘
fr
eedom ofspeech’
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 153153

buti
fhel
acksv
ocalcor
ds,
thenhel
acksposi
ti
vel
i
ber
ty.I
ncont
rastt
onegat
ive

l
i
ber
ty,whi
chi
nit
slar
gestscopeappl
i
est
oindi
vi
dual
s,posi
ti
vel
i
ber
tyhasof
ten
beenappl
i
edt
othewhol
esegment
sofsoci
etyort
oanat
ion’
ssoci
etyasawhol
e.

Thephi
l calconceptofnegat
osophi ivel
i
ber
tyr
efer
stoani
ndi
vi
dual
'
sli
ber
tyf
rom
bei
ng subj
ect
ed t
othe aut
hor
it
yofot
her
s.I
nthi
s negat
ive sense,one i
s
consi
der
edf
reet
otheext
entt
o whi
chno per
soni
nter
fer
eswi
thhi
sorher
act
ivi
ty.Accor
dingt
oThomasHobbes,
forexampl
e,"
afr
eemani
shet
hat
..
.isnot
hi
nder
edt
odowhathehat
hthewi
l
ltodo.
"Theconceptofnegat
ivel
i
ber
tyhas
sev
eralnot
ewor
thyaspect
s.Fi
rst
,negat
ivel
i
ber
tydef
inesar
eal
m or"
zone"of
f
reedom (
int
he"
sil
enceof
").I
nBer
li
n'
swor
ds,"
li
ber
tyi
nthenegat
ivesense
i
nvol
vesananswert
othequest
ion'
Whati
sthear
eawi
thi
nwhi
cht
hesubj
ect
-a
per
sonorgr
oupofper
sons-
isorshoul
dbel
eftt
odoorbewhathei
sabl
etodo
orbe,wi
thouti
nter
fer
encebyot
herper
sons.
"Somephi
l
osopher
shav
edi
sagr
eed
ont
heext
entoft
hisr
eal
m whi
l
eaccept
ingt
hemai
npoi
ntt
hatl
i
ber
tydef
ines
t
hatr
eal
minwhi
chonemayactunobst
ruct
edbyot
her
s.Second,t
her
est
ri
cti
on
i
mpl
i
citi
nnegat
ivel
i
ber
tyi
simposedbyaper
sonorper
sonsandnotduet
o
causessuchasnat
ure,
lack,
ori
ncapaci
ty.

The di
chot
omyofposi
ti
ve and negat
ivel
i
ber
tyi
s consi
der
ed er
roneous by
pol
i
ticalphi
l
osopher
sint
radi
ti
ons such as soci
ali
sm,soci
aldemocr
acy
,
l
i
ber
tar
ian soci
ali
sm,and Mar
xism.Some oft
hem ar
gue t
hatposi
ti
ve and
negat
ivel
i
ber
tyar
eindi
sti
ngui
shabl
einpr
act
ice,whi
l
eot
her
scl
aim t
hatone
ki
ndofl
i
ber
tycannotexi
sti
ndependent
lyoft
heot
her
.Acommonar
gumenti
s
t
hatt
hepr
eser
vat
ionofnegat
ivel
i
ber
tyr
equi
resposi
ti
veact
ionont
hepar
toft
he
gov
ernmentorsoci
etyt
opr
eventsomei
ndi
vi
dual
sfr
om t
aki
ngawayt
hel
i
ber
ty
ofot
her
s.Dearst
udent
,doy
ouunder
standt
hedi
ff
erenceoft
het
wot
ypesof
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 154154

l
i
ber
ti
es?Whi
choft
het
wodoy
out
hinki
spr
otect
edunderAr
t17oft
heFDRE

const
it
uti
on?Whatabouti
ntheI
CCPR and/
ori
ntheSout
hAf
ri
ca’
sBi
l
lof

Ri
ght
s?

I
tappear
sthati
nar
t17oft
heFDREconst
it
uti
onwef
indonl
ythepr
otect
ionof

t
her
ightt
oli
ber
tyi
nit
snegat
ivesensei
nthati
tguar
ant
eesi
ndi
vi
dual
sfr
om any
f
orm ofi
nter
fer
encewhi
chi
sar
bit
rar
y.Mor
eov
er,i
smakesi
tacondi
ti
onalr
ight
i
nthesenset
hati
tissubj
ectt
orest
ri
cti
onbasedonl
egal
l
yst
ipul
atedgr
ounds
andpr
ocedur
es.Sect
ion12(
2)oft
heSout
hAf
ri
ca’
sConst
it
uti
onhasauni
que
di
mensi
ont
other
ightt
oli
ber
tybyi
ncl
udi
ngt
heposi
ti
veaspectoft
her
ight
.
Especi
all
ythei
ncl
usi
onoft
her
ightt
oli
ber
tyr
elat
ingt
orepr
oduct
ionmakesi
t
v
erymuchl
i
ber
tar
ianandnodoubtt
hati
tisoneoft
hef
ew count
ri
est
hathav
e
l
egal
i
zedhomosexual
i
ty.Bot
htheFDREconst
it
uti
onandt
heI
CCPRdonothav
e
si
mil
arst
ipul
ati
onsofposi
ti
vel
i
ber
ty.Howev
er,t
hisi
snott
omeant
hatposi
ti
ve
l
i
ber
ti
esar
enotpr
otect
edundert
heEt
hiopi
anl
aw,becauset
her
ear
evar
ious
l
egi
sl
ati
onst
hatcanbeconsi
der
edasani
ndi
rectpr
otect
ionoft
hisf
orm of
l
i
ber
ty.Fori
nst
ance,t
heguar
ant
eet
hatnooneshal
lbesubj
ect
edt
omedi
cal
exami
nat
ion wi
thouthi
s/her i
nfor
med consenti
s one of t
he ci
vi
lri
ght
s
guar
ant
eedi
ntheci
vi
lcode.

Whenwel
ooki
ntoAr
t17(
1),i
tdef
inesl
i
ber
tyi
nnegat
ivet
ermsbyst
ati
ngt
hat
nor
est
ri
cti
onexcepti
naccor
dancewi
tht
hel
aw andpr
ocedur
e.Oneappar
ent
emphasi
sthatt
hispr
ovi
si
ont
ri
est
o makei
srel
ati
ng t
o gender
-issuesby
speci
fi
cal
l
yment
ioni
ngbot
hsex
esf
ort
heguar
ant
ee,
eveni
fther
efer
enceas‘
he’
i
spr
esumedt
oref
ert
obot
hmal
eandf
emal
eaccor
dingt
oAr
t7.Her
eitgi
vest
he
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 155155

emphasi
sont
hesi
gni
fi
canceoft
her
ightwheni
tcomest
owomenast
her
e
ar
e

cul
tur
est
hatt
oler
ateabduct
ion,
fori
nst
ance,
asal
awf
ulpr
e-mar
ri
ageact
.So,
the
const
it
uti
oni
ssay
ingt
hatone’
sli
ber
tycannotber
est
ri
ctedt
hroughcul
tur
all
y
t
oler
atedact
sorot
hermeanswi
tht
heexcept
ionofwhati
stobepr
ovi
dedi
nthe
l
aw.Thest
ipul
ati
onoft
hel
aw f
ort
hegr
oundsofr
est
ri
cti
oni
sconsi
der
ednot
any
mor
esi
gni
fi
cantt
hant
hepr
ocedur
est
hathav
etobef
oll
owedi
nrest
ri
cti
ng
one’
sli
ber
ty.Thi
sisadi
rectr
efer
encet
ocr
imi
nalpr
ocedur
eguar
ant
eest
hat
ext
ensi
vel
ypr
ovi
deaboutt
hemechani
smsofef
fect
ingar
restand/
ordet
ent
ion.I
t
i
sawi
del
yaccept
edpr
inci
pleofmoder
ncr
imi
nalpr
ocedur
elaw t
hatt
hemeans
t
obeusedwi
l
ljust
if
ytheendt
hati
sexpect
edt
obeachi
evedi
nthesenset
hatno
mat
terwhatt
heendr
esul
tmi
ghtbet
hemeanswi
l
lhav
etobel
awf
ul.

Subpar
agr
aph 2 ofAr
t17 goes f
urt
herand pr
ohi
bit
s ar
bit
rar
y ar
restand
det
ent
ionwi
thoutchar
georconv
ict
ion.Theset
woenemi
esoft
her
ightt
oli
ber
ty
hav
ebeensi
ngl
edoutbecauseoft
hei
rbei
ngwi
del
yrecogni
zedmechani
sms
wi
thi
nthecr
imi
nalj
ust
icepr
ocessbot
hasmeansofpuni
shmentand/
oras
meansof r
est
rai
ning a per
son f
rom commi
tt
ing a cr
ime whi
ch i
s cal
l
ed
pr
event
ivedet
ent
ion.Dearst
udent
,whatdoy
out
hinki
sthedi
ff
erencebet
ween
ar
restanddet
ent
ion?Woul
dyou pl
easet
ryt
o gi
ve a def
ini
ti
onf
oreach of
t
heset
wo
i
mpor
tantt
erms?

Anar
resti
stheact
ionoft
hepol
i
ce,orper
sonact
ingundert
hel
aw,t
otakea

per
soni
ntocust
ody
,usual
l
ysot
hatt
heymaybef
ort
hcomi
ngt
oanswerf
ort
he
commi
ssi
onofacr
ime.I
nmanyl
egalsy
stems,anar
restr
equi
resmer
ever
bal
i
nfor
mat
iont
o per
sonst
hatt
heyar
e underar
rest
;the l
ayi
ng ofhandsor
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 156156

r
est
rai
ntsupont
hear
rest
edper
soni
susual
l
ynotr
equi
redt
oef
fectanar
rest
.

Thi
sist
rueundert
heEt
hiopi
ancr
imi
nalpr
ocedur
ecodewher
eAr
t56pr
ovi
des
t
hatonl
ywher
etheper
sonf
ail
stocompl
ywi
tht
hev
erbalor
dert
hatt
hepol
i
ce
canpl
acehi
s/herhandont
hesuspectandwhi
chactwi
l
lgi
vet
hepr
esumpt
ion
t
hatt
hear
resthadbeenl
awf
ull
yef
fect
ed.Aswesai
dabov
e,t
heuseoff
orcei
s
onl
yjust
if
iedwher
ethear
rest
eer
esi
stsf
orcef
ull
ycompl
yi
ngwi
tht
heor
derof
t
hepol
i
ce.Forser
iouscr
imes,t
hepol
i
cet
ypi
cal
l
ytakesuspect
stoapol
i
ce
st
ati
on or a j
ailwher
ethey wi
l
lbe i
ncar
cer
ated pendi
ng a j
udi
ci
albai
l
det
ermi
nat
ionorchar
ge.I
not
heri
nst
ances,t
hepol
i
cemayi
ssueanot
icet
o
appearspeci
fyi
ngwher
easuspecti
stoappearf
orhi
schar
geandt
ri
al.

Det
ent
ion,
ont
heot
herhand,gener
all
yref
erst
oast
ateorgov
ernmenthol
dinga
per
soni
napar
ti
cul
arar
ea,ei
therf
ori
nter
rogat
ion,aspuni
shmentf
orawr
ong,
orasapr
ecaut
ionar
ymeasur
ewhi
l
einv
est
igat
ingapot
ent
ialt
hreatposedby
t
hatper
son.Thet
erm canal
sobeusedi
nref
erencet
othehol
dingofpr
oper
ty,
for
t
he same r
easons.The pr
ocessofdet
ainmentmayormaynothav
e been
pr
ecededwi
thar
rest
.Thepr
isoner
sinGuant
ánamoBayar
eforex
ampl
eref
err
ed
t
oas"
det
ainees"
.

Any f
orm ofi
mpr
isonmentcan be cal
l
ed det
ent
ion,al
though t
he t
erm i
s
associ
ated wi
th per
sonswho ar
e bei
ng hel
dtempor
ari
l
ywi
thoutwar
rantor
char
ge.Forexampl
e,t
heal
l
egedr
iot
erswhower
ecapt
uredmassi
vel
yaf
tert
he
May2005el
ect
ioni
nthecapi
talAddi
sAbabacannotbecl
assi
fi
edaspr
isoner
s,
buthav
econsi
stent
lybeenr
efer
redt
oas"
det
ainees"
,suggest
ingt
hatt
heywer
e
onl
ybei
nghel
dtempor
ari
l
ywhi
l
ethei
rst
atuswasi
nvest
igat
ed.Thel
engt
hof
det
ent
ionofsuspect
edt
err
ori
sts,wi
tht
hej
ust
if
icat
ionoft
aki
nganact
iont
hat
woul
dai
dcount
er-
ter
ror
ism,
var
iesaccor
dingt
ocount
ryorsi
tuat
ion,
aswel
las
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 157157

t
he l
aws whi
ch r
egul
atei
t.I
ndef
ini
te det
ent
ion ofan i
ndi
vi
dualoccur
s

f
requent
ly,
especi
all
ynowbyUni
tedSt
atesaf
tert
heSept
ember11,
2001at
tacks.

Ast
owhatconst
it
utesar
bit
rar
yar
restcanonl
ybeanswer
edi
nref
erencet
othe
cr
imi
nalpr
ocedur
ewhi
chpr
ovi
desf
ort
hev
ari
ousl
egalway
sofmaki
ngar
rest
andt
hepr
ocedur
est
obef
oll
owedbyt
hepol
i
cewhi
l
ehandl
i
nganar
rest
.Thus,
any
thi
ngdonewi
thoutcompl
yi
ngwi
tht
hoser
equi
rement
swoul
dbear
bit
rar
yand
t
husunconst
it
uti
onal
.Fori
nst
ance,ar
rest
,asar
ule,i
stobemadeonl
ythr
ough
apr
oper
lyi
ssuedcour
twar
rant
,thought
her
ear
evar
iousexcept
ionswher
ebyt
he
pol
i
cemayar
restaper
sonwi
thoutwar
rant
.Asf
arasdet
ent
ioni
sconcer
ned,
the
const
it
uti
onsay
sthatt
her
emustei
therbecr
imi
nalchar
georconv
ict
ionf
ora
per
sont
obedet
ained.Wher
ether
eisconv
ict
ion,
thenaper
son’
sdet
ent
ionmi
ght
bel
awf
ull
yor
der
edasonef
orm ofpuni
shment
.Lessconv
ict
ion,
accor
dingt
othe
const
it
uti
on,
iti
sonl
yint
heexi
stenceofacr
imi
nalchar
get
hataper
soncanbe
det
ained.‘
Char
ge’i
sinAmhar
iccal
l ki
ed‘s’whi
chi
saf
ormalal
l
egat
iont
hata
per
sonhascommi
tt
edacer
tai
ncr
imewhi
chmakeshi
m/herasuspect
.Insuch
ci
rcumst
ances,t
hedet
ent
ioncanbemadeandi
tisv
erydi
ff
icul
ttodi
sti
ngui
sh
t
hisf
orm ofdet
ent
ionf
rom t
hatofar
rest
.

I
nadecl
aredst
ateofemer
gency
,iti
scl
eart
hatbot
hAr
t16and17canbe
suspended as t
hey ar
e notment
ioned i
n Ar
t93(
4)(
c)oft
he Const
it
uti
on.
Ther
efor
e,t
hedet
ent
ionoft
hosepeopl
eaf
tert
heel
ect
ionhadbeenconsi
der
ed
asoneoft
heconsequencesoft
het
hendecl
aredst
ateofemer
gency
.

Mostoft
hepr
ocedur
alr
ight
sthatar
especi
fi
cal
l
yrel
atedt
ocr
imi
nalpr
ocedur
e
ar
eexhaust
ivel
yment
ionedunderAr
t9oft
heI
CCPRwhi
l
einourconst
it
uti
on
t
heyar
erat
herdi
scussedel
sewher
einAr
t19whi
chweshal
lbedi
scussi
ngi
ndue
cour
se.
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 158158

Nowwewi
l
lhav
ewi
ndupt
hischapt
erandpr
oceedt
othenex
tonesi
ncet
her
e

ar
elot
soft
hingst
hatwewi
l
lhav
etocov
er.Bef
oret
hat
,Iwi
l
lhav
etogi
vey
ou
f
ewquest
ionssot
hatt
heycoul
dser
veast
ransi
ti
ont
oournextdi
scussi
on.

Exer
ciseI
I
1.‘
Undert
he Et
hiopi
an const
it
uti
on secur
it
y ofper
son i
s gi
ven hi
gher
si
gni
fi
canceov
ert
her
ightt
oli
fe.
’Do y
ou agr
eewi
tht
hisst
atement
?
Why
/Whynot
?

2.what i
sthe di
ff
erence bet
ween ar
rest and det
ent
ion? Char
ge and

conv
ict
ion?

3.Whati
sthedi
ff
erencebet
weenposi
ti
veandnegat
ivel
i
ber
tyandwhi
chone

oft
hesef
ormsofl
i
ber
ti
esi
sbei
ngpr
otect
edundert
heFDREconst
it
uti
on?
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 159159

Chapt
erI
II
:Pr
ohi
bit
ionofTor
tur
eandCr
uel
,I
nhumanor

Degr
adi
ngTr
eat
mentorPuni
shment

3.
1.I
ntr
oduct
ion
Dearst
udent
,now wear
eget
ti
ngf
urt
heri
ntot
hepr
ovi
si
onsoft
heconst
it
uti
on
onf
undament
alr
ight
sandf
reedoms.Thi
schapt
erwi
l
lbedev
otedt
oAr
t18of
t
heconst
it
uti
onwhi
chcov
ersmanyr
ight
sasdoi
tssubsequentpr
ovi
si
ons,i
.
e.,
Ar
ts19and20r
elat
ingt
other
ight
soft
hear
rest
edandaccusedper
sons.I
nAr
t
18,‘
tor
tur
e’i
s notment
ioned atal
lthough t
he nor
malappr
oach i
nthe

i
nter
nat
ionalhumanr
ight
sregi
mesi
stoconsi
dert
heset
woi
ssuest
oget
her
,
whi
char
epr
ohi
bit
ionoft
ort
ureandcr
uel
,inhumanordegr
adi
ngt
reat
mentor
puni
shment
.Ourconst
it
uti
on,
howev
er,
omi
tt
edt
ort
uref
rom t
hel
i
st.Thet
ermi
s
onl
yment
ionedi
nrel
ati
ont
oAr
t28,whi
chi
sthel
astpr
ovi
si
oni
nthecat
alogues
ofhumanr
ight
s,t
hough,st
ri
ctl
yspeaki
ng,i
tisnotar
ightatal
l
.Int
hischapt
er
weshal
lbedi
scussi
ngt
ort
ureaswel
landt
ryt
opl
acei
tincont
extbasedonwel
l
est
abl
i
shedhumanr
ight
sjur
ispr
udencei
nthear
eaandt
hroughi
nter
pret
ati
onof
t
heAr
tsoft
heconst
it
uti
on.

Obj
ect
ives:
Ast
udentwhocompl
etest
her
eadi
ngoft
hischapt
erwi
l
l

 Beabl
etounder
standt
henat
ure,
scopeandf
eat
uresoft
hepr
ohi
bit
ionof
t
ort
ure,
 Bei
naposi
ti
ont
oknowt
hedi
ff
erencesbet
weent
ort
ureandot
hercr
uel
,
i
nhumanordegr
adi
ngt
reat
mentorpuni
shment
,
 Beabl
etor
espondt
oquest
ionsr
elat
ingt
othesei
ssues,
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 160160

 Under
standt
henat
ionalaswel
last
hei
nter
nat
ionalst
andar
dsr
elat
ingt
o
t
ort
ureandt
heot
her
s.

3.
2.Pr
ohi
bit
ionofTor
tur
eandot
heri
l
l-t
reat
ment
s
Dearst
udent
,whatdoy
ouunder
standbyt
het
ermt
ort
ure?Hav
eyouev
er
wi
tnessedaper
sonwhohasbeent
ort
ured?Whoseactcanl
egal
l
yconst
it
utean
actoft
ort
ure?

Tor
tur
eisdef
inedi
nter
nat
ional
l
yas"
anyactbywhi
chsev
erepai
norsuf
fer
ing,

whet
herphy
sicalorment
al,i
sint
ent
ional
l
yinf
li
cted on a per
son f
orsuch
pur
posesasobt
aini
ngf
rom hi
m orat
hir
dper
soni
nfor
mat
ionoraconf
essi
on,
puni
shi
nghi
mforanactheorat
hir
dper
sonhascommi
tt
edori
ssuspect
edof
hav
ingcommi
tt
ed,ori
nti
midat
ingorcoer
cinghi
m orat
hir
dper
son,orf
orany
r
easonbasedondi
scr
imi
nat
ionofanyki
nd,whensuchpai
norsuf
fer
ingi
s
i
nfl
i
ctedbyoratt
hei
nst
igat
ionoforwi
tht
heconsentoracqui
escenceofapubl
i
c
of
fi
cialorot
herper
sonact
ingi
nanof
fi
ci
alcapaci
ty.
"Thi
sdef
ini
ti
onhasatl
east
f
ivei
mpor
tantel
ement
sthaty
oushoul
dcar
eful
l
yconsi .Fi
der rst
,ther
ehast
obe
‘
anact
’.Thi
sist
her
efor
etoi
mpl
ythatv
iol
ati
onoft
hepr
ohi
bit
ionoft
ort
ure
exi
stsonl
ythr
ougha posi
ti
veactand nott
hroughomi on.Secondl
ssi y,t
his
def
ini
ti
ont
ell
sust
hatt
her
ehast
obeasev
erepai
norsuf
fer
ingwhi
chcoul
d
ei
therbephy
sical
orment
al.
Fori
nst
ance,
techni
quest
hatar
eof
tenusedt
osol
i
cit
i
nfor
mat
ionwi
thoutanybeat
ingsbutwi
thpsy
chol
ogi
calpr
essur
ecanbel
i
ke
t
ell
i
ngt
hev
ict
imt
hatunl
esshegi
vest
hei
nfor
mat
ionneededhi
srel
ati
vesar
e
goi
ngt
obeki
l
led,hewi
l
lbeamput
atedonhi
slegorar
m anddemonst
rat
ing
suchact
sthr
oughv
ideopi
ctur
es,
put
ti
nghi
m wi
thdeadbodi
esandt
ell
i
nghi
m
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 161161

t
hatwi
l
lbehi
sfat
eunl
esshespeaks,
etcar
eal
lai
medatcausi
ngment
alpai
nand

t
hust
ort
ure.

Asf
arast
hephy
sicalact
soft
ort
urear
econcer
ned,
ther
ehav
ebeenf
ivet
ypi
cal
act
srecogni
sedi
ntheear
ly1970s,
thoughnowt
hel
i
sti
sgr
owi
ng. ewal
Thesear l
-
st
andi
ng,hoodi
ng,subj
ect
iont
owhi
tenoi
se,depr
avat
ionofsl
eep,depr
avat
ion
of f
ood and dr
ink.Cur
rent
ly,t
her
e ar
e much mor
e sophi
sti
cat
ed way
s of
t
ort
uri
ngdet
aineeswhi
l
eunderi
nter
rogat
ion.Thet
hir
del
ementoft
hedef
ini
ti
on
i
sithast
obei
ntent
ional
l
yinf
li
cted.Thus,t
hisr
equi
rementexcl
udest
ort
ureby
negl
i
gence,becauset
her
ecannotbesucht
hingast
ort
urebynegl
i
genceas
t
her
eis no r gence.The f
ape bynegl
i our
th poi
ntr
elat
eswi
tht
he one t
hat
descr
ibest
hepur
posesf
orwhi
cht
heactoft
ort
urei
sinf
li
cted.I
tli
stsaboutt
hree
ai
mst
hatt
het
ort
urei
smeantf
or,whi
char
ea)obt
aini
ngf
rom t
hev
ict
im ora
t
hir
dper
soni
nfor
mat
ionoraconf
essi
on,
b)asapenal
tyf
ort
heactoft
hev
ict
im
orat
hir
dper
son,c)i
nti
midat
ingorcoer
cingt
hev
ict
im orat
hir
dper
sonf
orany
r
easonbasedondi
scr
imi
nat
ionofanyki
nd.Thus,wher
edi
scr
imi
nat
ionbasedon
r
ace,l
anguage,sex,col
our
,pol
i
ticalorot
heropi
nion,et
cisi
nvol
ved,t
he
pur
posecoul
dbeany
thi
ngandi
twi
l
lamountt
otor
t e.Thef
ur if
thandf
inalpoi
nti
s
t
hati
thast
obei
nfl
i
ctedbyoratt
hei
nst
igat
ionoforwi
tht
heconsentor
acqui
escenceofapubl
i
cof
fi
cialorot
herper
sonact
ingi
nanof
fi
ci
alcapaci
ty.
Thi
sisi
ndeedav
eryi
mpor
tantcondi
ti
onf
ort
heactoft
ort
ureasi
thast
obe
commi
tt
edbygov
ernmentagent
sthemsel
vesorwi
tht
hei
rappr
ovalbywayof
i
nst
igat
ion,
acqui
escenceorcondoni
ng.Thus,t
her
eisnosucht
hingasapr
ivat
e
per
son’
stor
tur
efort
hepur
poseoft
hishumanr
ight
sdef
ini
ti
on.I
faper
son
commi
tssuchact
sonanot
her
,itwi
l
lfal
lundert
hepr
ovi
si
onsoft
hecr
imi
nal
codeascr
imeagai
nstper
sons.
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 162162

Dearst
udentnowr
eadAr
t18car
eful
l
yandseei
fwecani
nanywayappl
yitf
or

t
hisactoft
ort
uret
heel
ement
sofwhi
char
eli
stedabov
e.Ihav
edupl
i
cat
edt
he
whol
epr
ovi
si
onf
ory
ouher
esi
ncewear
egoi
ngt
odi
scussi
tbi
tbybi
tint
he
f
ort
hcomi
ngsect
ionsoft
hechapt
er.Andal
sot
her
elev
antAr
tsf
rom I
CCPRar
e
Ar
t7and8,andaccor
dingl
y,t
heyar
eal
soputher
efory
ouf
ort
hepur
poseof
compar
ison.

Ar
ti
cl
e18:
Prohi
bit
ionagai
nstI
nhumanTr
eat
ment
1.Ever
yonehast
he r
ightt
o pr
otect
ion agai
nstcr
uel
,inhuman or
degr
adi
ngt
reat
mentorpuni
shment
.
2.Nooneshal
lbehel
dinsl
aver
yorser
vit
ude.Tr
aff
icki
ngi
nhuman
bei
ngsf
or
what
everpur
posei
spr
ohi
bit
ed.
3.Nooneshal
lber
equi
redt
oper
for
mfor
cedorcompul
sor
ylabour
.
4.Fort
hepur
poseofsub-
Art
icl
e3oft
hisAr
ti
clet
hephr
ase"
for
cedor
compul
sor
ylabour
"shal
lnoti
ncl
ude:
a.Anyworkorser
vicenor
mal
l
yrequi
redofaper
sonwhoi
sunder
det
ent
ioni
n
consequenceofal
awf
ulor
der
,orofaper
sondur
ingcondi
ti
onal
r
eleasef
rom suchdet
ent
ion;
b.Int he case ofconsci
ent
ious obj
ect
ors,any ser
vice exact
ed i
n
l
ieu of
compul
sor
ymi
l
itar
yser
vice;
c.Anyser
viceexact
edi
ncasesofemer
gencyorcal
ami
tyt
hreat
eni
ng
t
hel
i
feorwel
l
-bei
ngoft
hecommuni
ty;
d.Anyeconomi
candsoci
aldevel
opmentact
ivi
tyvol
unt
ari
l
yper
for
med
byacommuni
tywi
thi
nit
slocal
i
ty.
Ar
ti
cl
e7:
ICCPR
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 163163

Nooneshal
lbesubj
ect
edt
otor
tur
eort
ocr
uel
,inhumanordegr
adi
ng
t
reat
mentor
puni
shment
.Inpar
ti
cul
ar,nooneshal
lbesubj
ect
edwi
thouthi
sfr
eeconsentt
o
medi
calorsci
ent
if
icexper
iment
ati
on.
Ar
ti
cl
e8:
ICCPR

1.Nooneshal
lbehel
dinsl
aver
y;sl
aver
yandt
hesl
ave-
tr
adei
nal
lthei
r
f
ormsshal
lbepr
ohi
bit
ed.
2.Nooneshal
lbehel
dinser
vit
ude.
3.
a)Nooneshal
lber
equi
redt
oper
for
mfor
cedorcompul
sor
ylabour
;
b) Par
agr
aph 3 (
a) shal
l not be hel
d t
o pr
ecl
ude,i
n count
ri
es
wher
eimpr
isonment wi
th har
dlabour may be i
mposed as a
puni
shmentf
oracr
ime,t
heper
for
manceofhar
dlabouri
npur
suance
ofasent
encet
osuchpuni
shmentbyacompet
entcour
t;
c) Fort
hepur
poseoft
hispar
agr
apht
het
erm"
for
cedorcompul
sor
y
l
abour
"shal
lnoti
ncl
ude:
i
. Any wor
k or ser
vice,not r
efer
red t
oin subpar
agr
aph (
b),
nor
mal
l
yrequi
red of a per
son who i
s under det
ent
ion i
n
consequenceofal
awf
ulor
derofacour
t,orofaper
sondur
ing
condi
ti
onalr
eleasef
rom suchdet
ent
ion;
i
i. Anyser vi
ceofami
l
itar
ychar
act
erand,i
ncount
ri
eswher
e
consci
ent
ious
obj
ect
ion i
srecogni
zed,any nat
ionalser
vice r
equi
red by
l
aw ofconsci
ent
iousobj
ect
ors;
i
i
i. Anyser
viceexact
edi
ncasesofemer
gencyorcal
ami
tyt
hreat
eni
ng
t
hel
if
e
orwel
l
-bei
ngoft
hecommuni
ty;
i
v. Anywor
korser
vicewhi
chf
ormspar
tofnor
mal
civi
lobl
i
gat
ions.
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 164164

Dearst
udent
,whatdoy
out
hinki
sthedi
ff
erencebet
weent
ort
ureandt
hose

t
reat
ment
s and puni
shment
sthatar
e pr
ohi
bit
ed underAr
t18(
1)ofour
const
it
uti
on?Whi
choneoft
hem doy
out
hinki
smor
esev
ereorar
etheyt
he
same?

The i
nter
nat
ionall
egalpr
ohi
bit
ion on t
ort
urei
s based on a uni
ver
sal

phi
l
osophi
calconsensust
hatt
ort
ureandi
l
l-t
reat
mentar
erepugnant
,abhor
rent
,
and i
mmor
al.A f
urt
hermor
aldef
ini
ti
onoft
ort
urepr
oposest
hatt
hesi
n of
t
ort
ureconsi
stsi
nthedi
spr
opor
ti
onat
einf
li
cti
onofpai
n.I
tisi
mpor
tantt
onot
e
f
rom t
hest
artt
hatt
hispr
ovi
si
oni
snon-
der
ogabl
einbot
htheI
CCPRaswel
las
undert
heFDREconst
it
uti
onAr
t93.Thus,i
tsi
mpor
tanceasahumanr
ighti
s
qui
te ev
ident
. The pur
pose oft
he pr
ohi
bit
ionoft
ort
ure and t
he ot
heri
l
l-
t
reat
ment
sist
opr
otectt
hei
ntegr
it
yanddi
gni
tyoft
hei
ndi
vi
dual
,whi
chi
ntur
n
hi
ghl
yrel
atedt
other
ightt
osecur
it
yofper
sonaspr
ovi
dedunderAr
t16oft
he
FDREconst
it
uti
on.

Justaswesai
dwi
thr
egar
dtot
her
ightt
oli
fe,t
hest
atehast
heobl
i
gat
iont
o
r
espectaswel
laspr
otectt
hispr
ohi
bit
ionoft
ort
urei
nvar
iousway
s.Thus,i
tis
notenought
hatt
hest
atecomesupwi
thal
aw pr
ohi
bit
ingt
ort
ureandot
heri
l
l-
t
reat
ment
spr
ovi
dedunderAr
t18.I
tfol
l
owsf
rom t
he nat
ureoft
he st
ate’
s
obl
i
gat
iont
orespectandpr
otectt
hispr
ohi
bit
iont
hati
tmustensur
eanef
fect
ive
pr
otect
iont
hroughsomemachi
ner
yofcont
rol
. Compl
aint
sabouti
l
l-t
reat
ment
mustbei
nvest
igat
edef
fect
ivel
ybycompet
entaut
hor
it
ies. Thosef
oundgui
l
ty
mustbehel
dresponsi
ble,
andt
heal
l
egedv
ict
imsmustt
hemsel
veshav
eef
fect
ive
r
emedi
esatt
hei
rdi
sposal
,i
ncl
udi
ngt
her
ightt
oobt
aincompensat
ion.
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 165165

Amongt
hesaf
eguar
dswhi
chmaymakecont
rolef
fect
ivear
epr
ovi
si
onsagai
nst

det
ent
ion i
ncommuni
cado15,gr
ant
ing,wi
thoutpr
ejudi
cet
othe i
nvest
igat
ion,
per
sons such as doct
ors,l
awy
ers and f
ami
l
y member
s access t
o t
he
det
ainees(
SeeAr
t21)
;pr
ovi
si
onsr
equi
ri
ngt
hatdet
aineesshoul
dbehel
din
pl
acest
hatar
epubl
i
clyr
ecogni
zedandt
hatt
hei
rnamesandpl
acesofdet
ent
ion
shoul
dbeent
eredi
nacent
ralr
egi
sterav
ail
abl
etoper
sonsconcer
ned,suchas
r
elat
ives;pr
ovi
si
onsmaki
ng conf
essi
onsorot
herev
idenceobt
ained t
hrough
t
ort
ureorot
hert
reat
mentcont
rar
ytoar
ti
cl
e18i
nadmi
ssi
blei
ncour
t(seeAr
t
19(
5);andmeasur
esoft
rai
ningandi
nst
ruct
ionofl
awenf
orcementof
fi
cial
snot
t
oappl
ysucht
reat
ment
.Al
lthesear
emeasur
est
hatar
eai
medatpr
otect
ingt
he
r
ightt
obef
reef
rom t
ort
ureandot
heri
l
l-t
reat
ment
.

Whenwel
ooki
ntot
hepr
ovi
si
onsofourconst
it
uti
onandt
hatoft
heI
CCPRwe
f
ind i
mpor
tantdi
ff
erences.Thef
ir
stbei
ng,ourconst
it
uti
ondoesn’
texpl
i
cit
ly
pr
ohi
bitt
ort
uret
houghi
tpr
ohi
bit
stheot
herf
ormsoft
reat
ment
s.Tor
tur
eisby
def
ini
ti
ont
hemostsev
eref
orm ofi
l
l-t
reat
ment
swhi
chcanbeconsi
der
edt
o
i
ncl
ude al
lthe ot
herf
orms oft
reat
ment
sthatar
e al
ready l
i
sted i
nthe
pr
ohi
bit
ions ofAr
t18,i
.
e.,cr
uel
,inhuman and/
ordegr
adi
ng t
reat
mentor
puni
shment
.Thus,onecanar
guet
hatev
eni
fther
eisnoexpr
essment
ionof
t
ort
ureasapr
ohi
bit
edact
,iti
simpl
i
citi
ntheot
herf
ormsofi
l
l-t
reat
ment
sthat
ar
epr
ohi
bit
edbyt
heconst
it
uti
onandasasuppor
toft
hear
gumentAr
t13(
2)
coul
dbeofsomer
elev
ance.

The ot
hermi
smat
ch bet
ween t
he t
wo st
andar
ds i
sthatAr
t7 speci
fi
cal
l
y

ment
ionsmedi
calt
reat
mentorsci
ent
if
icexper
iment
ati
onas one oft
he i
l
l-

t
reat
ment
sthatf
all
sundert
hepr
ohi
bit
ion.
Thi
sisnotexpr
essl
yaddr
essedi
nany

15
I
ncommuni
cadodet
ent
ionmeansdet
ent
ionwi
thoutcommuni
cat
iont
otheout
sidewor
ld.
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 166166

par
tofourconst
it
uti
on.Howev
er,t
hismat
teri
sment
ionedasoneoft
heci
vi
l

r
ight
sint
heci
vi
lcodepar
tthatdeal
swi
thl
awofper
sons(
ReadAr
ts20-
22oft
he
ci
vi
lcode)
.Dearst
udent
,doy
our
emembert
hat
?Iti
soneaspectoft
her
ightt
o
pr
ivacyaswel
lasl
i
ber
tyandi
tal
soconst
it
utesi
nhumant
reat
mentt
hatv
iol
ates
ani
ndi
vi
dual
’
sdi
gni
tyori
ntegr
it
y,i
fnott
ort
ure.Ther
efor
e,t
her
eisnowr
ongi
n
consi
der
ingenf
orcedmedi
calexami
nat
ionorsci
ent
if
icexper
iment
ati
onasone
f
orm oft
hepr
ohi
bit
edact
sunderAr
t18(
1)ofourconst
it
uti
ont
oo.

Whatconst
it
utescr
uel
,inhumanordegr
adi
ngt
reat
mentorpuni
shmentv
ari
es
f
rom t
imet
oti
meandf
rom l
egalsy
stem t
olegalsy
stem.Fori
nst
ance,i
nthe
caseofEt
hiopi
a,t
he l
aw consi
der
shangi
ng as a met
hod ofexecut
ingt
he
deat
hsent
enceasi
nhumanorcr
uelwayofpuni
shment
.Thesamei
str
uewi
th
r
egar
dto execut
ing a mi
norundert
he age of18,ora pr
egnantwoman.
Amput
ati
on ofhands orl
egs,f
loggi
ng,br
andi
ng,et
c ar
e consi
der
ed t
o be
cont
rar
ytot
hepr
ohi
bit
ionofsuchi
l
l-
tr
eat
ment
s.

TheHumanRi
ght
scommi
tt
ee,whi
l
ecomment
ingonAr
t7oft
heI
CCPRhad
sai
dthef
oll
owi
ngspeci
fi
cal
l
ywi
thr
egar
dtocor
por
alpuni
shment
.
‘
Asappear
sfr
om t
het
ermsoft
hisar
ti
clet
hescopeofpr
otect
ion
r
equi
redgoesf
arbeyondt
ort
ureasnor
mal
l
yunder
stood.I
tmaynot
be necessar
yto dr
aw shar
p di
sti
nct
ions bet
ween t
he var
ious
pr
ohi
bit
ed f
orms oft
reat
mentorpuni
shment
.Thesedi
sti
nct
ions
dependont
heki
nd,pur
poseandsever
it
yoft
hepar
ti
cul
art
reat
ment
.
I
nthevi
ewoft
heCommi
tt
eet
hepr
ohi
bit
ionmustext
endt
ocor
por
al
puni
shment
,incl
udi
ngexcessi
vechast
isementasaneducat
ionalor
di
sci
pli
nar
y measur
e. Even such a measur
e as sol
i
tar
y
conf
inementmay,accor
dingt
otheci
rcumst
ances,andespeci
all
y
whent
heper
soni
skepti
ncommuni
cado,becont
rar
ytot
hisar
ti
cle.
Mor
eover
,the
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 167167

art
icl
e cl
ear
lypr
otect
s notonl
yper
sons ar
rest
ed ori
mpr
isoned,
butalso
pupi
l
sandpat
ient
sineducat
ionalandmedi
cali
nst
it
uti
ons.Fi
nal
l
y,
i
tisal
sot
hedut
yofpubl
i
caut
hor
it
iest
oensur
epr
otect
ionbyt
hel
aw
agai
nstsuch t
reat
menteven when commi
tt
edbyper
sonsact
ing
out
sideorwi
thoutanyof
fi
cialaut
hor
it
y. Foral
lper
sonsdepr
ivedof
t
hei
rli
ber
ty,t
he pr
ohi
bit
ion oft
reat
mentcont
rar
yto ar
ti
cle7 i
s
suppl
ement
edbyt
heposi
ti
ver
equi
rementofar
ti
cle10(
1)oft
he
Covenant(
inourconst
it
uti
onAr
t21)t
hatt
heyshal
lbet
reat
edwi
th
humani
tyandwi
thr
espectf
ort
hei
nher
entdi
gni
tyoft
hehuman
per
son.
’
Dearst
udent
,canwebeabl
etomov
etot
heot
hersubsect
ionsofAr
t18andAr
t8

oft
heI
CCPR?Gr
eat
!Si
ncewewi
l
lhav
eaposef
orf
ew exer
cisequest
ions,y
ou
wi
l
lbeabl
etor
e-r
eadsomeoft
hepar
tsoft
hissect
ionl
ater
.

3.
3.Pr
ohi
bit
ionofSl
aver
yorSer
vit
udeandTr
aff
icki
ngi
nhuman
bei
ngs
Subpar
agr
aph(
2)oft
heconst
it
uti
onpr
ohi
bit
ssl
aver
yorser
vit
udeaswel
las
t
raf
fi
cki
ng.Dearst
udent
,Ipr
esumet
haty
oucl
ear
lyunder
standwhati
tmeans
bysl
aver
yorser
vit
ude.Doy
out
hinkt
her
eisadi
ff
erencebet
weent
heset
wo
t
ermsorar
etheyt
hesame?I
ftheyar
ethesamewhyt
heneedt
oment
ionbot
h?

Thet
wohav
eal
i
ttl
edi
ff
erencei
nusaget
hought
heyai
m att
hesameobj
ect
iveof
t
ackl
i
ngt
hewor
stf
orm ofi
nhumanordegr
adi
ngt
reat
ment
sinhi
stor
y.Sl
aver
y
i
sasoci
o-economi
csy
stem underwhi
chcer
tai
nper
sons-
knownassl
aves-
are
depr
ivedofper
sonalf
reedom andcompel
l
edt
oper
for
mlabourorser
vicesf
or
ot
her
s.Thet
erm al
sor
efer
stot
hest
atusorcondi
ti
onoft
hoseper
sons,
whoar
e
t
reat
edast
hepr
oper
tyofanot
herper
sonorhousehol
d.Sl
avesar
ehel
dagai
nst
t
hei
rwi
l
lfr
om t
het
imeoft
hei
rcapt
ure,
pur
chase,
orbi
rt
h,andar
edepr
ivedof
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 168168

t
her
ightt
oleav
e,t
oref
uset
owor
k,ort
orecei
vecompensat
ioni
nret
urnf
ort
hei
r

l
abour
.As such,sl
aver
yis one f
orm ofi
nhuman t
reat
ment
.When we see
ser
vit
ude,i
tissl
i
ght
lydi
ff
erentf
rom sl
aver
yandt
henor
malappl
i
cat
ionoft
he
t
erm r
atheri
sas‘
i
nvol
unt
aryser
vit
ude’ast
her
ecoul
d bea l
awf
ulser
vant
-
mast
err
elat
ionshi
p.

Fori
nst
ancet
her
eisahot
lydebat
edi
ssueamongcont
empor
aryl
egalschol
ars
concer
ningabor
ti
onwher
ebysomest
rongl
yar
guet
hataconst
it
uti
onalr
ightt
o
abor
ti
oncoul
dbesust
ainedont
hebasi
sthatdeny
ingi
twoul
dsubj
ectwoment
o
i
nvol
unt
aryser
vit
udecont
rar
ytot
hepr
ohi
bit
ionofsuchconduct
. Onemaj
or
di
ff
icul
tywi
tht
he ar
gumentr
elat
es t
othe cl
aim t
hatpr
egnancyand chi
l
d-
bear
ingar
ewi
thi
nthescopeoft
het
erm"
ser
vit
ude"
.

Looki
ntot
hef
oll
owi
ngboxwher
eyoucanseet
hehi
stor
icalbackgr
oundt
o
sl
aver
yandser
vit
ude,andwhi
chwi
l
lgui
dey
out
ounder
standt
hedi
ff
erenceof
t
het
wot
erms.

Sl
aver
y&Ser
vit
ude
Negr
o’sSl
aver
y
I
ntheear
ly17th cent
uryf
ori
nst
ance,t
heconst
it
uti
onoft
heSt
ateofNor
th
Car
oli
napr
ovi
ded‘
Ever
yfr
eemanofCar
oli
nashal
lhav
eabsol
utepowerand
aut
hor
it
yov
ernegr
osl
avesofwhatopi
nionandr
eli
gionsoev
er.
’Byt
hel
awoft
he
‘
Slav
einCour
t’
,asl
avecoul
dnotbet
ri
edi
nthesamecour
tthatwasopenf
or
f
reeman.I
fhehadof
fendedser
iousl
yhemustbet
ri
edbef
oreanyt
hreej
ust
ices
of t
he peace and t
hree addi
ti
onal f
reehol
der
s who wer
e al
so
sl
avehol
der
s,ort
hemaj
orpar
toft
hem,andwhol
i
vedi
nthepr
eci
ncti
nwhi
ch
t
heof
fencewascommi
tt
ed.Thet
ri
bunalt
husconst
it
utedwast
ohav
epowert
o
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 169169

tr
yt he case accor
ding t
oit
s bestj
udgment
,to gi
ve sent
ence ofl
i
fe,or
other

cor
por
alpuni
shment
,andt
oor
dert
heexecut
ionoft
hesent
encebyt
her
egul
ar
of
fi
cer
soft
hel
aw…Ther
easonf
ort
hissepar
atecour
t,say
sDr
.Hawks,
wast
hat
t
hesl
avemi
ghtbet
ri
edatonce,sot
hathi
smast
ermi
ghtnotl
osehi
slabour
whi
l
ewai
ti
ngf
ort
het
imef
ort
her
egul
arcour
ttosi
t.

I
fasl
aveshoul
dbeex
ecut
edbyor
deroft
hecour
t,ori
fheshoul
dbeki
l
ledwhi
l
e
r
esi
sti
ngar
rest
,itwast
hedut
yoft
hiscour
ttoascer
tai
nhi
sval
ueandt
ogi
vea
cer
ti
fi
cat
eoft
hatv
aluat
iont
otheowner
.Thi
sent
it
ledt
heownert
oapol
l-
taxon
al
lthesl
avesi
nthegov
ernmenti
nor
dert
orei
mbur
sehi
mforhi
sloss.

I
twasapar
toft
heuni
ver
sall
aw ofSout
her
nsl
aver
ythatasl
aveshoul
dnot
t
est
if
yagai
nstawhi
teper
soni
nthecour
ts.I
nNor
thCar
oli
nat
hispr
inci
ple
seemst
ohav
ebeenr
ecogni
zedf
rom t
hef
ir
st;f
orTobi
asKni
ght
,whenhewas
char
gedi
n1719wi
thcompl
i
cit
ywi
thTeach,t
hepi
rat
e,ur
gedi
nhi
sdef
encet
hat
t
hepr
osecut
ionhadi
ntr
oducedt
heev
idenceoff
ournegr
osl
aves,&whi
chby
t
hel
awsandcust
om ofal
lAmer
icaoughtnott
obeexami
nedasev
idence,
nei
theri
sther
eev
idenceofanyv
ali
dit
yagai
nstanywhi
teper
sonwhat
soev
er.

Thi
sseemst
ohav
ebeenatt
hatt
imeamat
teroft
heunwr
it
tenl
awoft
hecol
ony
,
r
athert
hanacol
oni
alenact
ment
.Atanyr
ate,t
hef
ir
stt
imeweencount
ersucha
pr
ovi
si
oni
ntheNor
thCar
oli
nal
awsi
sinI
746…Buti
tiswel
ltor
emembert
hati
n
t
he day
s when sl
aver
ywas i
ntr
oduced i
nto Amer
ica t
her
e wer
etwo good
r
easons,as t
he whi
test
hought
,whyt
he negr
oesshoul
d notgi
ve ev
idence
agai
nstawhi
teman;(
I)Theywer
eint
hel
owestmor
alcondi
ti
on.Thosewho
hav
e notexami
ned cont
empor
aryt
est
imonyon t
he subj
ectwi
l
lnoteasi
l
y
i
magi
nehowt
henegr
oesl
i
ved.Theywer
enat
ural
l
yignor
ant
,super
sti
ti
ous,
and
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 170170

f
il
ledwi
thi
ntensehat
redf
ort
hosewhomadet
hem sl
avesandhel
dthem as

such.Theywer
ebest
ial
,gi
vent
othewor
stv
ener
ealdi
seasesandt
heyhadl
i
ttl
e
ornor
egar
dfort
hemar
ri
agebond.I
ndeed,asBr
ickel
lsay
s,mar
ri
agesatv
ery
l
i
ght
lyont
hem.Theywer
eunchast
eandmost
lyunr
eli
abl
e;(
II
)TheAf
ri
canswer
e
pagans.Thosef
ew who pr
ofessedconv
ersi
ont
o Chr
ist
iani
tycoul
dnothav
e
had any cl
ear
ly def
ined i
dea ofChr
ist
ian pr
inci
ples.The mass who wer
e
unconv
ert
edcoul
d hav
ever
yli
tt
ler
egar
dfort
heChr
ist
ianoat
h.How coul
d
suchper
sons,ar
guedt
hecol
oni
sts,beal
l
owedt
oimper
ilt
hel
i
vesofChr
ist
ian
whi
tes?Thatsucht
est
imonyshoul
dnotber
ecei
vedwasqui
tei
nkeepi
ngwi
th
t
hespi
ri
toft
het
imes.

Whi
teSer
vit
ude
Thef
ir
stl
abour
erst
hatt
heEngl
i
sht
ookt
otheNewWor
ldcol
oni
eswer
ewhi
tes,
whodur
ingt
hef
ir
sty
ear
soft
hei
rresi
dencewer
eobl
i
gedt
oser
vet
heset
tl
ersi
n
t
hecapaci
tyofbondedser
vant
s.Thesepeopl
ewer
ecommonl
ycal
l ser
ed‘ vant
s’;
Chr
ist
ianser
vant
s;andassuchar
etobedi
sti
ngui
shedf
rom sl
aves.I
nregar
dto
t
hem,
aswel
last
othesl
aves,
thei
rhi
stor
yasi
trel
atedt
oNor
thCar
oli
nabegi
ns
i
nVi
rgi
nia.Ther
ewer
ethr
eesour
cesoft
hesuppl
yoft
heseser
vant
s:(
I)Ther
e
wer
eindebt
ed ser
vant
s,peopl
eofno meanswho,bei
ng unabl
eto payf
or
passaget
oAmer
ica,agr
eedt
oassi
gnt
hemsel
vesf
oracer
tai
nper
iodt
osome
shi
p-capt
ainoncondi
ti
ont
hatwhenher
eachedVi
rgi
niahemi
ghtt
ransf
erhi
s
r
ightf
ormoneyt
osomeonewhowoul
dmai
ntai
nandwor
ktheser
vantf
ort
he
gi
venper
iod.(
II
)Tr
anspor
tedf
elons,whower
esuchcr
imi
nal
s,v
agabonds,or
ot
herobnoxi
ousper
sonsaswer
esentt
othecol
oni
esbyor
deroft
heEngl
i
sh
cour
ts.(
II
I)Ki
dnappedper
sons,usual
l
ychi
l
dren,whower
est
olenbyt
rader
sor
shi
p-capt
ainsi
ntheLondonorLi
ver
poolst
reet
sandt
akent
oAmer
ica,wher
e
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 171171

t
heywer
e assi
gned t
il
lofage t
o such pl
ant
ers as woul
d payt
he pr
ices

demandedf
ort
hei
rpassages.Fr
om t
heset
hreesour
cesmanypeopl
ecame
to
Vi
rgi
niadur
ingt
hef
ir
stsi
xtyy
ear
sofi
tsset
tl
ement
.

At t
he t
ime,howev
er,at whi
ch Nor
th Car
oli
na was bei
ng set
tl
ed,t
he
i
mpor
tat
ionoft
hesepeopl
ewasbei
ngchecked.Thi
swasduet
oatl
eastt
wo
r
easons:(
I)TheBr
it
ishgov
ernmentwasact
ual
l
yexer
ti
ngi
tsel
ftor
epl
acet
he
whi
teser
vant
swi
thnegr
osl
aves.I
nthi
stheKi
ngwasi
nter
est
ed.I
n1661t
he
Roy
alAf
ri
canCompanywasor
gani
zed.TheDukeofYor
kwasatt
heheadoft
he
ent
erpr
iseandt
heKi
ngwasal
argest
ockhol
der
;(I
I)Thei
ncomi
ngofnegr
o
sl
aves,who,whent
heexper
iment
alst
ageofsl
aver
ywaspast
,wer
eseent
obe
cheapert
hanwhi
teser
vant
s,waspr
obabl
ythemostpower
fulofal
lthecauses.
Ther
ival
rywasbet
weent
hewhi
tesandt
hebl
acks.Thebl
ackswon.Theabuses
connect
edwi
thI
ndi
ansl
aver
ytouchedt
heconsci
enceoft
hepeopl
e,andnegr
oes
who coul
d bet
terst
and sl
aver
ywer
eint
roduced t
orepl
ace i
t.The abuses
connect
edwi
thwhi
teser
vit
udet
ouchedt
hehear
tsoft
heBr
it
ishpeopl
e,and
agai
nthenegr
owascal
l
edi
ntobeart
hebur
denoft
henecessar
ylabour
.Ineach
casei
twasasur
viv
aloft
hef
it
test
.Bot
hIndi
ansl
aver
yandwhi
teser
vit
udewer
e
t
o go downbef
oret
hebl
ackman’
ssuper
iorendur
ance,doci
l
ity
,and l
abour
capaci
ty…’(
Excer
ptf
rom ‘
Slav
eryandSer
vit
udei
ntheCol
onyofNor
thCar
oli
na’
,
JohnSpencerBar
ret
t,Apr
il1896)

DearSt
udent
,doy
ougett
hehi
stor
icaldev
elopmentofsl
aver
yandser
vit
ude?
Whataboutt
hei
rdi
ff
erence?I
tisgoodt
onot
eher
ethatf
orser
vit
udet
heser
vant
owessomeki
ndofcont
ract
ual
orot
her
wiseanal
l
egedobl
i
gat
ionf
orwhi
chhei
s
f
orcedt
oser
vehi
scr
edi
torbyhi
slabourorbet
ransf
err
edf
orconsi
der
ati
on.
Wheni
tcomest
osl
aver
y,t
her
edoesn’
texi
stanysuchf
orm ofobl
i
gat
ionont
he
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 172172

par
toft
hesl
ave.Whi
l
eser
vit
udewasusedf
ort
hewhi
tel
abour
erssl
aver
yis

speci
fi
cal
l
yusedf
ort
hebl
acks,
ast
heywer
ecal
l
edbyt
hen‘
negr
oes.
’Nowbot
h

act
sar
econsi
der
edasi
nhumanast
heyar
econt
rar
ytohumandi
gni
ty.

Tr
aff
icki
ng,
whi
chi
scl
osel
yrel
atedwi
thsl
aver
yandser
vit
ude,
isal
sopr
ohi
bit
ed

byt
heFDREconst
it
uti
on.Ev
eni
fther
ear
eindependentconv
ent
ionst
hatone
wayoranot
herr
elat
etot
hepr
ohi
bit
ionoft
heact
soft
raf
fi
cki
ng,t
heI
CCPR
doesn’
thav
eanexpl
i
citpr
ovi
si
onont
hismat
ter
,thoughi
tispossi
blet
oconsi
der
i
ttof
alli
nonewayoranot
herunderAr
ts7and8.Thatasi
de,ourconst
it
uti
on
hascl
ear
lyaddr
essedt
hei
ssue,
especi
all
yconsi
der
ingt
hegr
avi
tyoft
hecr
imeof
t
raf
fi
cki
ngi
nat
hir
dwor
ldcount
ryl
i
keEt
hiopi
a,t
her
eisnodoubtt
hatsuch
expl
i
citpr
ohi
bit
ioni
snecessar
y.Ther
ecent
lypr
omul
gat
edcr
imi
nalcodeal
so
haspr
ovi
dedf
ort
hepenal
ti
esandot
herdet
ail
edmat
ter
sconcer
ningt
hiscr
ime.
(
Seespeci
fi
cal
l
yAr
ts597&598oft
heRev
isedCr
imi
nal
Code)

Tr
aff
icki
ng of human bei
ngs i
sthe r
ecr
uit
ment
,tr
anspor
tat
ion,t
ransf
er,
har
bour
ing orr
ecei
ptofpeopl
efort
he pur
pose ofexpl
oit
ati
on.Tr
aff
icki
ng
i
nvol
vesapr
ocessofusi
ngi
l
li
ci
tmeanssuchast
hreatoruseoff
orceorot
her
f
ormsofcoer
cion,
ofabduct
ion,
off
raud,ofdecept
ion,
oft
heabuseofpoweror
of a posi
ti
on of v
ulner
abi
l
ity
.Expl
oit
ati
on i
ncl
udes f
orci
ng peopl
e i
nto
pr
ost
it
uti
onorot
herf
ormsofsexualexpl
oit
ati
on,f
orced l
abourorser
vices,
sl
aver
yorpr
act
ices si
mil
art
o sl
aver
y,ser
vit
ude ort
he r
emov
alofor
gans.
Chi
l
drenexpl
oit
ati
onmayi
ncl
udeal
soi
l
li
citi
nter
nat
ionaladopt
ion,t
raf
fi
cki
ngf
or
ear
lymar
ri
age,
andr
ecr
uit
mentaschi
l
dsol
dier
s,f
orbeggi
ngorf
orspor
ts.

Dearst
udent
,youheart
imeandagai
nthecasesofpeopl
ewhoar
esentt
othe
gul
fregi
onbybr
oker
swhoser
veas‘
fl
ight
-ar
ranger
s’wi
thapr
omi
seofwor
k
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 173173

oppor
tuni
ti
es.Oncet
heper
sonsar
eout
,theywi
l
lhav
etost
ayatapl
acewher
e

t
heseagent
sdet
ermi
neandser
vet
her
easl
ongast
heagent
swantt
hem t
o.As
bondaget
heypossesst
hei
rpasspor
tssot
hatt
heywi
l
lhav
ethel
egalr
ightt
o
mov
ear
oundbyt
hemsel
ves.Theseandsi
mil
aract
sar
ewhatt
heconst
it
uti
on
speci
fi
cal
l
ypr
ohi
bit
sandt
hisi
snoany
mor
edi
ff
erentf
rom t
heactofser
vit
udeor
ev
ensl
aver
y.

3.
4.Pr
ohi
bit
ionofFor
cedorCompul
sor
yLabour
Thef
inalbi
tofAr
t18oft
heFDREconst
it
uti
onandAr
t8oft
heI
CCPRr
elat
est
o
t
hepr
ohi
bit
ionoff
orcedl
abourandi
tsv
ari
ousexcept
ions.Whi
l
esubpar
agr
aph
(
3)pr
ovi
dest
her
uleofpr
ohi
bit
ionsubpar
agr
aph(
4)exhaust
ivel
yli
stst
hose
except
ionst
hatmaynotbeconsi
der
edasf
orcedorcompul
sor
ylabour
.Li
kewi
se,
Ar
t8(
3)(
a)oft
heI
CCPRst
atest
hepr
ohi
bit
ionf
oll
owedbysubpar
agr
aph(
b)and
(
c)whi
chgi
vet
hel
i
stsofexcept
ionsf
rom t
her
ule.Di
dyounot
icet
hesef
act
s
f
rom y
ourr
eadi
ng?Ver
ygood!

Whi
l
ethe1926Sl
aver
yConv
ent
iondef
inedsl
aver
yandsl
avet
radenar
rowl
yit
hasbeenbr
oadenedt
oincl
udef
orcedorcompul
sor
ylabouri
n1930oft
heI
LO
Conv
ent
ionconcer
ningFor
cedorCompul
sor
yLabourbyst
ati
ng“
..
.al
lwor
kor
ser
vicewhi
chi
sexact
edf
rom anyper
sonundert
hemenace16ofanypenal
tyand
f
orwhi
cht
hesai
dper
sonhasnotof
fer
edhi
msel
fvol
unt
ari
l
y.”Thus,i
tisnow
wel
lest
abl
i
shedt
hatanyf
orcedorcompul
sor
ylabourf
orwhat
everr
easoni
s
consi
der
edasanactal
mostsi
mil
art
osl
aver
y.

Howev
er,
thi
sisnot
,justl
i
ket
her
ightt
oli
fe,
wit
houtexcept
ion.Dearst
udent
,iti
s

goodt
obeari
nmi
ndt
hatwhent
heI
CCPRmadeAr
t8anon-
der
ogabl
eone

16
Thr
eat
,danger
,et
c
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 174174

underAr
t4(
2),t
her
eisacar
efuldr
aft
ingi
nthati
thasonl
yst
atedAr
t8

par
agr
aph1 and 2 whi
chr
elat
etot
hepr
ohi
bit
ionofsl
aver
yand ser
vit
ude.
Howev
er,Ar
t93(
4)(
c)oft
heFDREconst
it
uti
onhasnotmadeanyspeci
fi
c
di
sti
nct
ionamongt
hesubpar
agr
aphsandmadet
hepr
ovi
si
onnon-
der
ogabl
ein
i
tst
otal
i
ty.Pr
act
ical
l
y,howev
er,t
hati
snotasoundappr
oachf
ort
hepr
ovi
si
on
hasexcept
ionswher
ebyaper
sonmaybemadet
oengagei
nacompul
sor
ylabour
ev
enwi
thoutanydecl
aredst
ateofemer
gency
.Thus,i
tgi
vesl
i
ttl
eornosenset
o
make a pr
ovi
si
on subj
ectt
orest
ri
cti
on ev
en i
nti
mes ofpeace as a non-
der
ogabl
eone out
-ri
ght
ly. Thi
s bei
ng sai
din gener
alaboutt
he except
ion,
l
et’
snowconsi
dert
he nat
ure ofsome oft
hose ci
rcumst
ances wher
e one
mi
ghtbecompel
l
edt
opr
ovi
deser
vice.

Thef
ir
str
elat
est
ocompul
sor
ylabourt
obedonei
ndet
ent
ionf
aci
l
iti
esbyt
hose
per
sonswho ar
elawf
ull
yputi
nto cust
ody
.It
hinkbynow y
our
eal
i
sehow
i
dent
ical
thet
ermsoft
heI
CCPRandourconst
it
uti
onar
efort
hemostpar
tofAr
t
18.The cat
ch-
wor
ds i
nthi
s pr
ovi
si
on ar
e‘any wor
k orser
vice nor
mal
l
y
requi
red’
i
nconsequenceofal
and‘ awf
ulor
der
.’Thef
actt
hataper
soni
sunderdet
ent
ion
maynotgi
vebl
anketper
missi
ont
othel
aw-
enf
orci
ngagent
stomakehi
m/herdo
what
evert
heyl
i
ke.I
tisonl
ythosewor
ksorser
vicest
hatar
enor
mal
l
yrequi
red
ofa per
son i
nthatsi
tuat
ion.Any
thi
ng mor
e woul
d amountt
oinhuman or
degr
adi
ngt
reat
menti
nvi
olat
ionofAr
t18(
1)andAr
t21(
1)oft
heconst
it
uti
on.
Fori
nst
ance,f
orci
ng f
emal
e det
aineest
o gi
ve a pr
ost
it
ute’
sser
vice i
s not
somet
hingt
hati
snor
mal
l
yrequi
redofaper
soni
nthatsi
tuat
ion,ev
eni
fthey
hav
e had pr
ost
it
uti
on as t
hei
rmeans ofl
i
vel
i
hood bef
oret
hei
rdet
ent
ion.
Mor
eov
er,t
hei
mposi
ti
onofacompul
sor
ylabourcanonl
ybeconst
it
uti
onali
fit
i
saf
oll
ow-
upofal
awf
uldet
ent
ion.
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 175175

Thesecondexcept
ionr
elat
eswi
tht
hecompul
sor
yser
vicet
obeor
der
edi
nli
euof

mi
l
itar
yser
vicet
owhi
chani
ndi
vi
dualobj
ect
s,anddoessoconsci
ent
iousl
y17
(
knownasConsci
ent
iousObj
ect
ion)
.Dearst
udent
,thi
sisnotamat
teraseasy
asi
tmi
ghtappearatf
ir
stsi
ght
.Fr
om t
heout
set
,ist
hisappl
i
cabl
eonl
ytot
he
mi
l
itar
yper
sonnelori
sitappl
i
cabl
etoev
ery
one?Doal
lindi
vi
dual
shav
ethe
obl
i
gat
iont
orendermi
l
itar
yser
vice,becauset
otal
koft
heexcept
ionwemust
f
ir
stest
abl
i
sh t
hatev
ery
one has t
he obl
i
gat
ion unl
ess he consci
ent
iousl
y
obj
ect
stot
hemi
l
itar
yser
vice?Whatconst
it
utesan obj
ect
ionwhi
chcanbe
consi
der
edconsci
ent
iousandent
it
let
heper
sonwhodoessot
oasubst
it
ute
publ
i
cser
viceot
hert
hanmi
l
itar
yone?Whati
sthebasi
sfort
her
ightt
oobj
ect
consci
ent
iousl
y
t
oami
l
itar
yser
vice?

Thesear
ethei
ssuest
hatwewi
l
lhav
etot
hinkwhi
l
ereadi
ngAr
t18(
4)(
b).

Gener
all
y speaki
ng,t
he pr
ovi
si
on i
s notmeantexcl
usi
vel
yfort
he mi
l
itar
y
per
sonnelsi
ncei
tisnotl
i
kel
yformi
l
itar
yper
sonnelt
oenj
oyt
hisf
orm ofr
ightt
o
obj
ect
.Onces/
hej
oinst
hemi
l
itar
ythatmeanss/
hehasgi
venhi
s/herconsentt
o
r
ender t
he r
equi
red st
andar
d of mi
l
itar
y ser
vice.Thus,t
his pr
ovi
si
on i
s
appl
i
cabl
erat
hert
othosebef
orej
oini
ngt
hemi
l
itar
yandt
hisl
eadsust
oask
whet
herornotev
ery
onehas t
he dut
ytor
endermi
l
itar
yser
vicewher
e hi
s
count
ryi
satwarori
nast
ateofemer
gencyt
hatcal
l
sforami
l
itar
yoper
ati
on.
Ther
eisnocl
ear
lyst
atedl
awont
hismat
terandt
hemoder
nappr
oacht
oiti
sjust
t
omaket
hisser
vicecompl
etel
yvol
unt
ary
.Ift
hiswer
etobet
rue,doy
out
hink
weneed a pr
ovi
si
onon consci
ent
iousobj
ect
ion,asi
twoul
d be up t
othe
i
ndi
vi
dualt
oornott
ojoi
nthemi
l
itar
ywi
thorwi
thoutr
eason?Sur
elywe

17
Dut
if
ull
y,f
ait
hful
ly
,rel
i
abl
y,l
oyal
l
y
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 176176

woul
dn’
tneedt
ohav
esuchal
awofmi
l
itar
yser
vicewer
evol
unt
ary
!Thus,
one

under
standi
ngoft
hispr
ovi
si
oncoul
dbei
timpl
i
cit
lyt
ri
est
oimposet
hedut
yon
ev
ery
onet
opr
ovi
demi
l
itar
yser
viceunl
esss/
heconsci
ent
iousl
yobj
ect
stoi
t.I
t
hinkt
hewor
dingofAr
t18whi
chsay
s‘…i
nli
euofcompul
sor
ymi
l
itar
yser
vice’
i
mpl
i
est
hatt
heexcept
ioni
sappl
i
cabl
ewher
emi
l
itar
yser
vicei
scompul
sor
y.
Thosewhohav
econsci
ent
iousl
yobj
ect
edt
othedi
schar
geoft
hei
rmi
l
itar
ydut
ies,
t
heyst
il
lhav
etheobl
i
gat
iont
opr
ovi
deacompar
abl
epubl
i
cser
vicewhi
chwi
l
l
becompul
sor
yaswel
l
.

Theot
heri
mpor
tantpoi
ntwor
thnot
ingher
eist
hebasi
sforcl
ami
ngt
her
ightt
o
suchanobj
ect
ion.Whatdoy
out
hinki
sit
sbasi
s?Wi
tht
hisr
egar
ditwoul
dbe
goodt
oquot
etheHumanRi
ght
sCommi
tt
ee’
scommentonAr
t18oft
heI
CCPR
whi
chi
sAr
t27undert
heFDREconst
it
uti
on.

Many i
ndi
vi
dual
s have cl
aimed t
he r
ightt
oref
use t
o per
for
m
mi
l
itar
yser
vice(
consci
ent
iousobj
ect
ion)ont
hebasi
sthatsuchr
ight
der
ivesf
rom t
hei
rfr
eedomsunderar
ti
cle18. I
nresponset
osuch
cl
aims,agr
owi
ngnumberofSt
ateshavei
nthei
rlawsexempt
ed
f
rom compul
sor
y mi
l
itar
y ser
vice ci
ti
zens who genui
nel
y hol
d
r
eli
giousorot
herbel
i
efst
hatf
orbi
dtheper
for
manceofmi
l
itar
y
ser
vice and r
epl
aced i
twi
th al
ter
nat
ive nat
ionalser
vice. The
Covenantdoes notexpl
i
cit
lyr
efert
oar
ightt
o consci
ent
ious
obj
ect
ion,butt
he Commi
tt
ee bel
i
eves t
hatsuch a r
ightcan be
der
ivedf
rom ar
ti
cle18,i
nasmuch as t
he obl
i
gat
ion t
o use l
ethal
f
orce18 mayser
iousl
yconf
li
ctwi
tht
hef
reedom ofconsci
enceand
t
he r
ightt
o mani
festone’
srel
i
gionorbel
i
ef. Whent
hisr
ighti
s
r
ecogni
zedbyl
aw orpr
act
ice,t
her
e
shal
lbeno di
ff
erent
iat
ionamongconsci
ent
iousobj
ect
orson t
he
basi
soft
he

18
Deadl
y,f
atal
,mor
tal
orasdanger
ousaski
l
li
ng
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 177177

nat
ure of thei
r par
ti
cul
arbel
i
efs;l
i
kewi
se,t
her
e shal
lbe no
di
scri
minat
ion
agai
nstconsci
ent
iousobj
ect
orsbecauset
heyhavef
ail
edt
oper
for
m
mi
l
itar
yser
vice… (
Excer
ptf
rom HumanRi
ght
sCommi
tt
eeGener
al
CommentNumber22:Ar
t18-
Freedom ofThought
,Consci
enceor
Rel
i
gion,
1993,
Par
a11)

Dearst
udent
,doy
ounot
icet
hel
i
nkaget
hatpr
esumabl
yexi
stsbet
weent
her
ight
t
omakeconsci
ent
iousobj
ect
iont
omi
l
itar
yser
viceandt
her
ightaspr
ovi
ded
underAr
t27oft
heFDREconst
it
uti
onwhi
chr
elat
est
othef
reedom ofThought
,
Rel
i
gion and Opi
nion? I
tinf
actpr
edomi
nant
lyr
elat
es wi
th one’
srel
i
gious
conv
ict
ionsi
nusi
ngar
msorot
her
wisel
ethalf
orceev
enonone’
s‘enemi
es.
’Thus,
i
fonemakessuchasser
ti
on,t
her
eisnol
egalgr
oundnott
oaccepthi
srequest
t
obeexempt
edf
rom t
hemi
l
itar
yser
vice.However
,s/
hewi
l
lbeobl
i
gedt
orender
acompar
abl
epubl
i
cser
vice,
inst
ead.

One f
oll
ow-
up quest
ion r
elat
es wi
th cr
edi
bil
i
ty of t
he cl
aim or t
he
consci
ent
iousness oft
he obj
ect
ion.The obj
ect
ion needs t
o be r
eli
abl
e or
si
ncer
e(consci
ent
ious)andwhati
slesscl
eari
sthest
andar
dofassessi
ngsuch
si
ncer
it
y.Shoul
ditber
eadi
l
yaccept
edwhenev
eraper
sonal
l
egest
hatsuch
mi
l
itar
yser
vice conf
li
cts wi
th hi
s/her r
eli
gious conv
ict
ion or shoul
d t
he
aut
hor
it
iesengagei
nthei
nvest
igat
ionoft
heal
l
egedr
eli
giousdogmasoast
o
j
udget
hesi
ncer
it
yoft
hecl
aim? Wi
tht
hisr
egar
d,t
heposi
ti
onoft
heHuman
Ri
ght
sCommi
tt
eei
scl
earasi
tisst
atedi
ntheabov
equot
edcommentwhi
chsay
s
‘
Whent
hisr
ighti
srecogni
zedbyl
aworpr
act
ice,
ther
eshal
lbenodi
ff
erent
iat
ion
amongconsci
ent
iousobj
ect
orsont
hebasi
soft
henat
ureoft
hei
rpar
ti
cul
ar
bel
i
efs.
’Thi
simpl
i
est
hatoncet
her
ightt
oobj
ectami
l
itar
yser
vicei
slegal
l
y
r
ecogni
sed t
he aut
hor
it
ies ar
e bar
red f
rom quest
ioni
ng t
he nat
ure oft
he
par
ti
cul
arr
eli
gionorbel
i
efonwhi
cht
heobj
ect
ioni
sbased.Thi
sint
erpr
etat
ion
canv
ali
dlybeappl
i
ed
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 178178

f
orunder
standi
ngt
heFDREconst
it
uti
onaswel
lsi
ncet
heyar
eoft
hesame

cont
entandnat
ure,
amongot
herr
easons.

Theot
hert
woexcept
ionsf
rom t
hepr
ohi
bit
ionoff
orcedorcompul
sor
ylabour
r
elat
etoser
vicesper
tai
ningt
oemer
gencysi
tuat
ionsandcommuni
tyser
vices
v
olunt
ari
l
ydi
schar
ged.Thus,wher
ethest
atei
sindangerduet
oman-
madeor
nat
uralcal
ami
ti
es,ev
ery
onehast
heobl
i
gat
iont
ocont
ri
but
etot
heav
oidanceof
t
hatt
hreatandi
nsuchsi
tuat
ionst
hest
atecancompeli
ndi
vi
dual
stopr
ovi
det
he
neededser
vice.Thesecondandt
hel
astonei
scommuni
tyser
vicewhi
chi
s
pr
ovi
ded ‘
vol
unt
ari
l
y.’Her
eonecan sensea ki
nd ofcont
radi
cti
onsi
ncet
he
whol
eideaoft
hesubpar
agr
aphbei
ngt
opr
ovi
deexcept
ionst
onon-
vol
unt
ary
l
abouri
tst
atesacasewher
eindi
vi
dual
smaybeaskedt
opr
ovi
decommuni
ty
ser
vicev
olunt
ari
l
y.

Themeani
ngoft
hepr
ovi
si
onmustbeunder
stoodt
oref
ert
o caseswher
e
per
sonsmi
ghtbecompel
l
edt
orendercommuni
tyser
vicesi
nthei
rlocal
i
tiesf
rom
whi
cht
hoser
esi
dent
soft
hear
eacommunal
l
ybenef
it
.Thus,oncet
hepur
pose,
nat
ureandext
entoft
heser
vicef
ort
hecommongoodi
svol
unt
ari
l
yagr
eed,
then
i
tbecomesev
ery
one’
sobl
i
gat
iont
opar
ti
ci
pat
eint
hatdev
elopmentact
ivi
tyt
hat
i
s goi
ng t
o be enj
oyedi
n commonwi
thoutt
he possi
bil
i
tyofexcl
usi
on.For
i
nst
ance,once i
nthe associ
ati
on ofa cer
tai
n house-
owner
s(‘
Yebetsi
ra
mahi
ber
’,f
ori
nst
ance)anagr
eementi
sreachedt
oconst
ructagr
eenar
eaor
r
oadwhi
chbenef
it
sal
lthemember
soft
heassoci
ati
onandwhi
chneedst
he
par
ti
ci
pat
ionofal
l(bot
hfi
nanci
alaswel
lasl
abour
)theneachmemberi
sobl
i
ged
t
opr
ovi
det
her
equi
redser
vicewi
thi
nhi
s/herabi
l
iti
es.

Thi
spr
ovi
si
onhasbeenst
atedi
nabet
tercl
ari
tyundert
heI
CCPR,whi
chi
sthe
sour
ce-
documentf
ort
heFDREconst
it
uti
on.
Itst
ates‘
Anywor
korser
vicewhi
ch
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 179179

f
ormspar
tofnor
malci
vi
lobl
i
gat
ions.
’Thus,wear
eref
err
ingt
onor
malci
vi
l

obl
i
gat
ionofev
ery
oneandt
hepr
ohi
bit
iononf
orcedl
abourwi
l
lnotbeadef
ense
f
ort
hesecases.

Dearst
udent
,wi
tht
hiswewi
l
lhav
etoendourdi
scussi
onoft
het
hir
dchapt
erso
t
hatwecoul
dmov
efor
war
d.Bef
oret
hat
,asusualIwi
l
lhav
etobot
hery
ouwi
th
r
evi
si
onquest
ions,
whi
chIbel
i
evewi
l
lhel
pyour
evi
sey
ourr
eadi
ngs.Iwi
l
lhav
eto
st
il
li
nsi
stt
hatdon’
tlooki
ntomysuggest
edanswer
sbef
oret
ryi
ngi
tbyy
ourown.
Goodl
uck!

Exer
ciseI
II

1.Whatconst
it
utest
ort
ure?

2.Gi
veatl
eastt
woexampl
esf
orpsy
chol
ogi
calt
ort
ureandt
woot
her
sfor

phy
sical
tor
tur
e.

3.Doy
out
hinkt
hepr
ohi
bit
ionoft
ort
urei
scov
eredunderAr
t18(
1)oft
he

FDREconst
it
uti
on?

4.Descr
ibesomeoft
heobl
i
gat
ionsoft
hest
atet
orespectandpr
otect
the
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 180180

r
ightt
obef
reef
rom i
l
l-
tr
eat
ment
sment
ionedunderAr
t18(
2)oft
he

const
it
uti
on.

5.Ment
ionatl
eastt
wodi
ff
erencesbet
weenAr
t7oft
heI
CCPRandAr
t18(
1)

oft
heFDREconst
it
uti
on.

6.Doy
out
hinkourconst
it
uti
onAr
t18(
1)mustbei
nter
pret
edi
nsuchaway

t
hati
tpr
ohi
bit
s cor
por
alpuni
shmentt
hatpar
ent
simpose on t
hei
r

chi
l
drenf
orshapi
ngbehav
iour
?

7.Doy
oubuyt
hear
gumentt
hatsay
sthatabor
ti
onmustbel
egalbecausei
t

ot
her
wise woul
d amountt
o subj
ect
ing t
he woman t
oinv
olunt
ary

ser
vit
ude?Why
/Whynot
?

8.Whati
sthedi
ff
erencebet
weensl
aver
yandser
vit
ude?
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 181181

9.TheMi
nist
ryofLabourandSoci
alAf
fai
rs(
MOLSA)hasauni
twi
thi
nit
s

st
ruct
uret
hatgi
vesl
i
censest
othosewhowantt
o pr
ovi
deser
viceof
connect
ingl
ocalempl
oyeesandempl
oyer
sabr
oad.Ther
ear
eatl
eastt
wo
suchagent
sthathav
ebeeni
ssueswi
thl
i
censesbyMOLSA.Doy
out
hink
t
his acti
s const
it
uti
onalwhen l
ooked i
ntof
rom t
he pr
ovi
si
on t
hat
pr
ohi
bit
str
aff
icki
ngi
nhumanbei
ngs?

10.
Whati
sthedi
ff
erencey
ouf
indi
ntheder
ogat
ionpr
ovi
si
onsoft
heI
CCPR

andt
heFRDEconst
it
uti
onconcer
ningAr
t8and18,r
espect
ivel
y,oft
he

I
CCPRandourconst
it
uti
on?

Ayel
11. eEj
i
gust
rongl
yobj
ect
stot
hedeci
si
onoft
heexecut
iveor
gant
ogot
o

Somal
i
ainsuppor
toft
het
ransi
ti
onalgov
ernmenti
nit
swaragai
nsti
ts
i
nsur
gent
s.He consi
der
sthe i
nvol
vementofEt
hiopi
a as an actof
‘
meddl
i
ng’i
not
herst
ate’
sdomest
icaf
fai
rs.Hej
oinedt
hemi
l
itar
ylong
bef
oret
houghhehasl
ong-
standi
ngpol
i
ticaldi
ff
erencewi
tht
her
uli
ng
par
ty.Thi
s cur
renti
nci
dentt
est
ed hi
s pat
ience so much so t
hathe
expl
i
cit
ly decl
ared hi
s i
ntent
ion t
o consci
ent
iousl
y obj
ect t
o hi
s
depl
oymentt
oSomal
i
a.Doy
out
hinkhi
sdeci
si
onwoul
dbei
nli
newi
tht
he
FDREconst
it
uti
on?
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 182182

Chapt
erI
V:Ther
ight
sofAr
rest
ed,
AccusedandPer
sonsi
n

Cust
ody

4.
1.Gener
alI
ntr
oduct
ion
Dearst
udent
,nowwear
egoi
ngt
oreadAr
ts19,20and21whi
char
epr
ovi
si
ons
i
ntheFDREconst
it
uti
onr
elat
ingt
ori
ght
sofper
sonsar
rest
ed,
accusedandt
hose
whoser
ight
sofmov
ementhav
ebeenr
est
ri
ctedf
ordi
ff
erentr
easons.Thesear
e
somehow consi
der
ed t
he r
ight
s of i
ndi
vi
dual
s i
n cr
imi
nal pr
oceedi
ngs.
Accor
dingl
y,t
her
ewi
l
lbet
imet
haty
ouwi
l
lhav
etocomeacr
osssi
mil
ari
ssues
somewher
einy
our cr
imi
nalpr
ocedur
e cour
se.These pr
ovi
si
ons of t
he
const
it
uti
onl
aydownt
hebasi
cpr
inci
plesont
hemat
terwhi
char
eexpect
edt
obe
i
mpl
ement
edbyt
hedet
ail
edpr
ovi
si
onsoft
hecr
imi
nal
procedur
elaw.

Obj
ect
ive:
Att
heendoft
hisr
eadi
ng,
thest
udent

 Wi
l
lbeabl
etoanal
yset
her
ight
soft
hear
rest
edper
sons,

 Under
standt
her
ightofbai
l
,

 Beabl
etoscr
uti
niset
her
ightt
ofai
rtr
ialasi
ncl
udedi
nthenat
ionalas
wel
lasi
nter
nat
ional
humanr
ight
sst
andar
ds,
 Knowst
hev
ari
ousr
ight
sofper
sonaccused,

 Beabl
etoexpl
aint
hemeani
ngoft
her
ightt
obepr
esumedi
nnocent
,

 Under
standt
her
ight
sofper
sonsi
ncust
ody
,

 Bei
naposi
ti
ont
orespondt
otheor
eti
calandpr
act
icalquest
ionsr
elat
ing
t
oAr
ts19,
20and21oft
heFDREconst
it
uti
on.
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 183183

4.
2. The Ri
ght
s of Ar
rest
ed
Per
sons
Dearst
udent
,iti
sgoodt
ost
artbyr
eadi
ngAr
t19oft
heFDREconst
it
uti
on
t
oget
herwi
tht
he r
elev
antpr
ovi
si
on i
nthe I
CCPR bef
ore ent
eri
ng i
ntot
he
det
ail
edanal
ysi
sofwhatt
her
ight
sofanar
rest
edper
sonar
e.Youshoul
dbeari
n
mi
ndt
hathow anar
resti
smadebyi
tsel
finv
olv
esv
ari
ousi
ssuesofl
egal
i
ty
whi
char
eexcl
usi
vel
ywi
thi
nther
eal
msoft
hecr
imi
nal
procedur
e.
Ar
ti
cl
e19:
RightofPer
sonsAr
rest
ed

1.Per
sonsar
rest
edhavet
her
ightt
obei
nfor
medpr
ompt
ly,i
na
l
anguaget
heyunder
stand,
oft
her
easonsf
ort
hei
rar
restandofanychar
ge
agai
nstt
hem.
2.Personsar
rest
edhavet
her
ightt
oremai
nsi
l
ent
.Uponar
rest
,theyhavet
he
ri
ght
t
o be i
nfor
med pr
ompt
ly,i
nal
anguage t
hey under
stand,t
hatany
st
atementt
heymakemaybeusedasevi
denceagai
nstt
hem i
ncour
t.
3.Personsar
rest
edhavet
her
ightt
obebr
oughtbef
oreacour
twi
thi
n48
hour
sof
t
hei
rar
rest
.Sucht
imeshal
lnoti
ncl
udet
het
imer
easonabl
yrequi
redf
or
t
hej
our
neyf
rom t
hepl
aceofar
restt
othecour
t.Onappear
ingbef
orea
cour
t,t
heyhavet
her
ightt
obegi
venpr
omptandspeci
fi
cexpl
anat
ionof
t
her
easonsf
ort
hei
rar
restduet
otheal
l
egedcr
imecommi
tt
ed.
4.Allpersonshaveani
nal
i
enabl
eri
ghtt
opet
it
iont
hecour
ttoor
dert
hei
r
physi
cal
r
eleasewher
ethear
rest
ingpol
i
ceof
fi
cerort
hel
awenf
orcerf
ail
stobr
ing
t
hem bef
oreacour
twi
thi
nthepr
escr
ibedt
imeandt
opr
ovi
der
easonsf
or
t
hei
rar
rest
.Wher
ethei
nter
estofj
ust
icer
equi
res,t
hecour
tmayor
dert
he
ar
rest
edper
sont
oremai
nincust
odyor
,whenr
equest
edr
emandhi
mfora
t
imest
ri
ctl
yrequi
redt
ocar
ry out t
he necessar
y i
nvest
igat
ion. I
n
det
ermi
ning t
he addi
ti
onalt
imenecessar
yfori
nvest
igat
ion,t
hecour
t
shal
lensur
ethatt
her
esponsi
blel
awenf
orcementaut
hor
it
ies car
ry out
t
hei
nvest
igat
ionr
espect
ingt
hear
rest
edper
son’
sri
ghtt
oaspeedyt
ri
al.
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 184184

5.Personsar
rest
edshal
lnotbecompel
l
edt
omakeconf
essi
onsor
admi
ssionswhi
ch
coul
dbeusedi
nevi
denceagai
nstt
hem.Anyevi
denceobt
ainedunder
coer
cionshal
lnotbeadmi
ssi
ble.
6.Persons ar
rest
ed have t
he r
ightt
o be r
eleased on bai
l.I
n
except
ional
ci
rcumst
ancespr
escr
ibedbyl
aw,t
hecour
tmaydenybai
lordemand
adequat
eguar
ant
eef
ort
hecondi
ti
onal
rel
easeoft
hear
rest
edper
son.

Ar
ti
cl
e9:
ICCPR

1. Ever
yonehast
her
ightt
oli
ber
tyandsecur
it
yofper
son.Nooneshal
lbe
subj
ect
edt
oar
bit
rar
yar
restordet
ent
ion.Nooneshal
lbedepr
ivedofhi
s
l
i
ber
tyexceptonsuchgr
oundsandi
naccor
dancewi
thsuchpr
ocedur
eas
ar
eest
abl
i
shedbyl
aw.
2. Anyonewhoi
sar
rest
edshal
lbei
nfor
med,att
het
imeofar
rest
,oft
he
r
easonsf
orhi
sar
restandshal
lbepr
ompt
lyi
nfor
medofanychar
ges
agai
nsthi
m.
3. Anyone ar
rest
ed ordet
ained on a cr
imi
nalchar
ge shal
lbe br
ought
pr
ompt
lybef
oreaj
udgeorot
herof
fi
ceraut
hor
izedbyl
aw t
oexer
cise
j
udi
cialpowerandshal
lbeent
it
ledt
otr
ialwi
thi
nar
easonabl
eti
meort
o
r
elease.I
tshal
lnotbet
hegener
alr
ulet
hatper
sonsawai
ti
ngt
ri
alshal
lbe
det
ainedi
ncust
ody,butr
eleasemaybesubj
ectt
oguar
ant
eest
oappear
f
ort
ri
al,atanyot
herst
age oft
he j
udi
cialpr
oceedi
ngs,and,shoul
d
occasi
onar
ise,
forexecut
ionoft
hej
udgement
.
4.Anyonewhoi
sdepr
ivedofhi
sli
ber
tybyar
restordet
ent
ionshal
lbe
ent
it
ledt
o
t
akepr
oceedi
ngsbef
orea cour
t,i
n or
dert
hatt
hatcour
tmaydeci
de
wi
thoutdel
ayont
hel
awf
ulnessofhi
sdet
ent
ionandor
derhi
srel
easei
f
t
hedet
ent
ioni
snotl
awf
ul.
5.Anyonewhohasbeent
hevi
cti
m ofunl
awf
ular
restordet
ent
ionshal
l
havean
enf
orceabl
e r
ight t
o
compensati
on.
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 185185

4.
2.1.
Ther
ightt
obei
nfor
med

Dearst
udent
,cany
ounot
icet
hef
ir
str
ightofanar
rest
edper
soni
ntheAr
tthatI
hav
eputf
ory
ouabov
e?Thi
srel
ateswi
tht
her
ightt
obei
nfor
medoft
her
easons
f
ort
hear
restandanychar
gest
hatar
ebr
oughtagai
nstt
hear
rest
ee.Ther
ightt
o
bei
nfor
medal
soi
ncl
udest
hewar
ningcl
auseaboutt
hear
rest
ee’
sri
ghtt
oremai
n
si
l
entandi
fs/
hewi
shest
ospeakt
hef
actt
hatt
hosest
atement
swi
l
lbeusedas
ev
idenceagai
nsthi
m/her
.Al
ltheset
hreef
ormsofi
nfor
mat
ionhav
etobemade
av
ail
abl
etot
heper
sonar
r edpr
est ompt
lyandt
hisi
spar
toft
her
ighti
tsel
fint
he
senset
hatl
atenessi
nmaki
ngt
hei
nfor
mat
ionav
ail
abl
etot
heper
sonamount
sto
v
iol
ati
onoft
her
ightt
obei
nfor
med.

Thequest
ionst
hatmi
ghtbeofr
elev
anceher
ear
ehowdet
ail
edt
hei
nfor
mat
ion
oughtt
obeandhowi
mmedi
ateshoul
dthei
nfor
mat
ionbegi
vensot
hati
twoul
d
beconsi
der
edt
ohav
ebeengi
venpr
ompt
lyasr
equi
redbyt
hisl
aw.Ev
eni
fthese
ar
e mor
e of cr
imi
nalpr
ocedur
e quest
ions,i
tis al
so i
mpor
tant f
or t
he
const
it
uti
onal
l
yst
ipul
atedr
ight
sandf
reedomst
ounder
standt
henat
ureoft
he
obl
i
gat
ion.Especi
all
ythe i
mmedi
acyoft
he i
nfor
mat
ionr
emai
ns t
o be v
ery
r
elev
antandcont
rov
ersi
ali
ndeed.Fori
nst
ance,i
nsomeEur
opeancount
ri
es,i
f
t
hei
nfor
mat
ioni
scommuni
cat
edatt
hepol
i
cest
ati
on,i
twi
l
lbepr
esumedt
o
hav
ebeengi
venpr
ompt
ly.

Thecont
entoft
hei
nfor
mat
ionespeci
all
ythatoft
hecaut
ioni
sst
ipul
atedbyl
aw
i
nmostj
uri
sdi
cti
onsandi
tisal
mostt
hesameev
ery
wher
e.I
tgoesl
i
ket
his:“
You
donothav
etosayany
thi
ng.Buti
tmayhar
myourdef
encei
fyoudonotment
ion
whenquest
ionedsomet
hingwhi
chy
oul
aterr
elyoni
ncour
t.Any
thi
ngy
oudosay
maybegi
veni
nev
idence.Youhav
ether
ightt
oani
ndependentl
egaladv
icef
ree
ofchar
ge.
"Ourcr
imi
nal
procedur
ecode,
howev
er,
doesnotspeci
fyt
heexact
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 186186

wor
dst
hatt
hear
rest
ingpol
i
ceof
fi
cershoul
dusewhi
l
ear
rest
ingsomeone.But

t
hecont
enti
scl
eart
hatt
hepol
i
cehav
etowar
ntheper
sonast
ohi
sri
ghtt
o
r
emai
nsi
l
ent
,thati
fhepr
efer
stospeakt
henany
thi
nghesay
swoul
dbeusedi
n
cour
tofl
aw asev
idence.Her
ethet
wobasi
cpoi
ntst
hatar
emi
ssi
ngf
rom t
he
caut
ioni
nfor
mat
ionar
efi
rst
,thef
actt
hathi
sdef
encemi
ghtbehar
medbynot
speaki
ngt
hoset
hingst
hathel
phi
minanyway
.Andt
hesecondpoi
nti
stheone
r
elat
ingt
ohi
sri
ghtt
odef
encecounsel
.Inf
actasourl
awst
andsatpr
esent
,the
r
ightt
odef
encecounselexi
stsatt
het
ri
alst
ageofacr
imi
nalcase.Thi
scan
beseen f
rom Ar
t20(
5)whi
ch r
elat
eswi
tht
he r
ightoft
hose per
sonswho
ar
eaccused,
andnoti
nAr
t19whi
chr
elat
eswi
thper
sonsar
rest
ed.Thi
s,howev
er,
i
snott
omeant
hatt
hosewhocanaf
for
dtohav
eanat
tor
neybegi
nni
ngf
rom
t
hei
rar
restar
enott
obeal
l
owedt
ohav
eone,t
hought
hef
reer
epr
esent
ati
on
comesonl
yatt
hel
aterst
age.

Wher
ethei
nfor
mat
ioni
snotcommuni
cat
edatal
lornoti
n a mannert
hat
compl
i
eswi
tht
hel
egalr
equi
rement
s,t
heusual
l
yappl
i
cabl
eef
fectwoul
dbet
o
di
sregar
danyev
idencet
hatmi
ghthav
ebeenobt
ainedi
nconsequenceoft
he
ar
restand/
ort
oconsi
dert
hear
resti
l
legalandt
henent
it
let
hev
ict
im oft
hei
l
legal
ar
restf
ormat
eri
alaswel
lasmor
alcompensat
ion.Nei
theroft
heseef
fect
shas
beenusedundert
heEt
hiopi
anl
egalsy
stem.Ev
eni
fther
eisat
inypossi
bil
i
tyof
cl
ami
ngcompensat
ionbasedonext
ra-
cont
ract
uall
i
abi
l
ityl
aw,i
tisv
eryr
aret
o
seepeopl
ebr
ingi
ngact
ionagai
nstani
l
legalar
restoft
hepol
i
ce.TheI
CCPRand
ot
herr
egi
onalhumanr
ight
sconv
ent
ionsar
ever
ycl
earont
hispoi
ntandt
hati
s
whatweseeunderAr
t9(
5)oft
heI
CCPRwhi
chpr
ovi
des“
Any
onewhohasbeen
t
hev
ict
im ofunl
awf
ular
restordet
ent
ionshal
lhav
eanenf
orceabl
eri
ghtt
o
compensat
ion.
”Mor
eov
er,t
heexcl
usi
onar
yrul
einEt
hiopi
aisonl
ypr
esentf
or
ev
idenceobt
ainedt
hroughcoer
cionaspr
ovi
dedunderAr
t19(
5).
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 187187

4.
2.2.
Ther
ightt
o‘Judi
cial
Cont
rol
’

Dearst
udent
,Iwant
edt
ocal
lit‘
j
udi
ci
alcont
rol
’becausei
trel
ateswi
thour
di
scussi
onofbot
hther
ightt
obet
akent
ocour
twi
thi
n48hour
saswel
last
he
r
ightt
opet
it
iont
hecour
tfort
hephy
sicalr
eleasebypr
ovi
ngt
hei
l
legal
i
tyoft
he
ar
rest
.Bot
hoft
heseconst
it
utej
udi
cialcont
rolont
heact
soft
heexecut
ive.The
l
att
erhasat
echni
calnamecal
l
edt
her
ightt
othewr
itofhabeascor
puswhi
ch
weshal
lbedi
scussi
ngi
nabi
tint
hissect
ion.

Fi
rst
,thear
rest
ingpol
i
ceof
fi
cer
’sactmustbecheckedbyani
ndependentand
i
mpar
ti
albodysoast
oensur
ethatt
her
ewoul
dn’
tbeanyexcessesandf
ort
his
t
askt
hej
udi
ci
albr
anchoft
hegov
ernmenti
sent
rust
edwi
tht
hepowerofmaki
ng
‘
fol
l
ow-
ups’
inar
athercont
inuousbasi
swher
ethei
nvest
igat
ioni
ssupposedt
o

t
akeov
eranext
endedper
iodoft
ime.Thi
sobl
i
gat
ionofbr
ingi
ngt
hear
rest
ed
per
sont
ocour
tofl
awhasat
ime-
li
mitaswel
l
,whi
chi
samaxi
mum of48hour
s.
Thus,t
hepol
i
ce,whenev
eri
tcan,mustbeabl
etopr
esentt
heper
sont
ocour
tof
l
aw‘
prompt
ly’
andhowpr
ompti
tshoul
dbev
ari
esf
rom j
uri
sdi
cti
ont
ojur
isdi
cti
on,
t
hought
he48hour
sli
mitseem t
ohav
eawi
deraccept
ance.Youcanseef
rom
t
heI
CCPRt
hati
tjustsay
s‘pr
ompt
ly’
leav
ingt
hespeci
fi
cst
oeachst
atespar
ti
es’
deci
si
on.Fori
nst
ance,
int
heUKt
hist
imei
sli
mit
edt
obe24hour
sandi
tist
obe
st
ri
ctl
yobser
ved.Thecour
t,t
owhi
cht
heper
sonhasbeenbr
ought
,wi
l
lcheckt
he
l
egal
i
tyoft
hear
restandi
tal
sohasani
ndi
rectr
oleofr
eassur
ingt
heper
sont
hat
hi
scasei
stobehandl
edl
awf
ull
yandwi
tht
hei
nvol
vementofani
mpar
ti
aland
i
ndependentor
gan.Thedet
ail
sofwhati
stobedoneateachoft
hest
agesoft
he
i
nvest
igat
ionar
eamat
tert
obest
udi
edi
nyourcr
imi
nalpr
ocedur
ecour
se.
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 188188

Secondl
y,t
hej
udi
ci
alcont
rol
ist
obeexer
cisedt
hrought
her
ightofpet
it
iont
obe

r
eleasedf
rom ani
l
legalar
rest
.Thi
siscal
l
ed,asment
ionedabov
e,awr
it
19of
habeascor
pus,
whi
chi
sacommonl
awusagewhoseLat
inr
ootwor
dist
omean
‘
’
Wecommandt
haty
ouhav
ethebody
.’I
tist
henameofal
egal
act
ionorwr
itby

meansofwhi
chdet
aineescanseekr
eli
eff
rom unl
awf
uli
mpr
isonment
.Thewr
it
of habeas cor
pus has hi
stor
ical
l
y been an i
mpor
tanti
nst
rumentf
ort
he
saf
eguar
dingofi
ndi
vi
dual
freedomagai
nstar
bit
rar
yst
ateact
ion.

Al
so known as "
The Gr
eatWr
it
,"a wr
itofhabeascor
pusi
s a cour
tor
der
addr
essedt
oapr
isonof
fi
cial
order
ingt
hatapr
isonerbebr
oughtbef
oret
hecour
t
sot
hatt
hecour
tcandet
ermi
newhet
hert
hatper
soni
sser
vingal
awf
ulsent
ence
orshoul
dber
eleasedf
rom cust
ody
.Thepr
isoner
,orsomeot
herper
sononhi
s
behal
f(f
orexampl
e,wher
ethepr
isoneri
sbei
nghel
dincommuni
cado)
,may
pet
it
iont
hecour
torani
ndi
vi
dual
judgef
orawr
itofhabeascor
pus.

Ther
ightofhabeascor
pus-
orr
ather
,ther
ightt
opet
it
ionf
ort
hewr
it
-hasl
ong
beencel
ebr
atedast
hemostef
fi
cientsaf
eguar
doft
hel
i
ber
tyoft
hesubj
ect
.
Al
ber
tVennDi
ceywr
otet
hatt
heHabeasCor
pusAct
s"decl
arenopr
inci
pleand
def
ine no r
ight
s,but t
hey ar
efor pr
act
icalpur
poses wor
th a hundr
ed
const
it
uti
onal
art
icl
esguar
ant
eei
ngi
ndi
vi
dual
li
ber
ty.
"Inmostcount
ri
es,
howev
er,
t
hepr
ocedur
eofhabeascor
puscanbesuspendedi
nti
meofnat
ionalemer
gency
i
ncl
udi
ngt
hatofEt
hiopi
a.

Thepr
ocessf
orsuchpet
it
ionsi
snotsi
mpl
yci
vi
lorcr
imi
nal
,becauset
hey
i
ncor
por
atet
hepr
esumpt
ionofnon-
aut
hor
it
ysot
hatt
heof
fi
cialwhoi
sthe
r
espondenthast
hebur
dent
opr
ovehi
saut
hor
it
ytodoornotdosomet
hing,

19
I
nlaw,awr i
tisaf
ormalwri
tt
enorderissuedbyabodywi
thadmini
str
ati
veorjudi
cial
j
uri
sdict
ion.I
nmodernusage,
thispubl
icbodyisnor
mall
yacourt
.Fori
nstanceawarrantcoul
d
beconsider
edasawr i
t.
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 189189

f
ail
i
ngwhi
cht
hecour
thasnodi
scr
eti
onbutt
odeci
def
ort
hepet
it
ioner
,who

maybeanyper
son,
notj
ustani
nter
est
edpar
ty.I
nthi
stheydi
ff
erf
rom amot
ion
i
naci
vi
lpr
ocessi
nwhi
cht
hebur
denofpr
oofi
sont
hepet
it
ioner
,andi
nwhi
ch
t
her
ecanbeani
ssueofst
andi
ng.I
nourl
aw,wef
indt
hehabeascor
pusi
nthe
ci
vi
lpr
ocedur
ecodeandnoti
nthecr
imi
nalpr
ocedur
ecodeev
eni
fiti
samat
ter
pur
elyofnei
thert
heci
vi
lnort
hecr
imi
nal
procedur
e.

Whenwel
ooki
ntoAr
t19(
4)oft
heconst
it
uti
on,whi
chdi
scussest
hisspeci
fi
c
r
ight
,ther
ear
emanyi
ssuest
hatneedacl
oserl
ook.I
tappear
sthatt
heAr
tgi
vesa
def
ini
ti
onast
owhatconst
it
utesani
l
legalar
restf
orwhi
chonecanpet
it
iont
he
cour
tforphy
sicalr
eleasesi
ncei
tsay
s‘…wher
ethear
rest
ingpol
i
ceof
fi
cerort
he
l
awenf
orcerf
ail
stobr
ingt
hem bef
oreacour
twi
thi
nthepr
escr
ibedt
imeandt
o
pr
ovi
der
easonsf
ort
hei
rar
rest
.’Thus,sol
ongast
hepol
i
cehav
ebr
oughtt
he
per
soni
ncour
twi
thi
nthel
i
mit
edt
imeandgav
ereasonsf
ort
hei
rar
rest
,the
r
ight
,whi
chi
sev
encal
l
ed‘
ani
nal
i
enabl
eri
ght
’,wi
l
lnomor
ebeexer
cisabl
e.
Let
’sassumet
hatt
hepol
i
cehasbr
oughtt
hear
rest
eet
ocour
tandi
nfor
medt
he
cour
tthatt
he i
ndi
vi
duali
s a suspecti
nrel
ati
on t
o a cer
tai
n cr
ime under
i
nvest
igat
ion.Thenaf
ter
,thepol
i
cehasf
orgott
heper
sonf
orsuchal
ongt
ime
t
hati
thasbeenoney
earsi
ncehewasi
ncust
ody
.Pr
obabl
y,t
hecr
imet
he
i
ndi
vi
dualhasbeensuspect
edwi
thmi
ghtnotbebai
l
abl
eandt
hepol
i
ceaf
ter
t
ransf
err
ingt
hef
il
etot
hepr
osecut
or’
sof
fi
cesayt
hati
tisoutofi
tshands.The
pr
osecut
or’
sof
fi
cedoesn’
tbr
ingachar
ge.Doy
out
hinkt
hehabeascor
puscl
aim
canst
il
lbeusedbysuchi
ndi
vi
dual
?Ast
het
extoft
heconst
it
uti
ont
ell
sus,i
t
can’
tbeused.Howev
er,t
hepur
poseoft
hispet
it
ioni
smeantt
osaf
eguar
dthe
l
i
ber
tyofi
ndi
vi
dual
sfr
om i
l
legaldet
ent
ionswhi
chcoul
dbeatanyst
ageoft
he
i
nvest
igat
ion.Justf
orcompar
isonandcl
ari
typur
poseIhav
edupl
i
cat
edf
ory
ou
t
her
elev
antAr
tsoft
heci
vi
lpr
ocedur
ecoder
elat
ingt
ohabeascor
pus.
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 190190

Ar
t.177:Appl
i
cat
ionf
orhabeascor
pus

1.Anappl
i
cat
ionf
orhabeascor
pusmaybemadet
otheHi
ghCour
tbyany
per
sonr
est
rai
nedot
her
wiset
hani
npur
suanceofanor
derdul
ymade
undert
hisCodeort
heCr
imi
nal
Procedur
eCode.
2.Theappl
i
cat
ionshal
lbeaccompani
edbyanaf
fi
davi
tbyt
heappl
i
cant
st
ati
ngt
he
nameoft
heper
sonunderwhosecust
odyhei
s,t
henat
ureandpl
ace
oft
her
est
rai
ntandt
henamesoft
heper
sons,i
fany,whocant
est
if
yto
t
hef
act
sal
l
egedi
ntheappl
i
cat
ion.
3. Wher
etheper
sonr
est
rai
nedi
fforwhat
everr
easonunabl
etomaket
he
appl
i
cat
ionand/
oraf
fi
davi
thi
msel
f,t
he same maybe made by any
per
sononhi
sbehal
fandt
heaf
fi
davi
tshal
lthenst
atet
henameoft
he
per
sonr
est
rai
nedandt
hathei
sunabl
etomaket
heappl
i
cat
ionand/
or
af
fi
davi
thi
msel
f.

Ar
t.178:Summonst
oappear

1. Onr
ecei
vi
nganappl
i
cat
ionunderAr
t.177,t
heHi
ghCour
tshal
lfor
thwi
th
i
ssue a summons di
rect
ing t
he per
son under whose cust
ody t
he
r
est
rai
nedper
soni
stoappearbef
oret
heHi
ghCour
ttoget
herwi
tht
he
l
att
erper
sononsuchdayasshal
lbef
ixedi
nthesummonsandt
oshow
causewhyt
heper
sonr
est
rai
nedshoul
dnotber
eleased.
2.Summonsshal
lal
sobei
ssuedf
ort
heappear
anceofsuchper
sonsasmay
beabl
eto
test
if
yt ot he f
act
s al
l
eged i
nthe
appli
cat
ion.

Ar
t.179:Hear
ingof
,anddeci
sionon,
appl
i
cat
ion
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 191191

1.On t
hedayf
ixed i
nthesummonsi
ssued underAr
t.178,t
hecour
t
shal
l
i
nvest
igat
ethet
rut
horot
her
wiseoft
hef
act
sal
l
egedi
ntheappl
i
cat
ion
andmaymakewi
thr
egar
dtoevi
dencesuchor
der
sasi
tthi
nksf
it
.
2.Wher
ethecour
tissat
isf
iedt
hatt
her
est
rai
nti
sunl
awf
ul,i
tshal
lor
der
the
i
mmedi
ater
eleaseoft
heper
sonr
est
rai
nedandt
heper
sonunderwhose
cust
odyt
heper
sonr
est
rai
nedshal
lnot
wit
hst
andi
nganyot
heror
der
sor
i
nst
ruct
ionst
othecont
rar
y,byanyper
sonoraut
hor
it
yfor
thwi
thr
elease
t
hatper
son.
3. Wher
ethecour
tisi
ndoubtast
othet
rut
horot
her
wiseoft
hef
act
s
al
l
egedi
ntheappl
i
cat
ion,
itmayor
dert
her
eleaseoft
heper
sonr
est
rai
ned
onhi
sexecut
ingabond,wi
thorwi
thoutsur
eti
es,
thathewi
l
lappeari
nany
cour
tonanyf
utur
edayonwhi
chhi
sappear
ancemayber
equi
redand
compl
ywi
thsuchot
heror
derast
hecour
tor
der
ingr
eleasemayt
hinkf
itt
o
makei
ntheci
rcumst
ances.

Thesebei
ngt
hei
mpl
ement
ingl
aw’
sdet
ail
edappr
oacht
othemat
ter
,Ar
t19(
4)of
t
heconst
it
uti
onneedt
obel
ookedi
ntoi
nthi
sli
ghtsoast
oseei
fthespeci
fi
c
l
egi
sl
ati
on dev
iat
es f
rom t
he gener
alpr
inci
ple of t
he const
it
uti
on.The
al
ter
nat
ivesf
ort
hecour
ttowhi
cht
hepet
it
ionhasbeensubmi
tt
edar
etwo;
eit
her
t
oor
dert
heuncondi
ti
onalr
eleaseoft
heper
sonort
orel
easehi
m condi
ti
onal
l
y
uponhi
ssubmi
ssi
onofsur
eti
es.Thi
sist
heci
vi
lpr
ocedur
ecode’
sappr
oach.The
ot
heropt
ion,whi
chi
snotexpl
i
cit
lyment
ionedi
nthepr
ocedur
e(t
houghcanbe
i
mpl
i
ed)andwhi
chi
scl
ear
lyment
ionedundert
heconst
it
uti
oni
sther
emandof
t
heper
sont
othepol
i
cecust
ody
.Thi
sist
obedone‘
wher
ethei
nter
estofj
ust
ice
sor
equi
res’
,accor
dingt
othewor
dingsoft
heconst
it
uti
on.So,t
hef
urt
heri
ssue
woul
dbewhendowesayt
hatt
hei
nter
estofj
ust
icesor
equi
reswhi
chmakest
he
r
emandoft
hisper
sont
othepol
i
cest
ati
onnecessar
y.Thi
scoul
dbe,among
ot
her
s,wher
ethepol
i
cepr
ovi
der
easonf
ort
hear
restandwher
ethecr
imewi
th
whi
cht
heper
soni
ssuspect
eddoesn’
tper
mithi
srel
easeonbai
lorev
eni
fitcan,
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 192192

hei
sunabl
etopr
ovi
det
headequat
esur
etyasr
equi
redbyt
hecour
t.Thesecoul
d

be some oft
he ci
rcumst
ancest
hatmi
ghtcompelt
he cour
tnott
o or
der
hi
sphy
sicalr
elease.Doy
out
hinkt
hiscanber
eadabl
efr
om t
heci
vi
lpr
ocedur
e
codepr
ovi
si
onst
hatIhaddupl
i
cat
edf
ory
ou?

Whi
l
etheci
vi
lpr
ocedur
ecodedoesn’
ttal
kaboutt
hepossi
bil
i
tyofor
der
ingt
he
cont
inueddet
ent
ionoft
heper
son,l
i
kewi
set
heconst
it
uti
ondoesn’
texpl
i
cit
ly
t
alkaboutt
hei
mmedi
ateorcondi
ti
onalr
eleaseoft
heper
son,unl
essonecan
i
mpl
yfr
om t
henat
ureofhabeascor
pus,whi
chi
sspeci
fi
cal
l
ya r
equestf
or
r
elease.Suchapet
it
ioncanonl
ybedeni
edwher
ether
ear
ereasonsf
orsodoi
ng,
whi
chi
s,accor
dingt
otheconst
it
uti
on,wher
ethei
nter
estofj
ust
icesor
equi
res.
Ther
ulei
s,howev
er,
tor
eleaset
heper
soni
mmedi
atel
y.

Wher
eremandi
stobeor
der
edf
ort
hesai
dreason,
theconst
it
uti
oni
scl
earabout
f
orhow l
ongt
heper
soncoul
dber
emanded.I
tisf
oraper
iodoft
ime‘
str
ict
ly
r
equi
redt
ocar
ryoutt
henecessar
yinv
est
igat
ion…[
andwi
thduer
egar
dto]t
he
ar
rest
edper
son’
sri
ghtt
oaspeedyt
ri
al.
’Thi
sisav
eryi
mpor
tantst
ipul
ati
on
whi
chdoesn’
tappeari
nthecr
imi
nalpr
ocedur
ecode.Her
etheper
iodoft
ime
t
hatcanbegr
ant
edf
ort
hepol
i
cemustbal
ancet
woconf
li
cti
ngi
nter
est
s;t
he
publ
i
c’si
nter
estwhi
chi
sunder
taki
ngt
henecessar
yinv
est
igat
ioni
nrel
ati
ont
oa
cer
tai
ncr
imeandt
hatoft
hepr
ivat
eper
son’
sint
erestwhi
chi
sther
ightt
ospeedy
t
ri
al.I
tshoul
dn’
t,t
her
efor
e,beunr
easonabl
yshor
tto upsett
hei
nvest
igat
ion
pr
ocessandal
soundul
ylongt
ovi
olat
ethei
ndi
vi
dual
’
sri
ghtf
orspeedyt
ri
al.

Theappr
oachadopt
edbyt
hepr
esentcr
imi
nalpr
ocedur
ecodehappenst
obe
unr
easonabl
eint
hati
tper
mit
sar
emandoft
hear
rest
edper
sonf
oramaxi
mum
of14day
sforunl
i
mit
ednumberofoccasi
ons.Thatmeans,t
hepol
i
cecanask
f
orr
emand of t
he ar
rest
ed per
son f
or 14 day
srepeat
edl
y wi
thout any
maxi
mum
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 193193

numberofr
emands.Thati
swhywear
ewi
tnessi
ngi
nci
dent
swher
eacour
tin

Et
hiopi
agav
eov
er140or
der
sofr
emandonasi
ngl
eper
son’
sinv
est
igat
ion.
Consi
der
ingt
hisunr
easonabl
eness,t
hedr
aftcr
imi
nalpr
ocedur
ecodehasputa
maxi
mumof180day
s/si
xmont
hsf
orsuchr
emand.
Eveni
fthi
stoocanbesai
dto
bet
oomuch,i
tisbet
tert
hanwhatcanacour
tdounderAr
t59oft
hecur
rent
cr
imi
nalpr
ocedur
ecode.Readi
tcar
eful
l
yandseehow awkwar
diti
sfort
he
ar
rest
edper
son’
sri
ghtf
orspeedyt
ri
al.

Ar
t.59:
Det
ent
ion

1.Thecour
tbef
orewhi
cht
hear
rest
edper
soni
sbr
ought(
Art
.29)shal
l
deci
dewhet
hersuchper
sonshal
lbekepti
ncust
odyorber
eleasedonbai
l
..
2.Wher
ethepol
i
cei
nvest
igat
ioni
snotcompl
etedt
hei
nvest
igat
ingpol
i
ce
of
fi
cermayappl
yfora r
emand f
ora suf
fi
cientt
ime t
o enabl
ethe
i
nvest
igat
iont
obecompl
eted.
3.Ar
emandmaybegr
ant
edi
nwr
it
ing.Nor
emandshal
lbegr
ant
edf
ormor
e
t
hanf
our
teendaysoneachoccasi
on.

Dearst
udent
,fort
hepur
poseofcompar
ison,Ihav
eputy
out
hef
oll
owi
ngbox
whi
chy
ouwi
l
lhav
etor
eadcar
eful
l
ysot
hatt
ocr
it
ical
l
yconsi
dert
hedi
ff
erences
bet
weent
her
ight
soft
hear
rest
edper
sonundert
hel
awsoft
heUKandt
hatof
t
heEt
hiopi
anconst
it
uti
on.

‘
YourRi
ght
sifAr
rest
edi
nEngl
and’
(Excer
ptf
rom anAr
ti
cl
ebyM.
R.Fr
anks,
Sout
her
nUni
ver
sit
yRev
iew,
Spr
ing2005)

Att
heTi
meofAr
rest
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 194194

Thepol
i
cei
nEngl
anddonotor
dinar
il
ycar
ryf
ir
ear
ms.Theymaysi
gnout

f
ir
ear
msf
rom t
hepol
i
cest
ati
oni
ftheywi
l
lbemaki
ngwhatt
hei
rsuper
ior
svi
ew
asa pot
ent
ial
l
ydanger
ousar
rest
.Formostar
rest
s,howev
er,gunsar
e not
car
ri
ed…Handcuf
fsusual
l
yar
e notused.Eur
ope gener
all
yvi
ewst
he use of
handcuf
fsandmanacl
esasbar
bar
icandut
ter
lyunnecessar
yint
hev
astmaj
ori
ty
ofar
rest
s.Theaccusedusual
l
yissi
mpl
ytol
dheorshei
sunderar
restandi
s
di
rect
edt
oent
ert
hepol
i
cecar
.

Att
het
imeofar
rest
,thepol
i
cemaynoti
nter
view ori
nter
rogat
ethear
rest
ee
exceptatt
hepol
i
cest
ati
on.Theymustcaut
iont
hear
rest
ee,ei
theri
mmedi
atel
y
bef
oreori
mmedi
atel
yaf
tert
hear
rest
,andmustdosoev
enwi
thoutanyar
rest
bei
ngmadei
ftheysuspectt
hedef
endantmayhav
e commi
tt
eda cr
ime…A
per
sonwhenar
rest
ed,
"shal
lbet
akent
oapol
i
cest
ati
onbyaconst
abl
eassoon
aspr
act
icabl
eaf
tert
hear
rest
."Thepol
i
cemaynotdoorsayany
thi
ngwi
tht
he
i
ntent
ionofdi
ssuadi
ngaper
soni
ndet
ent
ionf
rom obt
aini
ngl
egaladv
ice.The
ar
rest
eemustal
sobei
nfor
medofhi
sri
ghtt
oindependentl
egaladv
icef
reeof
char
ge.

Thecaut
ion
Theexactwor
dingoft
hecaut
ioni
sspeci
fi
edbyl
aw:"
Youdonothav
etosay
any
thi
ng.Buti
tmayhar
myourdef
encei
fyoudonotment
ionwhenquest
ioned
somet
hingwhi
chy
oul
aterr
elyoni
ncour
t.Any
thi
ngy
oudosaymaybegi
veni
n
ev
idence.
"The v
eryf
ir
stst
op on ar
ri
valatt
he pol
i
ce st
ati
on mustbe t
he
"
cust
odyof
fi
cer
."Thecust
odyof
fi
ceri
sadesi
gnat
edof
fi
cerhol
dingatl
eastt
he
r
ankofser
geant
,who mustmakean i
mmedi
atedet
ermi
nat
ionwhet
hert
he
ar
rest
ingof
fi
cerhassuf
fi
ci
enti
nfor
mat
iont
ochar
get
heper
son.I
fthecust
ody
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 195195

off
icer det
ermi
nes he does not hav
e such ev
idence bef
ore hi
m, t
he
person

ar
rest
edmustber
eleased.Thecust
odyof
fi
ceri
sal
sor
esponsi
blef
oropeni
nga
"
cust
odyr
ecor
d,"whi
chbot
hthear
rest
eeandt
hedef
encesol
i
cit
ormayi
nspect
andhav
ecopi
ed,
toascer
tai
nwhet
hert
her
ight
soft
heper
sonar
rest
edhav
ebeen
r
espect
edandt
hegr
oundsf
ordet
ent
ionr
evi
ewedper
iodi
cal
l
ywi
thi
nthest
ri
ct
r
ulesf
orgov
erni
ngr
evi
ewofgr
oundsf
ordet
ent
ion.

I
fthecust
odyof
fi
cerdet
ermi
nest
hathedoesnothav
esuchev
idence(
suf
fi
ci
ent
ev
idence t
o char
ge t
hatper
son)bef
ore hi
m,t
he per
son ar
rest
ed shal
lbe
r
eleasedei
theronbai
lorwi
thoutbai
l
,unl
esst
hecust
odyof
fi
cerhasr
easonabl
e
gr
oundsf
orbel
i
evi
ngt
hathi
sdet
ent
ionwi
thoutbei
ngchar
gedi
snecessar
yto
secur
eorpr
eser
veev
idencer
elat
ingt
oanof
fencef
orwhi
chhei
sunderar
restor
t
oobt
ainsuchev
idencebyquest
ioni
nghi
m.

Thesuspectmustonceagai
nber
emi
ndedofhi
sri
ghtt
ofr
eel
egaladv
ice,
whet
herunderar
restorv
olunt
ari
l
ypr
esentatt
hepol
i
cest
ati
on.Thecust
ody
of
fi
cermustspeci
fi
cal
l
y"t
ellhi
m cl
ear
lyoft
hef
oll
owi
ngr
ight
sandoft
hef
act
t
hatt
heyar
econt
inui
ngr
ight
swhi
chmaybeexer
cisedatanyst
agedur
ingt
he
per
iodi
ncust
ody...t
ohav
esomeonei
nfor
medofhi
sar
rest...(
and)t
oconsul
t
pr
ivat
elywi
thasol
i
cit
or"andal
sot
oconsul
tthecodesofpr
act
icegov
erni
ng
det
ent
ion.Addi
ti
onal
l
y,apost
eradv
ert
isi
ngt
her
ightt
ohav
elegaladv
icemust
be pr
omi
nent
lydi
spl
ayedi
nthe char
ging ar
ea ofev
erypol
i
ce st
ati
on.The
caut
ionmustber
epeat
edev
eryt
imet
her
eisabr
eaki
nquest
ioni
ng.

Whatt
hePol
i
ceMayDo
The pol
i
ce maynotf
inger
pri
ntwi
thoutt
he ar
rest
ee'
s wr
it
ten consentunt
il
char
gesar
efi
l
ed.Ther
eisanexcept
ioni
ffi
nger
pri
ntev
idencei
sev
idencei
nthe
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 196196

case.I
nthatsi
tuat
ion,t
hepol
i
cemayf
inger
pri
ntt
hear
rest
ee.Howev
er,t
he

det
ermi
nat
ionmayonl
ybemadebyaSuper
int
endent
.Ift
hef
inger
pri
ntsdonot
mat
ch,
they(
toget
herwi
thal
lcopi
esandcomput
erdat
aont
hosepr
int
s)mustbe
dest
roy
ed.I
ftheper
soni
sacqui
tt
edorchar
gesdi
smi
ssed,t
hepr
int
sli
kewi
se
mustbedest
roy
edunl
esst
heper
sonhashadpr
iorcr
imi
nal
conv
ict
ions.

Si
mil
arl
y,t
he pol
i
ce may notphot
ogr
aph t
he ar
rest
ee wi
thouthi
s wr
it
ten
consentunt
ilchar
geshav
ebeenf
il
ed.Ther
ear
eexcept
ions,
mostnot
abl
ywher
e
agr
oupofper
sonsi
sar
rest
edandi
tisnecessar
ytoest
abl
i
shwhowasar
rest
ed,
atwhatt
imeandatwhatpl
ace.Whi
l
ereasonabl
efor
cemaybeusedt
otake
f
inger
pri
nts,f
orcemaynotbe used t
otakea phot
ogr
aph.I
ftheper
son i
s
acqui
tt
edorchar
gesdi
smi
ssed,t
hephot
ogr
aphsmustbedest
roy
edunl
esst
he
per
sonhashadpr
iorcr
imi
nal
conv
ict
ions.

Anyspeci
menst
akenf
rom t
hear
rest
ee,suchasbl
oodorur
ineorhai
r,orany
suspect
ednar
cot
icsubst
ances,mustbespl
i
tint
otwoequalsampl
es,onef
or
pol
i
cef
orensi
clabor
ator
ies,t
heot
herf
ordef
encecounselt
ohav
eev
aluat
ed
i
ndependent
ly.
Fai
l
ureoft
hepol
i
cet
odosoj
ust
if
iesdi
smi
ssal
oft
hecase.

Bef
orechar
gesar
efi
l
ed
Pr
iort
othef
il
ingoff
ormalchar
ges,t
hepol
i
cemayi
nter
viewt
hedef
endantand
no i
nter
view maybeconduct
edoncel
egaladv
icehasbeenr
equest
ed.The
i
nter
view mustbet
aped."
Taper
ecor
dingofi
nter
viewsshal
lbecar
ri
ed out
openl
ytoi
nst
ilconf
idencei
nit
srel
i
abi
l
ityasani
mpar
ti
alandaccur
ater
ecor
dof
t
hei
nter
view.
"Two t
apesar
eusual
l
ymadeonsepar
ater
ecor
dingheadst
o
guar
dagai
nstf
ail
ureofoneoft
her
ecor
der
stor
ecor
dpr
oper
ly.Thet
apesar
e
t
henseal
ed.Thedef
encemusthav
eaccesst
oacopyoft
het
ape,andt
he
def
ence
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 197197

at
tor
neymustbei
nfor
medandgi
venar
easonabl
eoppor
tuni
tyt
obepr
esent

al
ongwi
tht
hePr
osecut
or’
sof
fi
cer
epr
esent
ati
vewhent
heseali
sbr
okenandt
he
t
apei
sfi
rsthear
d.

Thedef
endanthast
her
ightt
oremai
nsi
l
ent
.Noper
son,whoi
sunf
itt
hrough
dr
inkordr
ugs,mayev
enbequest
ioned.I
fthesuspecti
saj
uveni
l
e,apar
ent
mustbepr
esenti
naddi
ti
ont
othedef
encel
awy
er.I
nter
view r
oomsmustbe
adequat
elyheat
ed,l
i
tandv
ent
il
ated.Noper
sonmayber
equi
redt
ost
andwhi
l
e
bei
ngi
nter
viewed.Thesuspectmustbeal
l
owed:(
a)ei
ghthour
s'sl
eepperni
ght
;
(
b)meal
satnor
mal
hour
s;(
c)br
eaksev
eryt
wohour
s.

Whi
l
ethesuspecthast
her
ightt
oremai
nsi
l
ent
,remai
ningsi
l
entmaynotbe
wi
se.Undercer
tai
nci
rcumst
ances,
"i
nfer
ences"maybedr
awnf
rom t
hesuspect
's
si
l
ence.Thi
s means t
hatt
he pr
osecut
ormay commenton t
he accused'
s
si
l
ence;f
orexampl
eift
hesuspectf
ail
stoment
ionaf
actt
hathel
aterr
eli
es
uponi
nhi
sdef
ence(
e.g.
,sel
fdef
ence)
,thepr
osecut
ormaycommentonl
ywher
e
def
endantl
aterr
aisest
he def
ence;i
fthe suspectf
ail
sto accountf
orany
obj
ecti
n hi
spossessi
on orany mar
k orot
heri
ncr
imi
nat
ing ev
idence on
hi
s per
son orcl
othi
ng orf
oot
wear
,the pr
osecut
ion maycomment
.The
pr
osecut
ionmaycommentwhet
hert
hedef
endantt
est
if
iesornot
;ift
hesuspect
f
ail
sto accountf
orhi
s pr
esence att
he t
ime and pl
ace oft
he cr
ime,t
he
pr
osecut
ion may comment
.The pr
osecut
ion may commentwhet
her t
he
def
endantt
est
if
iesornot
.

Howl
ongt
hepol
i
cemaydet
ain

Thebasi
cmaxi
mum per
iodofdet
ent
ionwi
thoutchar
gesbei
ngf
il
edi
stwent
y-
f
ourhour
s.Thi
srunsf
rom ar
ri
valatt
hepol
i
cest
ati
on.I
ftheper
soncamet
othe
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 198198

st
ati
onv
olunt
ari
l
y,i
trunsf
rom t
imeofar
rest
.A f
urt
hert
hir
ty-
sixhour
sof

det
ent
ionmaybeaut
hor
izedbyaSuper
int
endenti
nser
iouscases.Theset
ime
l
i
mit
sar
est
ri
ctl
yenf
orced.

Whi
l
eindet
ent
ion,adesi
gnat
eddet
ent
ionof
fi
cer
,hol
dingatl
eastt
her
ankof
I
nspect
or, must
:(a) r
evi
ew ev
ery det
ent
ion wi
thi
n si
x hour
s of t
he
commencementofdet
ent
ion,agai
n ni
nehour
slat
er,and ev
eryni
nehour
s
t
her
eaf
ter
,toensur
ethatt
hei
nit
ial
groundsf
ordet
ent
ionst
il
lexi
st.

4.
2.3.
Ther
ightt
ober
eleasedonbai
l

Per
sonsar
rest
edal
sohav
ether
ightt
ober
eleasedonbai
landt
hisi
sav
ery
f
undament
alr
ightt
oot
oget
herwi
tht
heot
herr
ight
sthatwehav
eseensof
ar.
‘
Bai
l
’meanssecur
it
y,usual
l
yasum ofmoney
,exchangedf
ort
her
eleaseofan
ar
rest
ed per
son asa guar
ant
eeoft
hatper
son’
sappear
ancef
ort
ri
al.Thus
t
her
ightt
ober
eleasedonbai
list
her
ightt
obef
reedf
rom anar
restonpay
ment
ofsuchmoney
.

Tr
adi
ti
onal
l
y,bai
lissomef
orm ofpr
oper
tydeposi
tedorpl
edgedt
oacour
tin
or
dert
oper
suadei
ttor
eleaseasuspectf
rom j
ail
,ont
heunder
standi
ngt
hatt
he
suspectwi
l
lret
urnf
ort
ri
alorf
orf
eitt
hebai
l(andal
sobegui
l
tyoft
hecr
imeof
f
ail
uret
oappear
).I
nmostcasesbai
lmoneywi
l
lber
etur
nedatt
heendoft
he
t
ri
al,i
fal
lcour
tappear
ancesar
emade,nomat
terwhet
hert
heper
soni
sfound
gui
l
tyornotgui
l
tyoft
hecr
imeaccused.I
nsomecount
ri
esgr
ant
ingbai
lis
common.Ev
eni
nsuchcount
ri
es,howev
er,bai
lmaynotbeof
fer
edbycour
ts
undersomeci
rcumst
ances;f
ori
nst
ance,i
ftheaccusedi
sconsi
der
edl
i
kel
ynot
t
oappearf
ort
ri
alr
egar
dlessofbai
l
.Legi
sl
atur
esmayal
sosetoutcer
tai
ncr
imes
t
obeunbai
l
abl
e,suchascapi
tal
cri
mes.
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 199199

Underoutconst
it
uti
on,
thepr
inci
plei
sthatev
eryar
rest
edper
sonhast
her
ightt
o

ber
eleasedonbai
l
.Howev
er,t
hel
egi
sl
atur
emaypr
ovi
det
hoseci
rcumst
ances
underwhi
ch t
he cour
ts can notr
elease ar
rest
ed per
sons on bai
l
.Those
ci
rcumst
ancesar
epr
ovi
dedundert
hecr
imi
nalpr
ocedur
ecodeandal
sot
henew
ant
i-
cor
rupt
ionpr
ocl
amat
ionwhi
chpr
ohi
bit
sthegr
antofbai
lri
ghtt
ocor
rupt
ion
suspect
s.Let
’sr
eadt
hepr
ovi
si
onoft
hecr
imi
nalpr
ocedur
ecodet
hatspeaks
aboutbai
lri
ght
ssot
hatt
oident
if
ywhatt
hel
egi
sl
atur
ehast
osayconcer
ning
t
hose ci
rcumst
ances underwhi
ch t
he cour
ts can or can not r
elease
ar
rest
edper
sonsonbai
l
.
Ar
t.63:
Pri
nci
ple

1. Whosoeverhasbeenar
rest
edmayber
eleasedonbai
lwher
etheof
fence
wi
thwhi
chhei
schar
geddoesnotcar
ryt
hedeat
hpenal
tyorr
igor
ous
i
mpr
isonmentf
orf
if
teenyear
sormor
eandwher
ether
eisnopossi
bil
i
ty
oft
heper
soni
nrespectofwhom t
heof
fencewascommi
tt
eddyi
ng.
2.Noper
sonshal
lber
eleasedonbai
lunl
esshehasent
eredi
ntoabai
lbond,
wi
thor
wi
thoutsur
eti
es,whi
ch,i
ntheopi
nionoft
hecour
t,i
ssuf
fi
cientt
o
secur
ehi
sat
tendanceatt
hecour
twhensor
equi
redt
oappear
.
3.Not
hingi
nthi
sAr
ti
cleshal
laf
fectt
hepr
ovi
sionsofAr
t67.

Ar
t.67:
Bai
lnotal
l
owed

Anappl
icat
ionf
orbai
lshal
lnotbeal
l
owed
wher
e:
a. Theappl
i
canti
sofsuchnat
uret
hati
tisunl
i
kel
ythathewi
l
lcompl
ywi
th
t
hecondi
ti
onsl
aiddowni
nthebai
lbond;
b.Theappl
i
cant
,i
fsetatl
i
ber
ty,
isl
i
kel
ytocommi
tot
herof
fences;
c.Theappli
canti
sli
kel
ytoi
nter
fer
ewi
thwi
tnessesort
amperWi
ttt
he
evi
dence.
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 200200

Dearst
udent
,can y
ou wr
it
e down t
hose ci
rcumst
ances underwhi
ch t
he

Et
hiopi
anl
awpr
ohi
bit
sthecour
tfr
om r
eleasi
nganar
rest
edper
sononbai
l
,apar
t

f
rom suspect
soft
hecr
imeofcor
rupt
ion,
whi
chi
sasepar
atel
aw?

Thepr
econdi
ti
onst
hatneedt
obemetf
ort
hedeni
aloft
her
ightofbai
lar
e

 Wher
ethecr
imei
sacapi
talcr
imei
nthati
tispuni
shabl
ewi
tht
hedeat
h
sent
enceorwi
thr
igor
ousi
mpr
isonmentof15y
ear
sormor
e,and
 Wher
ether
eisapossi
bil
i
tyoft
heper
soni
nrespectofwhom t
heof
fence
wascommi
tt
eddy
ing.

I
ftheset
wocondi
ti
onsar
emetcumul
ati
vel
ythenbai
lmaynotbegr
ant
edbyt
he
cour
t.I
fwewer
etof
oll
ow t
hisi
nter
pret
ati
onofAr
t63(
1),t
henbai
lcanonl
ybe
deni
edi
ncr
imesofhomi
cideandspeci
fi
cal
l
yint
ent
ionalhomi
ci
de.Howev
er,
t
her
ear
eahandf
ulofj
udgeswhodonotagr
eewi
tht
hisi
nter
pret
ati
onandsay
t
hati
fei
theroft
heset
wocondi
ti
onsi
smet
,fori
nst
ance,wher
ethecr
imei
s
puni
shabl
ewi
th15y
ear
sormor
eofr
igor
ousi
mpr
isonment
,ev
eni
fther
eisno
onedeadordy
ing,
bai
lmustnotbegr
ant
ed.Whi
chi
nter
pret
ati
ondoy
out
hink
i
sthepr
operonet
ofol
l
owandwhy
?

Theot
hergr
oundsf
ordeni
alofbai
lri
ght
,whi
char
eindependentoft
henat
ureof

t
hecr
imeand/
orpuni
shmentar
egi
venunderAr
t67oft
hecode.Thoset
hree
gr
oundsar
ebasi
cal
l
ymeantt
ogi
veawi
derdi
scr
eti
ont
othej
udi
cialor
ganoft
he
gov
ernmenti
nthesenset
hati
tcandeci
dewhet
herornott
hesuspecti
sli
kel
yto
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 201201

compl
ywi
tht
hebai
lbond,whi
chmeanswhet
herornot
,ifl
etf
reebybai
l
,the

suspectwi
l
lreappeardur
ingappoi
ntment
stobesetf
ort
ri
alori
nvest
igat
ion.
Thi
sal
sowi
l
lhav
eani
mpactont
heamountofbai
lthatt
hei
ndi
vi
duali
sgoi
ngt
o
beaskedsi
ncenor
mal
l
yhi
gherbai
lmi
ghthav
ethepowert
omaket
heper
son
compl
ywi
tht
heor
der
soft
hecour
tforr
eappear
ance.Thati
swhyunderAr
t69
oft
hecodewhi
l
eenumer
ati
ngt
hosepoi
ntst
hatt
hecour
tshoul
dhav
eregar
d
whi
l
edeci
dingt
heamountofbai
lst
ates,amongot
her
s,‘
thel
i
kel
i
hoodoft
he
accusedf
orappear
ance.
’Thatmeanswher
ethecour
tthi
nkst
hatt
heper
son
mi
ghtnotr
eappear
,itwi
l
lhav
ethedi
scr
eti
ont
ofi
xtheamounthi
ghert
han
nor
mal
l
yrequi
red,
ordenyt
hebai
lifi
tthi
nkst
hati
tiscompl
etel
yunl
i
kel
ythathe
r
eappear
soncer
eleasedonbai
l
.

Li
kewi
se,wher
ethecour
tthi
nkst
hati
fletf
reeonbai
l
,theaccusedi
sli
kel
yto
commi
tanot
hercr
ime,i
tcandenyt
her
ightber
eleasedonbai
l
.Fi
nal
l
ythecour
t
canexer
cisei
tsdi
scr
eti
ont
odenyorper
mitbai
lwher
ether
eisapossi
bil
i
tyf
or
t
he per
son t
otamperwi
tht
he ev
idencesofpr
osecut
ion.Thi
s coul
d be by
dest
roy
ingdocument
aryev
idences,byt
hreat
eni
ngmat
eri
alwi
tnessesnott
o
t
est
if
yagai
nsthi
m,et
c.Dearst
udent
,youhav
eto beari
n mi
nd t
hatt
hose
gr
oundspr
ovi
dedunderAr
t67ar
egr
oundst
hatcanbeusedt
odenybai
lri
ghtt
oa
per
sonwhoi
sent
it
ledt
ogeti
tbasedont
hepr
inci
pleofAr
t63.

Bef
ore goi
ng t
o ournextdi
scussi
on oft
his chapt
er,t
ryt
orespond t
othe
f
oll
owi
ngexer
cisequest
ions.

Exer
ciseI
1. A pol
i
cehasar
rest
edAt
naf
uwhi
l
ehewascomi
ngf
rom hi
swor
kina
br
ightaf
ter
noonofMonday
.Thear
rest
ingpol
i
ceof
fi
cerputahandcuf
fon
At
naf
u’sbot
hhandsev
eni
fhewasn’
tinanywayr
esi
sti
ngt
hear
rest
.
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 202202

Whenheaskedwhyhei
sunderar
restt
hepol
i
cesai
dtohi
mthathewi
l
l

bet
oldsoont
her
eason.Hewast
ranspor
tedbyapol
i
cev
ehi
cl
etoapl
ace
wher
ehehasnev
erseen,some15Kmsoutoft
own.Hewasputwi
th
ot
herdet
aineesandl
ett
owat
chTV,
giv
ensomet
hingt
oeat
,andt
henwas
shown wher
e he coul
d sl
eep.The nextmor
ning,a ser
geant
,who
i
ntr
oducedhi
msel
ftoAt
naf
uaschi
efi
nvest
igat
ingpol
i
ceof
fi
cer
,st
art
ed
quest
ioni
ng hi
m.Af
terr
egi
ster
ing t
he basi
cinf
ormat
ion,such as hi
s
name,
addr
ess,
age,
etc,
theser
geanti
nfor
medhi
m ft
hecaut
ionbysay
ing
‘
youhav
ether
ightt
oremai
nsi
l
ent
,buti
fyoupr
efert
ospeaky
ourwor
ds

canbeusedasev
idencei
ncour
tofl
aw.
’

Dearst
udent
,whatbasi
cri
ght
soft
heaccusedhav
ebeenv
iol
atedordo
y
ou t
hink whathas been done by t
he pol
i
ce i
sin accor
d wi
tht
he
const
it
uti
onalr
ight
sofAt
naf
u?I
fyout
hinkt
hatt
her
ear
eri
ght
sthathav
e
beenv
iol
ated,
whatcoul
dbet
heconsequenceofsuchi
l
legal
i
tyundert
he
Et
hiopi
anl
aw?

2.What makes a pet

it
ion of habeas cor
pus di
sti
nct f
rom cr
imi
nal

pr
oceedi
ngs?Whatmakesi
tdi
ff
erentf
rom ci
vi
lpr
oceedi
ngs?

3.Thepr
inci
plef
ordeni
alofbai
lri
ghti
sgi
venunderAr
t63oft
hecr
imi
nal

pr
ocedur
eandal
sot
her
ightofbai
li
sgi
venundert
heFDREconst
it
uti
on
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 203203

Ar
t 19(
6).Do y
ou buy t
he ar
gument t
hat pr
opounds t
he st
ri
ct

i
nter
pret
ati
onoft
hepr
inci
plewher
ebyweshoul
dmaket
her
equi
rement
s
cumul
ati
veordoy
out
hinkt
hewi
deri
nter
pret
ati
oni
spr
efer
redwher
eby
wedenybai
lev
enwher
eoneoft
hegr
ounds(
highestpenal
tyordeat
hof
t
hev
ict
im)exi
stswedenybai
l
?

4.Whatdo y
ou t
hinkt
he pur
pose ofbai
lis?Orwhydo we r
elease

i
ndi
vi
dual
sonbai
lwhi
l
eweknow f
orsur
ethatt
heyhav
ecommi
tt
eda

cr
ime,
(becauset
heywecaughtwhi
l
ecommi
tt
ingt
hecr
ime,
fori
nst
ance)
?

4.
3. The r
ight
s of Per
sons
Accused
Dearst
udent
,thenextAr
tthatweshal
lbedi
scussi
ngi
nthi
schapt
erwi
l
lbeAr
t
20whi
chst
ipul
atest
hev
ari
ousr
ight
sofper
sonswhohav
ebeenaccusedand
essent
ial
l
ythesear
eri
ght
sthataper
sonhaswhi
l
ehi
scasei
sbei
ngconsi
der
ed
byt
hecour
t.So,weshal
lbel
ooki
ngi
ntot
her
ightoff
airt
ri
al,t
her
ightt
obe
pr
esumedi
nnocentbef
oret
hef
inaldeci
si
onofgui
l
toracqui
tt
al,
andt
her
ightt
o
def
end t
he case as wel
las t
o br
ing an appealwher
e di
ssat
isf
ied by t
he
deci
si
onsoft
hel
owercour
t.Asusualweshal
lst
artbyr
eadi
ngt
her
elev
ant
pr
ovi
si
onf
rom t
heconst
it
uti
onaswel
last
heI
CCPRandt
hendi
scusst
her
ight
s
i
nthef
oll
owi
ngsect
ions.
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 204204

Ar
ti
cl
e20:
Right
sofPer
sonsAccused

1. Accusedper
sonshavet
her
ightt
oapubl
i
ctr
ialbyanor
dinar
ycour
t
ofl
awwi
thi
nar
easonabl
eti
meaf
terhavi
ngbeenchar
ged.Thecour
tmay
hearcasesi
nacl
osedsessi
ononl
ywi
thavi
ew t
opr
otect
ingt
her
ightt
o
pr
ivacyoft
hepar
ti
esconcer
ned,
publ
i
cmor
alsandnat
ional
secur
it
y.
2.Accusedper
sonshavet
her
ightt
obei
nfor
medwi
thsuf
fi
cientpar
ti
cul
ars
oft
hechar
gebr
oughtagai
nstt
hem andt
obegi
vent
hechar
gei
nwr
it
ing.
3. Dur
ingpr
oceedi
ngsaccusedper
sonshavet
her
ightt
o bepr
esumed
i
nnocentunt
ilpr
ovedgui
l
tyaccor
dingt
olaw andnott
obecompel
ledt
o
t
est
if
yagai
nstt
hemsel
ves.
4.Accusedper
sonshavet
her
ightt
oful
laccesst
oanyevi
dencepr
esent
ed
agai
nstt
hem,t
oexami
newi
tnessest
est
if
yingagai
nstt
hem,t
oadduceor
t
o have evi
dence pr
oduced i
nthei
rown def
ence,and t
o obt
aint
he
at
tendanceofandexami
nat
ionofwi
tnessesont
hei
rbehal
fbef
oret
he
cour
t.
5.Accusedper
sonshavet
her
ightt
ober
epr
esent
edbyl
egalcounseloft
hei
r
choi
ce,
and,i
ftheydonothavesuf
fi
ci
entmeanst
opayf
ori
tandmi
scar
ri
ageof
j
ust
icewoul
dresul
t,
tobepr
ovi
dedwi
thl
egalr
epr
esent
ati
onatst
ate
expense.
6.Allper
sonshavet
her
ightofappealt
othecompet
entcour
tagai
nstan
or
derora
j
udgmentoft
hecour
twhi
chf
ir
sthear
dthecase.
7.Theyhavet
her
ightt
orequestf
ort
heassi
stanceofani
nter
pret
eratst
ate
expensewher
ethecour
tpr
oceedi
ngsar
econduct
edi
nal
anguaget
heydo
notunder
stand.

Ar
ti
cl
e14:
ICCPR

1. Al
lper
sons shal
lbe equalbef
oret
he cour
ts and t
ri
bunal
s.I
nthe
det
ermi
nat
ionofanycr
imi
nalchar
geagai
nsthi
m,orofhi
sri
ght
sand
obl
i
gat
ionsi
nasui
tatl
aw,ever
yoneshal
lbeent
it
ledt
oaf
airandpubl
i
c
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 205205
hear
ingbyacompet
ent
,i
ndependent
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 206206

and i
mpar
ti
alt
ri
bunalest
abl
i
shed byl
aw.The pr
ess and t
he publ
i
c
maybe
excl
udedf
rom al
lorpar
tofat
ri
alf
orr
easonsofmor
als,publ
i
cor
der
(
ordr
epubl
i
c)ornat
ionalsecur
it
yinademocr
ati
csoci
ety,orwhent
he
i
nter
estoft
hepr
ivat
eli
vesoft
hepar
ti
essor
equi
res,ort
otheext
ent
st
ri
ctl
ynecessar
yint
heopi
nionoft
hecour
tinspeci
alci
rcumst
ances
wher
epubl
i
cit
ywoul
dpr
ejudi
cet
hei
nter
est
sofj
ust
ice;butanyj
udgement
r
ender
edi
nacr
imi
nalcaseori
nasui
tatl
awshal
lbemadepubl
i
cexcept
wher
ethe i
nter
est of j
uveni
l
e per
sons ot
her
wise r
equi
res or t
he
pr
oceedi
ngsconcer
nmat
ri
moni
aldi
sput
esort
heguar
dianshi
pofchi
l
dren.

2.Ever
yonechar
gedwi
thacr
imi
nalof
fenceshal
lhavet
her
ightt
obe
pr
esumedi
nnocentunt
ilpr
ovedgui
l
tyaccor
dingt
olaw.
3.Inthedet
ermi
nat
ionofanycr
imi
nalchar
geagai
nsthi
m,ever
yone
shal
lbe
enti
tl
ed tot
he f
oll
owi
ng mi
nimum guar
ant
ees,i
nful
l
equali
ty:

a.To be i
nfor
med pr
ompt
ly and i
n det
aili
nal
anguage whi
ch
heunder
standsoft
henat
ureandcauseoft
hechar
geagai
nsthi
m;
b. Tohaveadequat
eti
meandf
aci
l
iti
esf
ort
hepr
epar
ati
onofhi
s
def
enceandt
ocommuni
cat
ewi
thcounsel
ofhi
sownchoosi
ng;
c.Tobet
ri
edwi
thoutunduedel
ay;
d. Tobet
ri
edi
nhi
spr
esence,andt
odef
endhi
msel
finper
sonor
t
hroughl
egalassi
stanceofhi
sownchoosi
ng;t
obei
nfor
med,i
fhe
doesnothavel
egalassi
stance,oft
hisr
ight
;andt
ohavel
egal
assi
stanceassi
gnedt
ohi
m,i
nanycasewher
ethei
nter
est
sof
j
ust
icesor
equi
re,andwi
thoutpaymentbyhi
minanysuchcasei
f
hedoesnothavesuf
fi
cientmeanst
opayf
ori
t;
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 207207

e. Toexami
ne,
orhaveexami
ned,
thewi
tnessesagai
nsthi
m andt
o
obt
ainthe
at
tendanceandexami
nat
ionofwi
tnessesonhi
sbehal
funder
t
hesamecondi
ti
onsaswi
tnessesagai
nsthi
m;
f. Tohavethef
reeassi
stanceofani
nter
pret
eri
fhecannot
under
standor
speakt
hel
anguageusedi
ncour
t;
g.Nott
obecompel
l
edt
otest
if
yagai
nsthi
msel
fort
oconf
essgui
l
t.

4. I
nthecaseofj
uveni
l
eper
sons,t
hepr
ocedur
eshal
lbesuchaswi
l
ltake
accountoft
hei
rageandt
hedesi
rabi
l
ityofpr
omot
ingt
hei
rrehabi
l
itat
ion.
5. Ever
yoneconvi
ctedofacr
imeshal
lhavet
her
ightt
ohi
sconvi
cti
onand
sent
encebei
ngr
evi
ewedbyahi
ghert
ri
bunal
accor
dingt
olaw.
6. Whenaper
sonhasbyaf
inaldeci
sionbeenconvi
ctedofacr
imi
nal
of
fenceandwhensubsequent
lyhi
sconvi
cti
onhasbeenr
ever
sedorhe
hasbeenpar
donedont
hegr
oundt
hatanew ornewl
ydi
scover
edf
act
showsconcl
usi
vel
ythatt
her
ehasbeen a mi
scar
ri
ageofj
ust
ice,t
he
per
sonwhohassuf
fer
edpuni
shmentasar
esul
tofsuchconvi
cti
onshal
l
be compensat
ed accor
ding t
olaw,unl
ess i
tis pr
oved t
hatt
he non-
di
scl
osur
eoft
heunknownf
acti
nti
mei
swhol
l
yorpar
tl
yat
tr
ibut
abl
eto
hi
m.
7.Nooneshal
lbel
i
abl
etobet
ri
edorpuni
shedagai
nforanof
fencef
orwhi
ch
hehas
al
readybeenf
inal
l
yconvi
ctedoracqui
tt
edi
naccor
dancewi
tht
hel
aw
andpenalpr
ocedur
eofeachcount
ry.

4.
3.1.
Ther
ightt
ofai
rTr
ial

Dearst
udent
,thepr
ovi
si
onsofbot
hourconst
it
uti
onandt
heI
CCPRbegi
nby
l
ayi
ngdownt
hebasi
cri
ght
srel
ati
ngt
ofai
rtr
ial
.Ourconst
it
uti
onl
i
stssomef
our
i
mpor
tantr
ight
srel
ati
ngt
ofai
rtr
ial
.Thesear
ether
ightt
opubl
i
chear
ing,t
he
r
ightt
ohav
eone’
scaseseenbef
oreanor
dinar
ytr
ibunal
,ther
ightt
ospeedyt
ri
al
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 208208

(
wit
hinar
easonabl
eti
me)andt
her
ightt
obet
ri
edonl
yaf
terbei
ngchar
ged.The

I
CCPRaddssomecr
it
icalaspect
stot
hesel
i
sti
ngs.Someoft
heseaddi
ti
onsar
e
equal
i
tybef
oret
het
ri
bunal
s,t
her
ightt
o hav
eone’
scaseconsi
der
edbyan
i
ndependent
,acompet
entandi
mpar
ti
alt
ri
bunal
,andar
ightt
onotonl
ypubl
i
c
butal
sof
airt
ri
al.Thus,
accor
dingt
otheI
CCPR,
aper
sonmaycl
aimt
hathi
sri
ght
t
oat
ri
alby an i
ndependent
,impar
ti
aland compet
entcour
tbe r
espect
ed
whenev
erhet
hinkst
hatt
heseaspect
sar
emi
ssi
ngf
rom t
he‘
ordi
nar
ytr
ibunal
s’
t
hatourconst
it
uti
onhasdescr
ibed.I
ndependence,compet
encyandi
mpar
ti
ali
ty
ar
ethebasi
cessencesofor
dinar
ytr
ibunal
sandt
huswecanst
il
lpr
esumet
hat
whent
heconst
it
uti
oni
sref
err
ingt
oor
dinar
ytr
ibunal
siti
simpl
i
cit
lyr
efer
ri
ngt
o
t
hesequal
i
ties.
Thesecumul
ati
vel
ymaket
hehear
ingf
air
.

Publ
i
chear
ingi
soneaspectoff
airt
ri
ali
nthesenset
hatwher
ethet
ri
ali
sbei
ng
accessedbyt
hepubl
i
c,i
tisassumedt
hatt
hepubl
i
cwi
l
lhav
etheoppor
tuni
tyt
o
cr
it
ici
se and wat
ch ov
erany
thi
ng t
hatgoes wr
ong bot
hin subst
ance and
pr
ocedur
e.Ther
eis,howev
er,except
ionf
rom suchpubl
i
cit
yoft
ri
alst
opr
otect
v
ari
ousi
nter
est
s,whi
char
emor
eort
hel
esst
hesamei
ntheI
CCPRandi
nthe
FDRE const
it
uti
on.Thesear
e meantt
o saf
eguar
dint
erest
swhi
ch ar
e mor
e
v
aluabl
ethant
hebenef
itt
hatcoul
dhav
ebeenobt
ainedbyr
espect
ingt
her
ightof
t
heaccusedt
oapubl
i
ctr
ial
.Fori
nst
ance,i
nacasewher
eaf
atherhasbeen
accusedf
ort
hecr
imeofadul
ter
y,t
her
eisl
esst
ogai
nbypubl
i
cisi
ngt
het
ri
alt
han
t
hedamagei
twoul
dcauset
othei
ntegr
it
yoft
hef
ami
l
yandt
othechi
l
drenoft
he
mar
ri
age,
ifany
.Thus,
theconst
it
uti
onal
l
owsacl
osedhear
ingi
ntheseandot
her
casesf
ort
hepur
poseofpr
otect
ingt
her
ightofpr
ivacyoft
hepar
ti
esconcer
ned,
publ
i
cmor
alsandnat
ional
secur
it
y.
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 209209

Theot
heraspectoff
airt
ri
alr
elat
eswi
tht
hel
engt
hoft
imet
hatt
hecasemi
ght

t
akei
ncour
tofl
aw.Accor
dingt
oAr
t20oft
heFDREconst
it
uti
ont
het
ri
alshoul
d
nott
akeat
imemor
ethani
sreasonabl
yrequi
red.Thi
siscal
l
edt
her
ightt
o
speedyt
ri
al.I
tref
erst
ooneoft
hebasi
cri
ght
sincr
imi
nalpr
oceedi
ngsi
ntended
t
oensur
ethatdef
endant
sar
enotsubj
ectt
ounr
easonabl
ylengt
hyi
ncar
cer
ati
on
pr
iort
oaf
inaldeci
si
onofgui
l
tori
nnocence.I
nmanyj
uri
sdi
cti
onsv
iol
ati
onsof
t
hisr
ight
,suchaswher
ethepr
osecut
orhasf
ail
edt
obr
ingt
hecaset
otr
ialf
oran
unr
easonabl
elengt
hoft
ime,
maybeacausef
ordi
smi
ssal
ofacr
imi
nal
case.

Thus,t
het
imet
hatt
hecasei
ssupposedt
olasti
nthehandsoft
hepol
i
cef
or
i
nvest
igat
ion,
thet
imet
hati
twi
l
ltakeatt
hehandsoft
hepr
osecut
or’
sof
fi
ceas
wel
last
hel
engt
hoft
imeacasewi
l
lst
ayi
ncour
tfort
ri
alhav
eal
limpactont
he
per
son’
sri
ghtf
orspeedyt
ri
al.Underourcr
imi
nalpr
ocedur
e,t
heseaspect
sof
speedy t
ri
al hav
e been t
reat
ed di
ff
erent
ly. Fi
rst
,the t
ime r
equi
red f
or
i
nvest
igat
ionofacer
tai
ncr
imi
nalactmustbecar
ri
edout“
wit
houtunnecessar
y
del
ay.
”Thi
sisst
atedunderAr
t37(
1)oft
hecr
imi
nalpr
ocedur
ecode.Ast
owhat
const
it
utesunnecessar
yornecessar
ydel
ayi
snotcl
earandt
heabsenceofat
l
eastt
hemaxi
mum day
sormont
hst
hatani
nvest
igat
ionmayl
astmakest
his
mat
terv
erymuchopent
oabuse.Especi
all
ythebl
anketper
missi
onf
oraski
nga
r
emandunderAr
t59t
hatwesawabov
eper
mit
sthepol
i
cet
ocar
elessf
orhow
l
ongt
hei
nvest
igat
ioncant
akewi
thoutv
iol
ati
ngt
heper
son’
sri
ghtt
ospeedyt
ri
al.

Att
hel
eveloft
hepr
osecut
or’
sof
fi
cet
oot
her
ecoul
dbeat
hreatt
other
ightof
speedyt
ri
ali
fitwer
etot
akeanext
endedper
iodoft
imewi
thoutbei
ngchar
ged.
Thi
sis especi
all
ycr
it
icalwher
ethe cr
ime f
orwhi
ch t
he per
son has been
suspect
edr
elat
eswi
tht
heonewhi
chi
snotbai
l
abl
e.Ourcr
imi
nalpr
ocedur
eis,
howev
er,
ver
ymuchcl
earont
hispoi
ntbypr
ovi
dingamaxi
mum per
iodoft
ime
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 210210

wi
thi
nwhi
cht
hepr
osecut
or’
sof
fi
ceshoul
dinst
it
uteachar
geaf
terr
ecei
vi
ngt
he

i
nvest
igat
ionf
il
e. Ar
t109(
1)st
atest
hat“
Thepubl
i
cpr
osecut
orshal
lwi
thi
n
f
if
teenday
soft
her
ecei
ptoft
hepol
i
cer
epor
t…f
ramesuchchar
geashet
hinks
f
it
…”Thi
sisev
enshor
tert
hanwhatt
heNew Yor
kst
ate’
scr
imi
nalpr
ocedur
e
l
awpr
ovi
des,
whi
chst
ipul
atest
hatt
hepr
osecut
ionmustber
eadyf
ort
ri
alwi
thi
n
6mont
hs.

Whatmakesourl
aw pr
epost
erousi
s,howev
er,i
tdoesn’
tpr
ovi
det
heef
fectf
or
t
hepr
osecut
or’
sfai
l
uret
oli
veupt
othi
smaxi
mum per
iodandt
huswewi
tness
upt
othr
eey
ear
sofdel
aybyt
hepr
osecut
ori
ninst
it
uti
ngachar
geaf
terr
ecei
vi
ng
t
hei
nvest
igat
ionf
il
e.

Thef
inalst
agewher
ether
ightt
ospeedyt
ri
alcanbet
hreat
enedi
sthet
ri
alst
age.
Att
het
ri
all
evel
,aswel
lasi
nal
ltheot
herl
evel
sfort
hatmat
ter
,thei
nst
it
uti
onal
setupacr
osst
hecount
ry,
suchast
heav
ail
abl
enumberofcour
ts,
judges,
andt
he
r
equi
redmat
eri
alswi
l
lpl
ayasi
gni
fi
cantr
olei
nensur
ingt
hatt
hecasewi
l
lnot
t
aket
ool
ongat
imet
ohav
eitdeci
ded.Thi
shasbasi
cal
l
ytodowi
tht
hest
ate’
s
obl
i
gat
i o pr
ont otectandf
ulf
ilt
hei
ndi
vi
dual
s’r
ightt
o speedyt
ri
al.Wi
tht
his
r
egar
dtoo one has t
o make a r
efer
ence t
othe cr
imi
nalpr
ocedur
e code’
s
pr
ovi
si
onsr
elat
ingt
othet
ri
alst
agesofcr
imi
nalpr
oceedi
ngs.Thecl
ear‘
enemy
’
ofspeedyt
ri
alatt
hisl
eveloft
hepr
oceedi
ngi
sadj
our
nment
.Howof
tenacour
t
adj
our
nst
hecasespeaksagr
eatdealabouthow speedyt
het
ri
ali
s.Thus,a
cl
osel
ookatAr
ts94-
96oft
hecr
imi
nalpr
ocedur
ecodei
nfor
msust
hegr
ounds
f
orgi
vi
ngadj
our
nment
sandal
sof
orhow l
ongoneadj
our
nmentcoul
dlast
.It
haspr
ovi
dedaoneweekmaxi
mum f
ormostoft
her
easonsofadj
our
nmentt
hat
ar
egi
venunderAr
t94.Andt
heot
her
sdonothav
esuchl
i
mit
.Leav
ingt
hatas
i
tmay
,forhow manyoccasi
onscant
hecour
tadj
our
nforamaxi
mum ofone
week
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 211211

i
snotpr
ovi
dedf
or.Mor
eov
er,
thecodedoesn’
tpr
ovi
det
heef
fect
soff
ail
ure,
for

i
nst
ance,
oft
hepr
osecut
ort
oappeardur
ingpr
oceedi
ngsandf
orwhi
cht
hecour
t
wi
l
lhav
etogi
veamaxi
mum ofoneweekadj
our
nment
.Fol
l
owi
ngadj
our
nment
s
af
teradj
our
nment
s,whet
herornott
hecour
thast
ocl
oset
hef
il
eordeci
det
he
casei
ntheabsenceoft
hepr
osecut
ori
snotpr
ovi
dedei
ther
.Iti
snotonl
yfai
l
ure
t
o appeart
hatcan be used as a gr
ound f
oradj
our
nmentbut
,as we see
pr
act
ical
l
y,t
hepr
osecut
orcanappearbutsay
sthatheneedsaddi
ti
onalt
ime.
Thenaccor
dingt
othecr
imi
nal
procedur
ethecour
thast
oadj
our
nthehear
ingf
or
a maxi
mum ofone week,butf
orunl
i
mit
ed numberofoccasi
ons.I
fthe
pr
osecut
orcont
inuest
ouset
hist
act
ic,
ther
eisnocl
earpr
ovi
si
ont
hatal
l
owst
he
cour
ttocl
oset
hef
il
eandf
reet
heaccused.
Thus,
ther
ightt
ospeedyt
ri
alr
emai
ns
t
o be t
hreat
ened because ofabsence ofa cl
earand bi
ti
ng pr
ovi
si
on on
adj
our
nment
s.Theef
fectwoul
dbe,ast
hesay
inggoes‘
j
ust
icedel
ayedj
ust
ice
deni
ed!
’

Fi
nal
l
y,t
her
ightt
ofai
rtr
ialal
sodemandst
hatanaccusedper
soncanonl
ybe
t
ri
edaf
terbei
ngchar
ged.Thi
sisal
sopr
ovi
dedi
nthecr
imi
nalpr
ocedur
ecodeby
say
ing t
hat‘
no per
son maybe t
ri
ed unl
ess a char
ge has been f
ramed i
n
accor
dancewi
tht
hepr
ovi
si
onsof[
thi
scode]
’(SeeAr
t108andt
hef
oll
owi
ngof
t
hecr
imi
nalpr
ocedur
ecode)
.Thequest
ioni
swhyweneedachar
gesot
hata
t
ri
alcoul
dbeconsi
der
edf
air
?Char
ge,aswesai
dabov
e,i
sast
atementbyt
he
pr
osecut
orst
ati
ngwhatl
awsar
evi
olat
edbywhatactandi
tispr
imar
il
ymeant
t
oinf
ormt
heaccusedofwhatspeci
fi
cal
l
egat
ionhei
ssupposedt
odef
end
agai
nst
.Thus,i
thasbasi
cal
l
yav
alueofi
nfor
mingt
heaccused.Ther
equi
rement
i
sal
someantt
opr
otecti
ndi
vi
dual
sagai
nstsummar
yexecut
ionswi
thoutchar
ge.
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 212212

Thepr
ovi
si
onal
sor
epeat
sther
ightt
obei
nfor
medt
hatwesawi
nrel
ati
ont
oan

ar
rest
ed per
son as equal
l
yimpor
tantf
oraccused per
sons as wel
lunder
subpar
agr
aph2,whi
chcoul
dbeconsi
der
edaspar
toft
her
ightofanaccused
per
son t
ofai
rtr
ial
.Mor
eov
er,access t
o an i
nter
pret
eri
s ment
ioned under
subpar
agr
aph7oft
heconst
it
uti
onwhi
chal
sohasani
mpactont
hef
air
nessof
t
het
ri
alwher
etheaccuseddoesnotunder
standt
hel
anguageoft
hecour
twher
e
t
hecasei
sbei
ngt
ri
ed.Especi
all
yint
heexi
sti
nget
hno-
li
ngui
sti
cfeder
alst
ate
st
ruct
ureandwher
emostoft
her
egi
onshav
ethei
rownwor
kingl
anguages,t
his
r
ightbecomesv
eryr
elev
antf
oraccusedper
sons.

4.
3.2.
Ther
ightt
obepr
esumedi
nnocent

Thi
sisav
eryf
undament
alr
ighti
nanycr
imi
nalpr
oceedi
ngsandIpr
esumet
hat
y
ouwi
l
lhav
eani
n-dept
hdi
scussi
onoft
hisi
ssuedur
ingy
ourcour
seoncr
imi
nal
pr
ocedur
e.Pr
esumpt
ionofi
nnocencei
sal
egalr
ightt
hatt
heaccusedi
ncr
imi
nal
pr
oceedi
ngshasi
nmanymoder
nnat
ions.I
tst
atest
hatno per
sonshal
lbe
consi
der
edgui
l
tyunt
ilf
inal
l
yconv
ict
edbyacour
t.Thebur
denofpr
oofi
sthus
ont
hepr
osecut
ion,whi
chhast
oconv
incet
hecour
tthatt
heaccusedi
sgui
l
ty
bey
ondar
easonabl
edoubt
.Inpr
inci
ple,t
hedef
ensedoesnothav
eto'
prov
e'
any
thi
ng.Howev
er,
thedef
ensemaypr
esentev
idencet
endi
ngt
oshowt
hatt
her
e
i
sadoubtast
othegui
l
toft
heaccused.

Conv
ersel
y,i
nmanyaut
hor
it
ari
anr
egi
mest
hepr
osecut
ioncasei
s,i
npr
act
ice,
bel
i
evedbydef
aul
tunl
esst
heaccusedcanpr
ovehei
sinnocent
,apr
act
icecal
l
ed
pr
esumpt
ionofgui
l
t.Manypeopl
ebel
i
evet
hatpr
esumpt
ionofgui
l
tisunf
air
andev
eni
mmor
albecausei
tal
l
owst
hest
rat
egi
ctar
get
ingofanyi
ndi
vi
dual
,
si
ncei
t'
sof
tendi
ff
icul
ttof
ir
mlyest
abl
i
shpr
oofofi
nnocence(
forexampl
e,i
t'
s
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 213213

of
teni
mpossi
blet
oest
abl
i
shanal
i
bi20 i
ftheper
soni
shomeal
oneatt
het
ime
of

t
hecr
ime)
.

I
nmanycount
ri
esbel
ongi
ngt
otheAngl
o-Saxonl
egalt
radi
ti
on,t
hePr
inci
pleof
Pr
esumpt
ionofI
nnocencei
sphr
asedsucht
hat"
theaccusedi
spr
esumedt
obe
i
nnocentunt
ili
thasbeendecl
aredgui
l
tybyacour
t"
.Thi
sabbr
evi
atedf
orm
negl
ect
sthepoi
ntt
hataper
sonmaycont
inuet
oappealadeci
si
on,andwi
l
lbe
pr
esumedi
nnocentunt
ilaf
inaldeci
si
oni
smade.Ther
efor
epeopl
ewhohav
e
beenf
oundgui
l
tyi
nlowercour
tsofl
aw,buthav
ependi
ngappeal
s,cannothav
e
t
hei
rci
ti
zen’
sri
ght
s(suchast
ovot
eandt
obeel
ect
ed)st
ri
ppednorcant
heybe
per
manent
lyr
emov
edf
rom t
hei
rof
fi
ces,
butmer
elysuspended.

Dearst
udent
,hav
eyouunder
stoodt
hemeani
ngofpr
esumpt
ionofi
nnocence?
Ther
ear
emanyconsequencest
hatf
lowf
rom t
hispr
esumpt
ion.
Fir
stt
hef
actt
hat
i
ncr
imi
nalpr
oceedi
ngst
hepr
osecut
orst
art
spr
esent
inghi
sev
idenceandt
he
accused wi
l
lhav
etoj
ustl
i
sten wi
thoutsay
ing any
thi
ng spr
ings f
rom t
his
pr
esumpt
ionsi
ncet
heaccusedi
sconsi
der
ednott
ohav
ecommi
tt
edt
hecr
ime
unt
ilt
he pr
osecut
orsucceeds t
o dest
roy t
his supposi
ti
on.Secondl
y,t
his
pr
esumpt
ioni
ssomuchst
rongt
hati
tcanonl
ybesetasi
dewher
ethepr
osecut
or
pr
ovesgui
l
tbey
ondanyr
easonabl
edoubt
s.Thi
sist
hest
andar
dofpr
oofi
n
cr
imi
nalpr
oceedi
ngwhi
chi
sst
rongert
hant
heci
vi
lpr
oceedi
ngs.I
nci
vi
lcases
t
her
equi
redst
andar
dofr
oofi
scal
l
edpr
eponder
anceofev
idencewher
ebywe
onl
yneedev
idencewhi
chout
wei
ghst
heopponent
’sev
idenceev
enbyasl
i
ght

20
‘
Alibi
’i
saLat inwor dtomean‘ el
sewhere,oratanot herplace.’
Itisthepl eaormodeofdef ense
underwhichaper sonont r
ialf
oracr i
mepr ovesorat temptst oprov ethathewasi nanother
pl
acewhent heallegedactwascommi t
ted.Forinstance,wher eacr i
mei sall
egedtohav ebeen
commi tt
edatt heplacecalled‘Debramarkos’andt i
meof23Jul y1999at8o’ clock,t
hent he
provebytheaccusedt hathewas, atthatspecif
icti
meanddat e,i
nAddi sAbabawi thhisf amily
member sisconsi deredtohavesuccessf ul
lysetupanal i
bi.Thisisdifferentfr
omal loftheot her
defensesinceitisbasedupont hepremisethatthedef endantist r
ulyinnocent .
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 214214

per
cent
agesot
hatapar
tycanwi
nhi
scase.
Apr
oofof‘
bey
ondr
easonabl
edoubt
’

i
sar
equi
rementt
hatl
i
esonapr
osecut
ori
ncr
imi
nalcaseswher
ehehast
o
pr
esentev
idencet
hatl
eav
esnor
easonabl
edoubtast
othegui
l
toft
heaccused
sot
hatt
he cour
tcan ent
era v
erdi
ctofgui
l
t.I
tis expect
ed nott
oleav
e
any
‘
reasonabl
e’doubtsi
ncei
tisnothumanl
ypossi
blet
opr
ovegui
l
twi
thoutany

doubt
,whi
chi
sonl
ytheDev
ine’
sabi
l
ity
.Fi
nal
l
y,t
her
eisanaccept
edcr
imi
nal
pr
ocedur
e pr
inci
plet
hatsay
sthat‘
the benef
itofdoubtshoul
d go t
othe
def
endant
.’

Thi
sfi
nalpoi
nti
sasi
tuat
ionwher
ether
eexi
stsadoubtont
heev
idencet
hatt
he
publ
i
cpr
osecut
orhaspr
oducedwhi
chmi
ghthav
ebeencr
eat
edt
hrought
he
def
ense.Forexampl
e,t
her
emi
ghtbeev
idencesuccessf
ull
ypr
oducedbyt
he
pr
osecut
ort
hatt
heaccusedhaski
l
ledaper
soni
napar
ti
cul
arpl
ace,t
imeand
i
nst
rument
.Wher
etheaccused,ont
heot
herhand,t
hroughhi
sdef
ensepr
oves
hi
sal
i
biwher
ebyatt
heal
l
egedt
imeofcommi
ssi
onoft
hecr
imehei
ssomewher
e
el
seoutoft
hecount
ry,wesayt
hatt
her
eisdoubton t
heev
idenceoft
he
pr
osecut
orbecauset
heaccusedcannotbei
nthepl
aceandt
imeki
l
li
ngt
hedead
andatt
hesamet
imebesomewher
eel
seout
sidet
hecount
ry.Thus,
accor
dingt
o
t
hispr
inci
ple,
hisi
nnocencemustr
emai
npr
esumedandmustbemadet
obenef
it
f
rom t
hecr
eat
eddoubtent
it
li
nghi
mtobel
etf
ree.

Dearst
udent
,hav
eyouunder
stoodt
hemeani
ng,f
eat
uresandconsequencesof
t
hepr
inci
pleofpr
esumpt
ionofi
nnocence?Gr
eat
!Iwi
l
lhav
etol
eav
either
eso
t
haty
ouwoul
donceagai
npi
cki
tupl
ateri
nyourcr
imi
nalpr
ocedur
ecour
sef
ora
deeperunder
standi
ngoft
heconcept
.
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 215215

4.
3.3.
Ther
ightt
odef
endandt
oappeal

Thef
inalpoi
ntt
hatweshal
lbedi
scussi
ngi
nrel
ati
ont
oAr
t20i
sther
ightt
o
def
endt
hechar
gesbr
oughtagai
nstt
heaccusedaswel
lasmakeanappealt
oa
hi
ghercour
tifdi
ssat
isf
iedi
nanywaybyt
hedeci
si
onsoft
hel
owercour
ts.
Def
encei
sani
mpor
tantpar
tofanypr
oceedi
ng,andespeci
all
ythatofcr
imi
nal
pr
oceedi
ngs.
Ast
hisi
sar
ight
,iti
stobeexer
cisedatt
hewi
shesoft
hedef
endant
.
Thatmeansanaccusedmi
ght
,forv
ari
ousr
easons,
pref
ernott
odef
endhi
scase
andt
her
eisnol
egalgr
oundt
ocompelsuchaper
sont
oexer
cisehi
sri
ghtof
def
ence.
Thus,
iti
sawai
vabl
eri
ght
,asar
emostr
ight
s.

An accused’
sri
ghtt
o def
endt
hechar
gei
ncl
udesmanyaspect
sin cr
imi
nal
pr
oceedi
ngs.I
tbegi
nsbyt
her
eadi
ngoft
hechar
gei
nal
anguageheunder
stands
onhi
sfi
rstappear
ancei
ncour
t.Thi
sgi
veshi
mtheoppor
tuni
tyt
oknow what
def
encehewi
l
lhav
etot
hinkaboutandpr
epar
ehi
msel
faccor
dingl
y.Thechar
ge
mustal
so,i
naddi
ti
ont
obei
ngr
eadt
ohi
m,begi
vent
ohi
minwr
it
ingsot
hathe
coul
dkeepi
tfort
hesamepur
poseofpr
epar
ingt
hedef
ence.Ther
eadi
ngi
s
basi
cal
l
ymeantt
ochecki
fwhati
sgi
vent
ohi
minwr
it
ingandwhatexi
stsi
nthe
cour
t’
shandar
eoneandt
hesame.

Theot
heraspectoft
hisr
ightoft
heaccusedr
elat
eswi
thaccesst
opr
osecut
ion’
s
ev
idencesaswel
last
her
ightt
oexami
newi
tnessest
est
if
yingagai
nsthi
m,t
o
adduceort
ohav
eev
idencepr
oducedi
nhi
sowndef
enceandt
oobt
aint
he
at
tendanceofandexami
nat
ionofwi
tnessesont
hei
rbehal
fbef
oret
hecour
t.One
oft
hecont
ent
iouspar
tsoft
hishasbeenaccesst
othepr
osecut
ion’
sev
idence
t
hati
sgoi
ngt
obepr
oducedagai
nsthi
m.Whi
l
esomear
guet
hat‘
access’must
beunder
stoodt
oref
ert
oaccesswhent
heev
idencesar
epr
oducedi
ncour
tof
l
aw,ot
her
spr
efert
ounder
standi
ttomeant
hataccesshast
omeanwhati
t
means
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 216216

l
i
ter
all
yandt
heaccusedmustbeabl
etoi
nqui
rei
ntot
hoseev
idencesf
rom t
he

v
erybegi
nni
ng.

Thepr
act
icei
sthatt
hepubl
i
cpr
osecut
orpr
epar
est
wot
ypesofchar
geswher
eby
i
noneoft
hechar
gest
obegi
vent
othecour
t,t
her
ear
eli
stsofev
idencest
hat
t
hepubl
i
cpr
osecut
orwi
shest
opr
oducedur
ingt
ri
alwhi
l
eint
hechar
get
hati
sto
begi
vent
otheaccused,
thi
sli
stsofev
idencesi
smi
ssi
ng.Thi
shasbeenbl
amed
asunconst
it
uti
onalbymany
.Thear
gumenti
sthatr
eveal
i
ngt
henamesand
addr
essesoft
hewi
tnessesoft
hepr
osecut
ionwoul
dexposet
hosei
ndi
vi
dual
sto
adangerofbei
ngal
l
ured,t
hreat
ened,orsomet
imesbei
ngki
l
ledbyt
heaccused
t
omaket
hem nott
otest
if
yagai
nsthi
m dur
ingt
ri
al.Andi
tisal
sosai
dthatt
he
namesoft
hewi
tnesseswi
l
lhav
epur
posef
ort
heaccusedasf
araspr
epar
ati
on
ofhi
sdef
encei
sconcer
ned.

Ont
heot
herhand,t
her
eisast
rongcl
aimt
hatt
hef
actofbei
ngexposedt
o
what
everdangermustnotbeagr
oundt
odenyt
heaccused’
sconst
it
uti
onal
right
f
ort
hegov
ernmentwi
l
lhav
eto di
schar
gei
tsr
esponsi
bil
i
tyofpr
otect
ingi
ts
ci
ti
zensf
rom anyper
cei
vedf
orm oft
hreat
.Thus,i
ndeny
ingt
her
ightoft
he
accusedt
oknow whatev
idencei
stobepr
oducedagai
nsthi
m wear
evi
olat
ing
hi
sri
ghtt
o def
ence.Dearst
udent
,whi
choft
hear
gument
sdoy
ouconsi
der
hav
ingpr
opersense?

Theot
heri
mpor
tantaspectoft
hisr
ightr
elat
eswi
tht
heaccused’
sri
ghtt
obe
assi
stedbyacounselofhi
schoi
ceandi
fhedoesn’
thav
ethef
inanci
alabi
l
ityt
o
hi
rehi
sownl
awy
er,
tohav
eoneatt
hest
ate’
sexpense.Tohav
eacounselatt
he
expenseoft
hest
atet
wocondi
ti
onsmustbemet
;thatt
heaccuseddoesn’
thav
e
suf
fi
cientmeanst
opayf
oral
awy
erandapr
ooft
hati
fhei
snotassi
stedbyl
egal
counselmi
scar
ri
ageofj
ust
icewoul
dresul
t.Thesear
ecumul
ati
ver
equi
rement
s
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 217217

i
nthesenset
hatev
eni
ftheaccusedi
sabl
etopr
ovet
hathedoesn’
thav
e
t
he

f
inanci
alcapaci
tyt
oaf
for
dal
awy
er’
sser
vicesol
ongashecandef
endt
hechar
ge
wi
thoutal
egalassi
stancet
hest
atewi
l
lnotbeobl
i
gedt
opr
ovi
dehi
m wi
tha
l
awy
er.Ther
ever
sei
sal
sot
ruei
nthati
fanaccusedhast
hemeanst
opayf
ora
l
awy
er,
itdoesn’
tmat
terwhet
herornotmi
scar
ri
ageofj
ust
icewi
l
lhappeni
fhei
s
notassi
stedbyal
awy
er.

Thequest
ioni
show canonepr
ovet
hathedoesn’
thav
ethef
inanci
alabi
l
ityt
o
payf
oral
awy
er?Andwhendowesayt
hatmi
scar
ri
ageofj
ust
icewoul
dhappen
becauseofl
ackofal
awy
er’
sassi
stance?

Thesear
ever
yimpor
tantquest
ionst
hatt
hej
udgehast
oanswercar
eful
l
y.Asf
ar

ast
hef
inanci
ali
nabi
l
ityi
sconcer
ned,t
her
ear
eest
abl
i
shedway
sofpr
ovi
ngt
he
f
actofbei
ngpoorundert
heci
vi
lpr
ocedur
ecodewhi
chwoul
dbeofhel
pher
e
t
oo.‘
Miscar
ri
ageofj
ust
ice’i
spr
imar
il
ytheconv
ict
ionand puni
shmentofa
per
sonf
oracr
imet
hatheorshedi
dnotcommi
torpuni
shmenti
mposedi
na
mannert
hatwhi
chi
sunf
air
lyhi
gherwhi
l
etheaccuseddeser
vedonl
yal
ower
puni
shment
.Howev
er,whenwel
ooki
ntot
hepr
act
icei
ncr
imi
nalcases,our
cour
tsf
oll
ow qui
teadi
ff
erentappr
oachconcer
ningt
hismat
ter
.Theyusual
l
y
pr
ovi
deal
awy
ert
oadef
endanti
ncasesofaggr
avat
edhomi
ci
de.Thi
smeans,
t
her
efor
e,t
hecour
tispr
esumi
ngt
hatmi
scar
ri
ageofj
ust
icehappensi
ncasesof
homi
cide.Howev
er,t
his appr
oach doesn’
tgo wi
tht
he nor
malmeani
ng of
mi
scar
ri
ageofj
ust
icet
houghi
tisanappr
oachf
oll
owedi
nresponset
othel
ackof
f
inanci
alcapabi
l
ityoft
hest
atet
omakel
awy
ersav
ail
abl
etoal
lcaseswher
e
mi
scar
ri
age of j
ust
ice mi
ghthappen because of l
ack of l
egalcounsel
’
s
assi
stance.
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 218218

Unl
i
keourconst
it
uti
on,
theI
CCPRmakesbei
ngi
nfor
medoft
hisr
ightaspar
tof

t
her
ighti
tsel
fandt
husanaccusedmustbei
nfor
medt
hathehast
her
ightf
ora
l
egal
counsel
.

Fi
nal
l
y,anaccusedhast
her
ightt
olodgeanappealaf
tert
hef
inaldeci
si
onoft
he
l
owercour
t.Thi
swi
l
lgi
vet
heoppor
tuni
tyf
ort
hehi
ghercour
tst
ocheckont
he
l
owercour
t’
sdeci
si
onandcor
rectanyf
aul
tthatmi
ghthav
ebeencommi
tt
ed
t
her
e.Themechani
sm ofappeali
smeantt
oaugmentt
heabsenceofper
sonal
r
esponsi
bil
i
tyonj
udgesduesol
elyt
owhatt
heydeci
dei
naccor
dancewi
tht
he
spi
ri
toft
hel
awast
heyunder
stoodaswel
last
hei
rconsci
ence.

Dearst
udent
,thesear
ethebasi
cpoi
ntst
hatneedt
obedi
scussedi
nrel
ati
on
t
oAr
t20oft
heFDREconst
it
uti
on.Cany
ounot
icet
hedi
ff
erencesbet
weent
he
I
CCPRAr
t14andAr
t20oft
heFDREconst
it
uti
on?Readt
hepr
ovi
si
onscar
eful
l
y
t
orespondt
othi
squest
ion.

4.4. The r
ight
s of per
sons i
n
custody
Dearst
udent
,nowweshal
llookbr
ief
lyi
ntoAr
t21whi
chr
elat
eswi
tht
her
ightof
per
sonshel
dincust
ody
.Bypeopl
ehel
dincust
odywer
efert
oany
onewhomi
ght
beunderal
awf
ular
rest
,det
ent
ionorwhoi
sser
vingapr
isont
erm af
terbei
ng
sent
enced.Let
’s begi
n by r
eadi
ng t
he r
elev
antpr
ovi
si
ons f
rom t
he FDRE
const
it
uti
onandt
heI
CCPR.

Ar
ti
cl
e21:
TheRi
ght
sofPer
sonsHel
dinCust
odyandConv
ict
edPr
isoner
s

1.Al
lper
sons hel
din cust
odyand per
sons i
mpr
isoned upon
convi
cti
on andsent
enci
nghavet
her
ightt
otr
eat
ment
srespect
ingt
hei
r
humandi
gni
ty.
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 219219

2.Allper
sonsshal
lhavet
heoppor
tuni
tyt
ocommuni
cat
ewi
th,
andt
obe
vi
sit
edby,
t
hei
rspousesorpar
tner
s,cl
oser
elat
ives,f
ri
ends,r
eli
giouscounci
l
ors,
medi
caldoct
orsandt
hei
rlegalcounsel
.

Ar
ti
cl
e10:
ICCPR
1.Al
lper
sonsdepr
ivedoft
hei
rli
ber
tyshal
lbet
reat
edwi
thhumani
tyandwi
th
r
espectf
ort
hei
nher
entdi
gni
tyoft
hehumanper
son.
2.
(
a)Accused per
sons shal
l
,save i
n except
ionalci
rcumst
ances,be
segr
egat
ed f
rom convi
cted per
sons and shal
lbe subj
ectt
o
separ
atet
reat
mentappr
opr
iat
etot
hei
rst
atus as unconvi
cted
per
sons;
(
b)Accused j
uveni
l
e per
sons shal
lbe separ
ated f
rom adul
ts and
br
oughtasspeedi
l
yaspossi
blef
oradj
udi
cat
ion.
3. The peni
tent
iar
ysyst
em shal
lcompr
ise t
reat
mentofpr
isoner
sthe
essent
ialai
m ofwhi
chshal
lbet
hei
rref
ormat
ionandsoci
alr
ehabi
l
itat
ion.
Juveni
l
e of
fender
sshal
lbe segr
egat
ed f
rom adul
tsand be accor
ded
t
reat
mentappr
opr
iat
etot
hei
rageandl
egalst
atus.
Thi
spr
ovi
si
onoft
heFDREconst
it
uti
onessent
ial
l
yaddr
essest
wobasi
cissues
r
elat
ingt
other
ightofper
sonshel
dincust
ody
.Thef
ir
sti
saboutt
her
espectof
t
hehumandi
gni
tyofar
rest
ed,det
ainedori
mpr
isonedper
sons.Ev
eni
fsomeone
mi
ghtl
awf
ull
ybedeni
edofhi
sri
ghtt
omov
ementt
hatdoesn’
taut
omat
ical
l
y
r
educehi
mtosub-
humanst
atusandaccor
dingl
y,hehast
her
ightt
ohav
ehi
s
r
ight t
o human di
gni
ty bei
ng r
espect
ed. The second one r
elat
es wi
th
i
ncommuni
cadodet
ent
ion.I
tgi
vesar
ightt
othedet
ainedper
sont
obegi
ven
accesst
o hi
slawy
er,cl
ose r
elat
ives,and r
eli
giouscounsel
l
ors,et
c.Thi
sis
supposedt
oensur
ethatt
hedet
ent
ionwi
l
lnotbei
ncommuni
cadoandensur
e
t
hati
tremai
nsopent
oscr
uti
ny.
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 220220

The I
CCPR adds v
eryi
mpor
tantr
ight
s wi
tht
hisr
egar
d.The f
ir
sti
s on

segr
egat
ionoft
wof
orms;segr
egat
ionoft
heconv
ict
edf
rom t
hosewhoar
e
on t
ri
aland segr
egat
ion ofj
uveni
l
e del
i
nquent
sfr
om adul
tof
fender
s.I
tis
obv
ioust
hatt
hosewhoar
eont
ri
alar
epeopl
einwhosef
avourt
hepr
esumpt
ion
ofi
nnocencei
sst
il
lval
i
dandmi
xi
ngt
hem wi
tht
heoneswho ar
eno mor
e
pr
esumedi
nnocentwoul
dhav
eani
mpactont
hei
rri
ght
.Mor
eov
er,asi
str
uef
or
t
hej
uveni
l
es,i
tisal
someantt
omi
ti
gat
ether
iskof‘
cont
ami
nat
ion’ofcr
imi
nal
behav
iour
.Ther
efor
e,segr
egat
ioni
sa v
eryi
mpor
tantr
ightwhi
chi
smi
ssi
ng
f
rom ourl
aw as wel
las cr
imi
nalj
ust
ice pr
act
ice.Fi
nal
l
y,t
he I
CCPR al
so
enunci
ates on t
he pur
pose ofpeni
tent
iar
ies whi
ch mustbe pr
imar
il
ythe
r
efor
mat
ionandsoci
alr
ehabi
l
itat
ionoft
hepr
isoner
s.Tot
hatend,i
tent
it
les
det
ainedper
sonst
other
ightoft
reat
ment
sessent
ialt
othei
rref
ormat
ionand
soci
alr
ehabi
l
itat
ion.Par
ti
all
y,t
hissamef
acthasbeenaddr
essedi
nourcr
imi
nal
codet
houghi
tcannotbespel
l
edoutasr
ightsi
ncet
hecr
imi
nal
codedoesn’
thav
e
asmuchpur
poseofcr
eat
ingr
ight
sasi
tdoesi
nest
abl
i
shi
ngcr
imi
nalact
sand
t
hei
rcor
respondi
ngpenal
ti
es.

Someofr
elat
edcr
imi
nalr
esponsi
bil
i
tyi
ssueswhi
chhav
eti
eswi
tht
her
ight
sof
ar
rest
edandaccusedper
sonsar
ethenon-
ret
roact
ivi
tyoft
hecr
imi
nall
aw and
t
hepr
ohi
bit
ionofdoubl
ejeopar
dy.I
tisani
mpor
tantpr
inci
pleofcr
imi
nall
aw,
just
l
i
ket
hepr
esumpt
ionofi
nnocence,t
hatoneshal
lonl
yber
esponsi
blef
oract
s
whi
chconst
it
uteacr
imebyl
awatt
het
imet
heacthasbeencommi
tt
ed.
Art22(
1)
pr
ovi
des‘
Nooneshal
lbehel
dgui
l
tyofanycr
imi
nalof
fenceonaccountofany
actoromi
ssi
onwhi
chdi
dnotconst
it
uteacr
imi
nalof
fenceatt
het
imewheni
t
wascommi
tt
ed.Norshal
laheav
ierpenal
tybei
mposedonanyper
sont
hant
he
onet
hatwasappl
i
cabl
eatt
het
imewhent
hecr
imi
nalof
fencewascommi
tt
ed.
’
Thi
sisav
eryi
mpor
tantl
egal
i
tyr
equi
rementofgui
l
tint
hataper
sonmustbe
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 221221

f
ound t
o hav
evi
olat
ed a l
aw t
he exi
stence ofwhi
ch has al
ready been

communi
cat
edt
ohi
m byt
het
imehecommi
tt
edi
t.Thus,whencer
tai
nbehav
iour
i
s pr
ohi
bit
ed i
tmeans t
hatt
he f
reedom ofact
ion ofi
ndi
vi
dual
shas been
cur
tai
l
edt
othatex
tent
.Howev
ert
hisal
soi
mpl
i
est
hatact
sot
hert
hant
hose
expr
essl
ypr
ohi
bit
edwi
l
lbeconsi
der
edt
ohav
ebeenper
mit
tedbyl
aw.Thet
win
pr
inci
plesofcr
imi
nall
aw t
hatIment
ioned t
oyou el
sewher
ear
ether
efor
e
el
ement
soft
hepr
ohi
bit
ionoft
henon-
ret
roact
ivi
tyofcr
imi
nall
aw.Thesear
e“no
l
aw,nocr
ime”
;and“
nocr
ime,nopuni
shment
”.Thus,i
tpr
ohi
bit
sthest
atenott
o
makei
ndi
vi
dual
sresponsi
blef
oract
swhi
chhav
ebeenmadecr
imebyl
aws
whi
chi
thasi
ssuedaf
tert
hecommi
ssi
onoft
heact
.Iti
s,t
hus,abasi
cel
ement
oft
hel
egal
i
tyr
equi
rementofcr
imi
nal
gui
l
t.

Howev
er,ev
ery cr
imi
nall
aw as wel
las t
he FDRE const
it
uti
on makes one
i
mpor
tantexcept
ionf
rom t
hispr
inci
ple.Thi
siswher
eacer
tai
nlaw hasbeen
i
ssuedi
nrel
ati
ont
oacr
imi
nalactwher
ebyt
hepuni
shmentoft
hesamecr
ime
hasbeenr
educedort
hatsameacthasbeendecl
aredt
oconst
it
utenomor
ea
cr
ime,t
hent
henon-
ret
roact
ivi
typr
inci
plewi
l
lnotbeappl
i
cabl
esi
ncei
twi
l
lbei
n
t
hebenef
itoft
heaccusedt
o appl
ythenew l
aw becauseAr
t22(
2)say
s
‘
not
wit
hst
andi
ng t
he pr
ovi
si
ons of sub-
Art
icl
e 1 of t
his Ar
ti
cl
e,a l
aw

pr
omul
gat
edsubsequentt
othecommi
ssi
onoft
heof
fenceshal
lappl
yifi
tis
adv
ant
ageoust
otheaccused orconv
ict
ed per
son.
’Fori
nst
ance,wher
ethe
par
li
amenti
ssuesanew l
aw t
hatmakesabor
ti
onnomor
eacr
imi
nalact
,then
t
hosewhoar
eont
ri
alorwhohav
ebeenconv
ict
edandar
eser
vingapr
isont
erm
f
ort
hecr
imeofabor
ti
onundert
heol
dlaw wi
l
lhav
etobef
reedi
mmedi
atel
y
si
nce t
he new l
aw,not
wit
hst
andi
ngt
he non-
ret
roact
ivi
typr
inci
ple,i
sint
he
benef
itoft
heaccusedort
heconv
ict
ed.Thesamei
str
uei
fforexampl
e,a
newl
aw hasr
educedt
hepuni
shmentf
ort
hecr
imeofabor
ti
onf
rom 3y
ear
sto
one
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 222222

y
ear
.Int
hel
att
erci
rcumst
ancet
hoseont
ri
al,
iff
oundgui
l
ty,
wil
lbesent
encedt
o

amaxi
mum ofoney
earpr
isont
erm.Andwher
etheper
soni
sser
vingapr
ison
t
erm undert
heol
dlaw f
ort
hel
astoney
earandhal
f,s/
heshal
lber
eleased
i
mmedi
atel
yast
henew l
aw al
readyconsi
der
sher
/hi
mtohav
eser
vedt
hef
ull
r
equi
redt
erm ofi
mpr
isonment
.

Theot
heri
mpor
tantpr
inci
pleofcr
imi
nall
awi
sthepr
ohi
bit
ionofdoubl
ejeopar
dy.
Ar
t23st
ates‘
Noper
sonshal
lbel
i
abl
etobet
ri
edorpuni
shedagai
nforan
of
fence f
orwhi
ch he has al
ready been f
inal
l
y conv
ict
ed oracqui
tt
ed i
n
accor
dancewi
tht
hecr
imi
nall
awandpr
ocedur
e.’
Dearst
udent
,cany
ouseet
he
condi
ti
onsf
ort
hepr
ohi
bit
ion?

Aper
soncannotbet
ri
edorpuni
shedagai
nforanof
fencewher
ehe

 Hasf
inal
l
ybeenconv
ict
edoracqui
tt
ed,

 I
naccor
dancewi
tht
hecr
imi
nal
lawandpr
ocedur
e,and

 Fort
hesameof
fence.
Thesear
ever
yimpor
tantr
equi
rement
sthatneedt
obemetsoast
osayt
hata
cer
tai
nchar
gecanbeconsi
der
edasconst
it
uti
ngadoubl
ejeopar
dy.
Ther
eneedt
o
beaf
inalconv
ict
ionoracqui
tt
ali
nthesenset
hataper
sonmi
ghthav
ebeen
r
eli
evedofachar
get
empor
ari
l
yti
l
lther
elev
antev
idencesar
eobt
ained.I
nsucha
si
tuat
ion,whent
hepubl
i
cpr
osecut
orr
einst
atest
hechar
ge,t
heaccusedcannot
cl
aimt
hedef
enceofdoubl
ejeopar
dy.Mor
eov
er,i
thast
obeaconv
ict
ionor
acqui
tt
ali
naccor
dancewi
tht
hecr
imi
nall
awandpr
ocedur
eandt
husaper
son’
s
bei
ngf
oundr
esponsi
blebyt
heci
vi
lbenchi
naccor
dancewi
tht
heci
vi
lcodeor
bei
ngpenal
i
sedt
hroughadmi
nist
rat
ivepr
oceedi
ngswi
l
lnotbeconsi
der
edf
or
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 223223

t
hepur
poseoft
hedef
enceofdoubl
ejeopar
dyasaf
inalconv
ict
ion.Thus,a

per
sonmi
ghthav
ebeenf
ir
edf
rom hi
sempl
oymentbecauseoff
raudandi
fthe
pr
osecut
ori
nst
it
utesacr
imi
nalchar
geagai
nstt
heper
sonf
ort
hesameact
,he
cannotbenef
itf
rom t
hedef
enceofdoubl
ejeopar
dybycl
aimi
ngt
hathehas
al
readypai
dforhi
sbehav
iourbyl
osi
nghi
sjobbecauset
hatwasnotacr
imi
nal
l
awandpr
ocedur
e.

Thet
hir
drequi
rementi
sthe‘
sameof
fence’r
equi
rement
.Ev
eni
fthi
sappear
sto
besomehowsi
mpl
eiti
sver
ydi
ff
icul
tinpr
act
ice.Somet
imesacer
tai
nactmi
ght
bemadet
ofal
linmor
ethanonepr
ovi
si
onandt
heper
sonmi
ghthav
ebeen
conv
ict
edoracqui
tt
edunderoneoft
hepr
ovi
si
ons.Theni
fthepubl
i
cpr
osecut
or
i
nst
it
utesanot
herchar
gebychangi
ngonl
ythepr
ovi
si
on,canonesayt
hatt
his
const
it
utesadoubl
ejeopar
dy?Thef
act
soft
hecasemi
ghtbet
hesameand
t
her
emi
ghtnotbechangeofwi
tnessest
hatt
hepr
osecut
orhadpr
oducedi
nhi
s
pr
evi
ouschar
ge.I
tisv
erymuch cont
rov
ersi
alas t
he const
it
uti
on say
s‘an
of
fence’whi
l
ethecr
imi
nalpr
ocedur
esay
s‘samechar
ge.
’Iti
spr
ovi
dedunder
Ar
t130 asoneoft
hepr
eli
minar
yobj
ect
ionst
o be‘
hehaspr
evi
ousl
ybeen
acqui
tt
edorconv
ict
edont
he“
samechar
ge”
.’Whi
chonedoy
out
hinki
scl
ear
er?

Dearst
udent
,now weshal
lpauseher
eandbef
oregoi
ngt
othenextchapt
er,I
wi
l
lhav
eto gi
vey
ou a l
i
ttl
e qui
z,as usual so t
hatt
o open f
ory
ou t
he
oppor
tuni
tyofr
evi
si
ngourpr
evi
ousdi
scussi
on.

Exer
ciseI
I
1.St
atet
hef
ourel
ement
soft
her
ightt
ofai
rtr
ialasst
atedundert
heFDRE
const
it
uti
on.
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 224224

2.Descr
ibet
headdi
ti
onalel
ement
soff
airt
ri
alwhi
char
est
atedundert
he

I
CCPR.

3.Whati
sthepur
poseoft
her
ightt
opubl
i
chear
ing?

4.Whatar
ethev
ari
ousst
agesofacr
imi
nalpr
oceedi
ngt
hathav
eimpacton

aper
son’
sri
ghtt
ospeedyt
ri
al?

5.Whati
sthedi
ff
erencebet
weensay
ing‘
presumedi
nnocentunt
ilpr
oven

gui
l
ty’
and‘
presumedi
nnocentunl
esspr
ovengui
l
ty’
?

6.Whatdo y
out
hinki
sthev
iceofhav
ing pr
esumpt
ionofgui
l
tthan

i
nnocence?
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 225225

7.Whatar
etheconsequencesofpr
esumpt
ionofi
nnocence?

8.Whatar
ethepr
e-condi
ti
onst
hatneedt
obemetsot
hatacounsel
coul
dbe

appoi
nted f
oran accused att
he st
ate’
s expense,undert
he FDRE

const
it
uti
on?

9.Whati
sther
elat
ionshi
poft
hepr
inci
ple‘
no l
aw,no cr
ime’andt
he

pr
inci
pleofnon-
ret
roact
ivi
tyofcr
imi
nal
law?

10.
Whi
l
ebei
ngchasedbypol
i
ce,
fiv
efugi
ti
vesofl
awent
eredW/
roZur
iash’
s

house.Whent
hepol
i
cest
ormedi
ntot
hehouse,
shesai
d‘comei
nandsee;
t
her
eisnoonei
nsi
de.
’Thent
heywenti
ntot
hehouse.Whi
l
esear
chi
ngf
or
t
hef
ugi
ti
ves,
from oneoft
hecor
ner
soft
hehousewher
etheywer
eint
he
hi
de,t
hef
ugi
ti
vesopenedf
ir
eofaut
omat
icweaponsandki
l
ledf
ivepol
i
ce
of
fi
cer
sint
hehouse.

Thepubl
i
cpr
osecut
orbr
oughtachar
geofhi
dingcr
imi
nal
sundert
he
cr
imi
nal
codef
orwhi
chshewassent
encedt
othr
eey
ear
sofi
mpr
isonment
andaf
tershef
ini
shedt
hatt
erm shewasagai
nchar
gedf
oracr
imeof
homi
cide as an accompl
i
ce. She t
hen r
aised t
he def
ence of
doubl
e
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 226226

j
eopar
dycl
ami
ngt
hatshehadbeenchar
gedandconv
ict
edf
ort
hesame

actandser
vedt
hreey
ear
sofi
mpr
isonment
.Doy
out
hinkherdef
encecan
besust
ained?
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 227227

Chapt
erV:
TheRi
ghtt
oEqual
i
tyandnon-
discr
imi
nat
ion

5.
1.I
ntr
oduct
ion
Dearst
udent
,int
hischapt
erweshal
lbedi
scussi
ngt
her
ightt
oequal
i
tyandnon-
di
scr
imi
nat
ionwhi
chi
stheol
destofal
lhumanr
ight
satt
hei
nter
nat
ionall
evel
.
The pr
inci
ples of equal
i
ty and non-
discr
imi
nat
ion ar
e a cor
ner
stone of
democr
acy
,andi
ndeed,
theyhadi
nspi
redt
hewhol
ehumanr
ight
sconcept
.Si
nce
t
hebegi
nni
ngoft
hehumanr
ight
sdi
scour
sei
ntheMi
nor
it
iesTr
eat
ieser
aaf
ter
Wor
ldWarI
,thesepr
inci
pleshav
ebeeni
nthef
oref
ront
,hav
ingapr
omi
nentpl
ace
i
nal
lthemaj
orhumanr
ight
sinst
rument
ssi
ncet
hen.I
nor
dert
oensur
ethe
pr
inci
pleofequal
i
ty,v
ari
oushuman r
ight
sinst
rument
sov
ert
he y
ear
shav
e
enumer
atedcer
tai
ngr
oundsonwhi
chdi
scr
imi
nat
ioni
spr
ohi
bit
ed,suchasr
ace,
l
anguage,col
our
,sex,pol
i
ticalorot
heropi
nion,et
c.Theset
winr
ight
s,whi
char
e
v
erymuchi
nter
-r
elat
ed,t
ouchuponev
eryr
ighti
nthesenset
hatal
lri
ght
sneed
t
obeenj
oyedwi
thequal
i
tyandwi
thoutanyf
orm ofdi
scr
imi
nat
ion.A cl
oser
scr
uti
nyoft
hev
ari
ousaspect
soft
her
ightt
oequal
i
tyandnon-
discr
imi
nat
ioni
s
desi
rabl
ebasedont
her
elev
anti
nter
nat
ionalaswel
lasnat
ionalhumanr
ight
s
st
andar
ds.

Let
’sbegi
nbyabr
iefout
li
neoft
hemul
ti
pleconcept
sinv
olv
edi
nther
ightt
o
equal
i
tyandnon-
discr
imi
nat
ionandt
henweshal
lpr
oceedt
odi
scusst
her
ightt
o
equal
i
tybef
oret
hel
aw,t
her
ightt
oequalpr
otect
ionoft
hel
aw,t
her
ightt
o
pr
otect
ionagai
nstdi
scr
imi
nat
ion,t
heequalr
ightofmenandwomenandf
inal
l
y
t
hei
ssuesofaf
fi
rmat
iveact
ion.

Att
heendoft
hischapt
ert
hest
udentwi
l
lbe
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 228228

 Abl
etounder
standt
heconceptofequal
i
ty,

 I
naposi
ti
ont
oexpl
aint
hemeani
ngofnon-
discr
imi
nat
ion,
bot
hposi
ti
ve
aswel
lasnegat
ive,
 Capabl
eofshadi
ngl
i
ghtont
hegr
oundsofdi
scr
imi
nat
ionsuchassex,

 Knowl
edgeabl
eoft
hei
ntr
icat
eissuesofaf
fi
rmat
iveact
ion,

 Abl
etor
espondt
obot
hpr
act
icalaswel
lashy
pot
het
icalquest
ionsi
n
r
elat
iont
other
ightt
oequal
i
tyandnon-
discr
imi
nat
ion.

TheConcept
sofEqual
i
tyandNon-
discr
imi
nat
ion
Asr
egar
dsequal
i
ty,an i
mpor
tanti
ssuet
o beaddr
essedi
sthe r
elat
ionshi
p
bet
weenequalt
reat
mentandi
dent
icalt
reat
ment
.Tot
reatev
ery
onei
dent
ical
l
y
canmeant
reat
ingunequal
sequal
l
ywhi
chcanbeasdet
ri
ment
alast
reat
ing
equal
sunequal
l
y.Thi
sisr
ecogni
sedi
npr
act
icebymanyschol
arsandcour
ts,
whouseav
ari
etyofappr
oaches,i
ncl
udi
ngt
heconcept
sofdef
act
ov.dej
ure21
equal
i
tyort
heAr
ist
otel
i
anf
ormul
aof'
tr
eat
ingdi
ff
erentt
hingsdi
ff
erent
ly'i
n
or
dert
o'di
scov
er't
rueequal
i
ty.Fort
rueequal
it
ytoexi
st,i
tist
he'
endr
esul
t'
whi
chi
simpor
tant
,e.
g.ev
ent
houghast
atel
i
ngui
sti
cpol
i
cyr
egar
dingexcl
usi
ve
useoft
heSt
ate'
sof
fi
ciall
anguagemaypr
imaf
aci
e22 seem t
obeoneofequal
i
ty
asi
timposest
hesameobl
i
gat
ionson,andaf
for
dst
hesameoppor
tuni
ti
est
o,
al
lci
ti
zens,t
hisdej
ureequal
i
tywi
l
lnotl
eadt
odef
act
oequal
i
tyi
fapor
ti
onof
t
he
ci
ti
zensdonothav
etheof
fi
cialst
atel
anguageast
hei
rmot
her
-t
ongue.Theend

21
Def actomeans‘ asamat t
eroff act’whiledej uremeans‘ asamat t
eroflaw. ’
Forinstance
wesayt hatsomeonei sadef actochi efexecut i
v ewher eheisacti
ngasachi efexecutivein
theact ualday-t
o-dayact i
viti
esofacer t
ainunder t
akingwi t
houthavingadul yrecognised
appoint ment,oradej urerightforact i
ngassuch.
22
Primaf aciemeansi saLat i
nex pressionmeani ng‘onitsfi
rstappearance’,or‘
byf i
rsti
nstance’
usedi nev i
dencelawt odenot eev idencethati ssuf f
ici
ent,i
fnotrebutted,toproveapar ti
cular
proposi t
ionorfact.Inmostl egalpr oceedings,oneoft hepart
ieshast heburdenofpr oofwhi ch
requir
est hatpartytopr esentprimaf acieevidenceofal lf
actsessenti
al t
oitscase. I
fthatpar t
y
fail
stopr esentprimaf acieevidenceonanyr equiredelementofitscase, i
tsclaim maybe
dismissedwi thoutanyr esponsebyt heopposi ngpar t
y.Aprimafaciecasemaybei nsuffi
cientto
enableapar tytopr evai
l i
ftheopposi ngpar tyintroduces
contradictor
yev i
dence. Somet imest heintroduct i
onofpr i
maf aci
eev idenceisinformall
ycal l
ed
makinga
caseorbui
l
dingacase.
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 229229

r
esul
toft
hispol
i
cycoul
dbet
oef
fect
ivel
ydi
scr
imi
nat
eagai
nstspeaker
sofa

non-
off
ici
all
anguage.I
fpeopl
est
artof
fonadi
ff
erentf
oot
ingt
hent
heywi
l
lnot
enduponanequalf
oot
ingi
ftheyar
emer
elyt
reat
edequal
l
y.Ther
efor
e,t
rue
equal
i
ty i
nvol
ves r
ecogni
si
ng di
ff
erences and t
reat
ing di
ff
erent gr
oups
di
ff
erent
lysot
hatt
heywi
l
lev
ent
ual
l
yendupont
hesamef
oot
ing.

Thi
s anal
ysi
s of t
he equal
i
ty pr
inci
ple br
ings us t
othe i
ssue of non-
di
scr
imi
nat
ion.An i
mpor
tantaspectt
o consi
deri
nthi
s di
scussi
on i
sthat
di
scr
imi
nat
ioni
snott
hesameasdi
ff
erent
iat
ionordi
sti
nct
ion.Asst
atedabov
e,
di
ff
erencesbet
ween ci
ti
zensmustbe t
aken i
nto accountbya St
ate when
i
mpl
ement
ingal
anguagepol
i
cyi
nor
dert
oensur
etr
ueequal
i
ty.Recogni
ti
onof
di
ff
erences, or di
sti
nct
ions made bet
ween gr
oups ar
e not necessar
il
y
di
scr
imi
nat
ory
.Di
ff
erent
iat
ionsanddi
sti
nct
ions,howev
er,hav
ethepot
ent
ialt
o
bedi
scr
imi
nat
ory
.Inor
derf
oradi
ff
erent
iat
ionordi
sti
nct
iont
omet
amor
phosi
ze
i
ntoadi
scr
imi
nat
orymeasur
e,i
tmustpossesscer
tai
nchar
act
eri
sti
cs…

I
tis wi
del
yaccept
edt
hatnotal
ldi
sti
nct
ionsar
enecessar
il
ydi
scr
imi
nat
ory
:
Equal
i
ty and t
he r
ight t
o non-
discr
imi
nat
ion r
equi
ret
hat i
ndi
vi
dual
s be
pr
otect
edagai
nstunr
easonabl
eorunaccept
abl
edi
ff
erentt
reat
ment
.Howacour
t
ofl
aw i
stodeci
dewhet
herapar
ti
cul
ardi
sti
nct
ioni
saccept
abl
eornoti
sa
di
ff
icul
ttask,
asi
tinv
olv
esabal
anci
ngactbet
weent
hei
nter
est
sandpr
ior
it
iesof
t
hegov
ernment
-nor
mal
l
ymi
rr
ori
ngt
hoseoft
hemaj
ori
tygr
oupcont
rol
l
ingt
he
st
atemachi
ner
y-andt
hei
nter
est
sandr
ight
soft
hei
ndi
vi
dual
saf
fect
ed.

Thei
ssueofposi
ti
vedi
scr
imi
nat
ionoraf
fi
rmat
iveact
ionmustal
sobet
akeni
nto
consi
der
ati
oni
nthi
sdi
scussi
on.Thi
sinv
olv
est
her
ecogni
ti
onofdi
ff
erences
bet
weencer
tai
ngr
oupsofci
ti
zens,wi
thonegr
oupi
namor
ehi
ghl
yfav
our
ed
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 230230

posi
ti
ont
hant
heot
her
,andt
hedi
ff
erent
ial
treat
mentoft
hegr
oupsbyt
het
aki
ng

ofposi
ti
vemeasur
eswhi
chbenef
itt
hel
ess-
fav
our
edgr
oup.Manyhumanr
ight
s
act
ivi
stsbel
i
evet
hatt
hesespeci
almeasur
es,al
ongwi
tht
hepr
inci
pleofnon-
di
scr
imi
nat
ion,
aret
hecomponent
sthatconst
it
utet
rueequal
i
ty…

I
twi
l
lbeseent
hatunderi
nter
nat
ionall
awt
heconceptofequal
i
tyofi
ndi
vi
dual
s
i
ncl
udes t
wo cont
empor
arynot
ions:(
1)t
he pr
inci
ple ofnon-
discr
imi
nat
ion,
whi
chi
sanegat
iveaspectofequal
i
tydesi
gnedt
opr
ohi
bitdi
ff
erent
iat
ionon
i
rr
elev
ant
,ar
bit
rar
yorunr
easonabl
egr
ounds;and(
2)t
hepr
inci
pleofpr
otect
ion
orspeci
almeasur
es,
desi
gnedt
oachi
eve'
posi
ti
ve'
equal
i
ty.

Somecomment
ator
shav
etakent
oonar
rowav
iewoft
hemeani
ngofequal
i
tyi
n
t
hatt
hey seem t
o bel
i
evet
hatequal
i
ty means mer
elyt
he pr
event
ion of
di
scr
imi
nat
ion,and t
hatposi
ti
vepr
otect
iont
her
efor
egi
vesmor
ethan equal
r
ight
sto,f
ori
nst
ance,mi
nor
it
ies.Butsucht
her
ightasenunci
atedi
nvar
ious
humanr
ight
sdocument
srequi
resequal
i
tyi
nfact
,notmer
elyf
ormalequal
i
tyor
'
ost
ensi
blel
egalequal
i
tyi
nthe sense oft
he absence ofdi
scr
imi
nat
ion i
n
t
he

wor
dsoft
hel
aw'
.Thi
sbei
ngso,t
hedeni
alofspeci
alpr
otect
iont
omi
nor
it
ies
may deny equal
i
tyoft
reat
ment
..
.'Equal
i
tyi
nlaw'no l
ongermeanspur
ely
f
ormal or absol
ute equal
i
ty,but r
elat
ive equal
i
ty,whi
ch of
ten r
equi
res
di
ff
erent
ial
treat
ment
.

I
tisobv
ious,t
her
efor
e,t
hatt
hepr
inci
plesofnon-
discr
imi
nat
ionandequal
i
tyar
e
ofav
erycompl
exnat
ure,gi
vi
ngr
iset
omanyar
easofdi
scussi
onandsome
conf
usi
on…
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 231231

5.
2.Ther
ightt
oequal
i
tybef
oret
hel
aw
Thi
sisoneoft
heel
ement
sofr
ightt
oequal
i
tyaspr
ovi
dedi
nthev
ari
oushuman
r
ight
sinst
rument
saswel
lasourconst
it
uti
on.Dearst
udent
,aswehav
ebeen
doi
ngso f
ar,Iwi
l
lhav
etof
ir
stenabl
eyour
eadt
her
elev
antpr
ovi
si
onson
equal
i
tyr
ight
sandt
henweshal
lpr
oceedt
oseef
ir
stt
her
ightt
oequal
i
tybef
ore
t
hel
awf
oll
owedbyt
her
ightt
otheequal
prot
ect
ionoft
hel
aw.
Ar
ti
cl
e25:
Rightt
oEqual
i
ty

Al
lper
sonsar
eequalbef
oret
hel
aw andar
eent
it
ledwi
thoutany
di
scr
imi
nat
iont
otheequalpr
otect
ionoft
hel
aw.I
nthi
srespect
,
t
hel
awshal
lguar
ant
eet
oal
lper
sonsequalandef
fect
ivepr
otect
ion
wi
thoutdi
scr
imi
nat
ionongr
oundsofr
ace,nat
ion,nat
ional
i
ty,
orot
her
soci
alor
igi
n,col
our
,sex,l
anguage,r
eli
gion,pol
i
ticalorot
heropi
nion,
pr
oper
ty,
bir
thorot
herst
atus.

Ar
ti
cl
e26:
ICCPR

Al
lper
sonsar
eequalbef
oret
hel
aw andar
eent
it
ledwi
thoutany
di
scr
imi
nat
iont
otheequalpr
otect
ionoft
hel
aw.I
nthi
srespect
,
t
hel
awshal
lpr
ohi
bitanydi
scr
imi
nat
ionandguar
ant
eet
oal
lper
sons
equaland ef
fect
ive pr
otect
ion agai
nst di
scr
imi
nat
ion on any
gr
ound such as r
ace,col
our
,sex,l
anguage,r
eli
gion,pol
i
ticalor
ot
heropi
nion,
nat
ionalorsoci
alor
igi
n,pr
oper
ty,
bir
thorot
herst
atus.

Ther
ightt
oEqual
i
tybef
oret
hel
awmeanst
her
ightt
ohav
ethesamepr
ocedur
es
andpr
inci
plest
obeappl
i
edf
ort
hesamecondi
ti
ons.Buti
tdoesnotmeant
hat
l
awsmustt
reatal
lpeopl
eexact
lyt
hesame.Lawsdodi
scr
imi
nat
e,somet
imes
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 232232

wi
thgoodr
easonandsomet
imesnot
.Thequest
ioni
swhendowesayt
hatt
he

r
ightt
oequal
i
tybef
oret
hel
awhasbeenv
iol
ated?

‘
Bef
oret
hel
aw’
tel
lust
hatt
heequal
i
tyi
smeantt
oappl
yforbot
hsubst
ant
iveas
wel
laspr
ocedur
all
aws.Pr
ocedur
all
awr
efer
stot
hest
epsandact
ionst
akent
o
hav
ear
ightordut
yjudi
ci
all
y enf
orced and t
hisi
s cal
l
ed due pr
ocess.
Subst
ant
ivel
awcr
eat
es,
def
inesandr
egul
atest
her
ight
s,dut
iesandpower
sofal
l
par
ti
eswhoar
esubj
ect
soft
hel
awandaccor
dingl
yitr
efer
stot
hecont
entoft
he
l
awr
athert
hanhowt
heyar
eappl
i
ed.

I
tisi
mpor
tantt
onot
ethatt
her
ear
elawswhi
chdel
i
ber
atel
ytr
eati
ndi
vi
dual
s
unequal
l
y.Forexampl
e,i
npr
inci
plet
hosewhohav
enotat
tai
nedt
heageof18
cannotent
eri
ntoav
ali
dcont
ract
.Insuchci
rcumst
ancesequal
i
tybef
oret
hel
aw
i
smai
ntai
nedasl
ongasal
lchi
l
drenar
epr
ohi
bit
edf
rom ent
eri
ngi
ntoav
ali
d
cont
ractwhi
l
eadul
tsar
eper
mit
tedt
odoso.Thus,t
hepr
inci
plet
hatal
lper
sons
ar
eequalbef
oret
hel
awmeanst
hatexi
sti
ngl
awsmustbeappl
iedi
nthesame
mannert
oal
lthosesubj
ectt
othem.Ther
ightt
oequal
i
tybef
oret
hel
awdoesnot
r
efert
othecont
entofl
egi
sl
ati
on,butr
atherexcl
usi
vel
ytoi
tsenf
orcement
.It
meanst
hej
udgesandadmi
nist
rat
iveof
fi
ci
alsmaynotactar
bit
rar
il
yinenf
orci
ng
l
aws.Butt
hisi
swi
thduer
egar
dtot
hepr
inci
plet
hatf
actpat
ter
nst
hatar
e
obj
ect
ivel
yequalmustbet
reat
edequal
l
y,andobj
ect
ivel
yunequalf
actpat
ter
ns
mustbet
reat
edunequal
l
y.I
not
herwor
ds,aj
udgemustpr
oducesi
mil
arl
egal
consequences f
orsi
mil
arf
actpat
ter
ns,r
egar
dless of per
sonalsy
mpat
hy,
ant
ipat
hyorot
hermot
iveswi
thnoobj
ect
ivebasi
s.

Dearst
udent
,doy
out
hinkt
heest
abl
i
shmentofaspeci
alt
ri
bunalf
ormi
l
itar
y
per
sonnelwher
ether
ulesofpr
ocedur
eint
heset
ri
bunal
susual
l
ydi
ff
erf
rom
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 233233

t
hoseofr
egul
ardomest
iccour
tsv
iol
atet
her
ightoft
hemi
l
itar
yper
sonnelf
or

equal
i
tybef
oret
hel
aw?

Theexi
stenceofmi
l
itar
ycour
ts,
empower
edt
otr
ymi
l
itar
yof
fencesbysol
dier
s,

doesnotv
iol
atet
hepr
inci
pleofequal
i
tybef
oret
hel
aw andt
hepr
inci
pleof
equal
i
tybef
oret
hecour
tassetf
ort
hinAr
t20oft
heFDREconst
it
uti
oncum Ar
t
14 oft
heI
CCPR,asl
ong asduepr
ocessguar
ant
eesar
eobser
ved.Mi
l
itar
y
t
ri
bunal
sal
l
ow gr
eat
ersecr
ecy
,andt
hismaypr
otectt
hesecur
it
yoft
henat
ion.
But usi
ng mi
l
itar
ytr
ibunal
sfor t
ryi
ng ci
vi
li
ans wi
l
lrender t
he count
ry
v
ulner
abl
etocr
it
ici
sm,andpossi
blyr
epr
isal
s,i
fit
susecannotbej
ust
if
ied.Thi
s
hasbeenati
ssuef
ort
het
ri
aloft
hesuspect
soft
err
ori
sm hel
dbyt
heUSi
n
Guant
anamoBayand who wer
ebr
oughtf
ort
ri
albef
oremi
l
itar
ytr
ibunal
s.A
ser
iousconcer
nist
hatt
hest
andar
dofpr
ocedur
alf
air
nessi
nmi
l
itar
ytr
ial
smay
beper
cei
vedt
obe,l
owert
hani
nor
dinar
ydomest
icf
ora.Mi
l
itar
ytr
ibunal
smay
al
sobeper
cei
vedasbei
ngl
essi
mpar
ti
alt
hanot
herl
egal
tri
bunal
s.

Ev
idencet
hatequal
i
tybef
oret
hel
aw i
snotanabsol
utepr
inci
plecanal
sobe
f
ound i
n pr
ocedur
alr
ules t
hatappl
yforconduct
ing i
nvest
igat
ionofcr
imes
commi
tt
edbymember
sofpar
li
ament
,ormember
soft
heCounci
lofMi
nist
ers.
Theyar
edi
ff
erentf
rom t
hepr
ocedur
est
hatappl
yfori
nvest
igat
ionofcr
imes
commi
tt
edbycommonpeopl
e.Forexampl
e,unl
essamemberofpar
li
amenti
s
f
oundr
ed-
handed(
int
hepr
ocessofcommi
tt
ingacr
imi
nalact
)s/
hemaynotbe
ar
rest
edorquest
ioned.They
,inot
herwor
ds,enj
oyi
mmuni
tyi
ntheey
esoft
he
cr
imi
nal
lawwhi
cht
hecommonpeopl
edonothav
e.
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 234234

5.
3.Ther
ightt
oequalpr
otect
ionoft
hel
aw
Dearst
udent
,whati
sther
ightt
oequalpr
otect
ionoft
hel
awandwhatmakesi
t

di
sti
nctf
rom t
her
ightt
oequal
i
tybef
oret
hel
aw?

The const
it
uti
onalguar
ant
ee t
hatno per
son orcl
ass ofper
sons shal
lbe
deni
ed

t
hesamepr
otect
ionoft
hel
awst
hati
senj
oyedbyot
herper
sonsorot
her
cl
assesi
nli
keci
rcumst
ancesi
nthei
rli
ves,l
i
ber
ty,pr
oper
ty,et
cisi
nshor
twhat
wecal
lequalpr
otect
ion oft
he l
aw.The st
atei
s underobl
i
gat
ion t
oissue
l
aws t
hatpr
otecti
ndi
vi
dual
sequal
l
ywi
thoutanyf
orm ofdi
scr
imi
nat
ion.Thus,
whi
l
etheconceptofequal
i
tybef
oret
hel
awi
smor
eofaquest
ionofduepr
ocess
ofl
awandr
elat
eswi
thpr
ocedur
alaspect
soft
hel
aw,equalpr
otect
ionoft
he
l
aw r
efer
stot
he subst
ant
ive aspect
s of equal
i
tywher
ebypeopl
e whi
te or
bl
ack, mal
e orf
emal
e,y
oung oradul
t,hav
eto be guar
ant
eed t
he equal
pr
otect
ionoft
hel
awf
rom v
ari
ousi
ntr
usi
ons.

5.
4.Ther
ightt
opr
otect
ionagai
nstnon-
discr
imi
nat
ion
Dearst
udent
,theseconcept
sar
ever
ymuchi
nter
rel
atedandi
nter
twi
nedt
hough
hav
e some i
mpor
tantdi
sti
nct
ions.Non-
discr
imi
nat
ion,t
oget
herwi
th equal
i
ty
bef
oret
he l
aw and equalpr
otect
ionoft
he l
aw wi
thoutanydi
scr
imi
nat
ion,
const
it
utea basi
cand gener
alpr
inci
pler
elat
ingt
othepr
otect
ionofhuman
r
ight
s.Ar
ti
cl
e25notonl
yent
it
lesal
lper
sonst
oequal
i
tybef
oret
hel
awaswel
las
equalpr
otect
ionoft
hel
aw butal
sopr
ohi
bit
sanydi
scr
imi
nat
ionundert
hel
aw
and guar
ant
ees t
o al
l per
sons equal and ef
fect
ive pr
otect
ion agai
nst
di
scr
imi
nat
ion on any gr
ound such as r
ace,col
our
,sex,l
anguage,r
eli
gion,
pol
i
tical
orot
heropi
nion,
nat
ional
orsoci
alor
igi
n,pr
oper
ty,
bir
thorot
herst
atus.
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 235235

I
ndeed,
thepr
inci
pleofnon-
discr
imi
nat
ioni
ssobasi
cthatar
ti
cl
e35obl
i
gat
est
he

st
atet
oensur
etheequalr
ightofmenandwoment
otheenj
oymentoft
her
ight
s
setf
ort
hint
heConst
it
uti
on.Whi
l
ear
ti
cl
e93(
4)(
b)al
l
owst
heexecut
ivet
otake
measur
esder
ogat
ingf
rom cer
tai
nobl
i
gat
ionsundert
heconst
it
uti
oni
nti
meof
publ
i
c emer
gency
,Ar
t93(
4)(
c)r
equi
res,i
nteral
i
a23,t
hatt
hose measur
es
shoul
d noti
nvol
ve di
scr
imi
nat
ionsol
elyon t
he gr
ound ofr
ace,col
our
,sex,
l
anguage,
rel
i
gionorsoci
alor
igi
n.

Thehumanr
ight
scommi
tt
eedef
inedt
het
erm"
discr
imi
nat
ion"ast
oimpl
y“any
di
sti
nct
ion,excl
usi
on,r
est
ri
cti
onorpr
efer
encewhi
chi
sbasedonanygr
ound
suchasr
ace,col
our
,sex,l
anguage,
rel
i
gion,
pol
i
ticalorot
heropi
nion,
nat
ionalor
soci
alor
igi
n,pr
oper
ty,bi
rt
horot
herst
atus,andwhi
chhast
hepur
poseoref
fect
ofnul
l
ify
ingori
mpai
ri
ngt
her
ecogni
ti
on,enj
oymentorexer
cisebyal
lper
sons,
onanequal
foot
ing,
ofal
lri
ght
sandf
reedom.

Dear st
udent
,thi
s bei
ng t
he gener
alunder
standi
ng of t
he meani
ng of
di
scr
imi
nat
ion,t
heconst
it
uti
onhasenumer
atedt
hev
ari
ousgr
oundsonwhi
ch
di
scr
imi
nat
ionmustbeout
lawed.Thef
ir
sti
ssuei
swhet
hert
hesegr
oundsar
e
exhaust
ive or ar
ethey j
ust i
ndi
cat
ive.For exampl
e,t
he Sout
h Af
ri
can
const
it
uti
onalcour
toncehel
dtheSout
hAf
ri
canAi
rWay
sresponsi
blef
oract
sof
di
scr
imi
nat
ionont
hegr
oundsofheal
thwheni
tref
usedt
oempl
oyaper
sonasa
cabi
nat
tendantbecauseoft
hef
actt
hathewasHI
Vcar
eer
.Doy
out
hinkt
he
samecanber
eadi
nourconst
it
uti
ont
her
ebywemi
ghtconsi
dert
hegr
oundsas
non-
exhaust
ivel
i
sti
ngst
owhi
chwecanaddot
hermat
ter
s?

23
‘
I
nterAl
i
a’meansamongot
hert
hings
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 236236

Thel
astbi
toft
hepr
ovi
si
onsay
s‘ot
herst
atus’
whi
chi
sincl
usi
veofal
lthi
ngst
hat

can beconsi
der
eddi
scr
imi
nat
oryast
hedef
ini
ti
onofdi
scr
imi
nat
ioni
mpl
i
es.
Ther
efor
e,t
hel
i
sti
ngsi
nAr
t25donotappeart
obeexhaust
ive.Theot
heraspect
oft
his pr
ovi
si
on i
s whet
hert
he pr
ohi
bit
ion al
so wor
ks f
orpr
ivat
e act
s of
di
scr
imi
nat
ion.For i
nst
ance,i
f a cer
tai
n pr
oduct
ion company has been
est
abl
i
shedunderapar
ti
cul
arr
eli
giousdenomi
nat
ionandempl
oysonl
ythose
pr
ofessi
onal
swhoar
emember
soft
her
eli
gioussect
.Canpeopl
efr
om ot
her
r
eli
gionwhoar
equal
i
fiedt
ohol
daposi
ti
oni
nthecompanybutwhoar
edeni
ed
becauseoft
hei
rrel
i
giousout
lookcompl
ainf
ordi
scr
imi
nat
ion?

Thi
sisamat
tert
obeconsi
der
edasonet
ypeofobl
i
gat
ionoft
hest
atewhi
ch
i
s

t
heobl
i
gat
iont
opr
otectt
her
ightt
onon-
discr
imi
nat
ioni
nthesenset
hatt
hest
ate
mustpr
ohi
bitbyl
aw suchact
sofdi
scr
imi
nat
ion.Whi
l
etheI
CCPR expl
i
cit
ly
st
atest
hatt
hest
atemustpr
ohi
bitdi
scr
imi
nat
ionbyl
aw,t
heFDREconst
it
uti
on
hasomi
tt
edt
hiswor
ding.Whet
herornott
hisi
sadel
i
ber
atesev
eranceoft
he
obl
i
gat
ioni
squest
ionabl
e.

5.
5.Equal
i
tyofmenandwomen
Ar
t25t
oget
herwi
thAr
t34and35i
mpl
ythatal
lhumanbei
ngsshoul
denj
oyt
he
r
ight
spr
ovi
dedf
ori
ntheconst
it
uti
on,
onanequalbasi
sandi
nthei
rtot
ali
ty.The
f
ullef
fectoft
hispr
ovi
si
oni
simpai
redwhenev
eranyper
soni
sdeni
edt
hef
ull
andequalenj
oymentofanyr
ight
.Consequent
ly,t
hegov
ernmentshoul
densur
e
t
o men and women equal
l
ytheenj
oymentofal
lri
ght
spr
ovi
dedf
ori
nthe
const
it
uti
on.Wheni
tcomest
otheequal
i
tyofmenandwomen,t
hest
ate’
s
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 237237

obl
i
gat
ion i
s mul
ti
facet
ed because of t
he al
ready ent
renched cul
tur
e of

di
scr
imi
nat
ionandi
nequal
i
tiesbet
weent
hesexes.Thus,
theobl
i
gat
iont
oensur
e
t
oal
lindi
vi
dual
sther
ight
srecogni
zedi
ntheconst
it
uti
on,
est
abl
i
shedi
nar
ti
cl
es
25and34&35oft
heconst
it
uti
on,r
equi
rest
hatt
hest
atet
akesal
lnecessar
y
st
eps

t
oenabl
eev
eryper
sont
oenj
oyt
hoser
ight
s.Thesest
epsi
ncl
udet
her
emov
alof
obst
acl
est
otheequalenj
oymentofsuchr
ight
s,t
heeducat
ionoft
hepopul
ati
on
andofSt
ateof
fi
ci
alsi
nhumanr
ight
s,andt
headj
ust
mentofdomest
icl
egi
sl
ati
on
soast
ogi
veef
fectt
otheunder
taki
ngssetf
ort
hint
heconst
it
uti
onespeci
all
y
r
elat
ingt
ogenderi
nequal
i
ties.

I
nequal
i
tyi
ntheenj
oymentofr
ight
sbywoment
hroughoutt
hewor
ldi
sdeepl
y
embedded i
ntr
adi
ti
on,hi
stor
yand cul
tur
e,i
ncl
udi
ng r
eli
gious at
ti
tudes.The
subor
dinat
erol
eofwomeni
nsomecount
ri
esi
sil
l
ust
rat
edbyt
hehi
ghi
nci
dence
ofpr
enat
alsexsel
ect
ionandabor
ti
onoff
emal
efoet
uses.Thus,
thest
ateshoul
d
ensur
ethatt
radi
ti
onal
,hi
stor
ical
,rel
i
giousorcul
tur
alat
ti
tudesar
enotusedt
o
j
ust
if
yvi
olat
ionsofwomen'
sri
ghtt
o equal
i
tybef
oret
he l
aw and t
o equal
enj
oymentofal
loft
hef
undament
alr
ight
sandf
reedoms.

5.
6.Af
fi
rmat
iveAct
ion
Dearst
udent
,wewi
l
lhav
etof
inal
l
yseet
hei
ssueofaf
fi
rmat
iveact
ioni
nrel
ati
on
t
other
ightt
oequal
i
ty.Theneedf
oraf
fi
rmat
iveact
ion,
itscont
entandscopehas
beenpr
ovi
dedunderAr
t35(
3)oft
heFDREconst
it
uti
onbyt
hef
oll
owi
ngwor
ds;

Thehi
stor
icall
egacyofi
nequal
i
tyand di
scr
imi
nat
ionsuf
fer
edby
womeni
nEt
hiopi
atakeni
ntoaccount
,women,i
nor
dert
oremedy
t
hisl
egacy,
areent
it
ledt
oaf
fi
rmat
ivemeasur
es.Thepur
poseofsuch
measur
esshal
lbet
opr
ovi
despeci
alat
tent
iont
owomensoast
o
enabl
ethem t
ocompet
eand
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 238238

par
ti
cipat
eon t
he basi
s ofequal
i
tywi
th men i
n pol
i
tical
,soci
aland
economi
cli
feaswel
lasi
npubl
i
candpr
ivat
einst
it
uti
ons.

Thi
sst
ipul
ati
onoft
heconst
it
uti
oni
ssomet
imescont
rast
edwi
tht
her
ightt
o
equal
i
tyaspr
ovi
dedunderAr
t25andconsi
der
edascont
radi
ctor
yint
erms.Thi
s
i
sbecausewhi
l
etheequal
i
tycl
ausepr
ohi
bit
sanyf
orm ofdi
scr
imi
nat
ionont
he
gr
oundsof
,int
eral
i
a,sex,Ar
t35(
3)l
egal
i
sest
heuseofaf
fi
rmat
ivemeasur
esi
n
f
avourofwomen.Thej
ust
if
icat
ioni
sal
sost
atedi
nthi
slat
terpr
ovi
si
ont
hati
tis
meantt
ocompensat
ethehi
stor
icall
egacyofdi
scr
imi
nat
ionsuf
fer
edbywomen
i
nEt
hiopi
a.Andt
hepur
posei
sal
sodescr
ibedast
opr
ovi
despeci
alat
tent
iont
o
womensoast
oenabl
ethem t
ocompet
eandpar
ti
ci
pat
eont
hebasi
sofequal
i
ty
wi
thmeni
npol
i
tical
,soci
alandeconomi
cli
feaswel
lasi
npubl
i
candpr
ivat
e
i
nst
it
uti
ons.

Ev
eni
fourconst
it
uti
ononl
yaddr
essesdi
rect
lyt
heneedofaf
fi
rmat
iveact
ioni
n
r
elat
ion t
o women,t
her
e ar
e al
so mi
nor
it
ies t
hatbenef
itf
rom af
fi
rmat
ive
measur
es i
n pr
esentEt
hiopi
a.Af
fi
rmat
ive act
ion,somet
imes cal
l
ed beni
gn
di
scr
imi
nat
ion because i
tis consi
der
ed l
ess har
mfult
han ot
herf
orms of
di
scr
imi
nat
ion,i
srepr
esent
edbygov
ernmentpr
ogr
amscr
eat
edt
oremedypast
di
scr
imi
nat
ionagai
nstmi
nor
it
ygr
oups,women,
andmember
sofot
herpr
otect
ed
gr
oups.These pr
ogr
ams i
ncl
ude speci
alconsi
der
ati
ons gi
ven t
o mi
nor
it
ies
compet
ingagai
nstt
her
estofsoci
etyf
orj
obs,pr
omot
ions,andadmi
ssi
ont
o
col
l
egesand uni
ver
sit
ies.Opponent
sofaf
fi
rmat
iveact
ion char
act
eri
zei
tas
r
ever
se di
scr
imi
nat
ion because i
tof
ten excl
udes i
ndi
vi
dual
s wi
th ost
ensi
bly
super
iorcr
edent
ial
s,sol
elyonaccountoft
hei
rraceorgender
.
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 239239

I
nit
scl
assi
calunder
standi
ng,af
fi
rmat
iveact
ioni
sthepol
i
cyofconsci
ousl
y

set
ti
ngr
aci
al,et
hni
c,r
eli
gious,orot
herki
ndsofdi
ver
sit
yasagoalwi
thi
nan
or
gani
zat
ion,and,i
nor
dert
omeett
hisgoal
,pur
posel
ysel
ect
ingpeopl
efr
om
cer
tai
n gr
oups t
hat hav
e hi
stor
ical
l
y been oppr
essed or deni
ed equal
oppor
tuni
ti
es.I
naf
fi
rmat
iveact
ion,i
ndi
vi
dual
sofoneormor
eoft
hesemi
nor
it
y
backgr
oundsar
epr
efer
redov
ert
hosewhodonothav
esuchchar
act
eri
sti
cs;
such
apr
efer
ent
ialschemei
ssomet
imesi
mpl
ement
edt
hroughquot
as,t
hought
his
neednotnecessar
il
ybeso.Fori
nst
ance,
theEPRDFdur
ingt
heMay2005el
ect
ion
cl
aimed t
hati
thad r
eser
ved 30% ofi
ts candi
dacy t
o women by way of
af
fi
rmat
ivemeasur
e.

Themosti
mpor
tantquest
ioni
swhatdoessuchmeasur
eimpl
yont
her
ightt
o

equal
i
ty?Dot
heycont
radi
ctorcant
heybei
mpl
ement
edwi
thoutoneaf
fect
ing

t
heot
her
?

Thebasi
cgoalofaf
fi
rmat
ivemeasur
eisbr
ingi
ngdef
act
o equal
i
tyso t
hat
those

whoar
ecl
aimedt
obeequalwi
l
lhav
esi
mil
arst
art
ingpoi
nt.I
ntheabsenceof
suchmeasur
est
hecl
aimt
hatev
ery
onei
sequalwi
l
lhav
enomeani
ngf
ulcont
ent
ast
hosewhoar
enotequalatt
hest
artwi
l
lnev
erbeabl
etocompet
eequal
l
ywi
th
oneanot
her
.Thi
sfactcanbecompar
edwi
thar
unni
ngcompet
it
ionwher
eev
ery
r
unnermustst
artf
rom exact
lyt
hesamepl
acesot
hatt
her
acewoul
dbef
air
.If
somewer
etot
akeaposi
ti
oni
nfr
ontoft
heot
her
shav
ingl
ongdi
stancebet
ween
t
hest
art
ingpoi
nts,i
tisunl
i
kel
ythatt
hosebehi
ndwi
l
lwi
nther
aceandt
hust
he
whol
egamewoul
dbeunf
air
.Ifwebr
ingt
hissamescenar
ioi
ntoourpr
evi
ous
di
scussi
on,i
tisbel
i
evedt
hatwomen,f
ori
nst
ance,hadsuf
fer
edasy
stemi
c
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 240240

di
scr
imi
nat
ionf
orl
ongput
ti
ngt
hem i
ndi
ff
erentst
art
ingpoi
ntsi
nthef
iel
dsof

equalcompet
it
ion.I
fwet
aket
hef
iel
dofeducat
ionasanexampl
e,gi
rl
sar
e
usual
l
ygi
vent
het
askofhousehol
dcar
erout
inesandatt
hesamet
imet
heyt
ryt
o
got
oschoolt
ocompet
ewi
thboy
swhoar
emost
lyr
eli
evedofanyofsuch
househol
ddut
ies.Thenwhendi
ff
erentent
rancecut
ti
ngpoi
nti
ssetf
ort
het
wo
t
hrought
hesy
stemsofaf
fi
rmat
iveact
ion,i
tisnot
hingbutacknowl
edgi
ngt
hei
r
v
ari
edst
art
ingpoi
nti
nschool
s.Thus,
theyar
egi
vent
hechancet
ojoi
nuni
ver
sit
y
atl
owerpoi
nts.
EvenAr
t25i
mpl
i
cit
lyacknowl
edgessuchmeasur
eswheni
tsay
s
‘
the l
aw shal
lguar
ant
ee t
o al sons equaland ef
lper fect
ive pr
otect
ion.
’
The

pr
otect
ion ofequal
i
tycannotbe ef
fect
ive when we t
reatunequal
s equal
l
y
wi
thoutsomeki
ndofmeasur
etocr
eat
eequal
i
tyatt
hest
art
.

Dearst
udent
,itwoul
dhav
ebeenv
erymuchgoodi
fwer
eabl
etocov
eral
loft
he
pr
ovi
si
onsoft
heconst
it
uti
onr
elat
ingt
othef
undament
alr
ight
sandf
reedoms.
Butduet
ovar
iousf
act
ors,wemustposeher
eandl
eav
ether
estf
ory
ourown
ef
fect
iver
eadi
ng assi
sted byt
utor
ialcl
asseson t
he r
estoft
he pr
ovi
si
ons.
Mor
eov
er,
ther
ewi
l
lbeasepar
atecour
seonhumanr
ight
sandhumani
tar
ianl
aw
whi
chi
ssupposedt
oredomostofourdi
scussi
onsaswel
last
hosedemocr
ati
c
r
ight
sthatwear
eunabl
etocov
erher
e.Iwi
shy
ouav
eryf
rui
tf
ulst
udyf
ort
her
est
ofy
ourcour
sesandIam conf
identt
haty
ouwi
l
lfi
nisht
hewhol
epr
ogr
am wi
th
goodcal
i
bre.
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 239

Suggest
edanswer
sforExer
ciseI(
Chapt
erI
I)
1.Thet
womosti
mpor
tantobl
i
gat
ionsoft
hest
atei
nrel
ati
ont
other
ight
t
oli
fe,andf
oral
lthef
undament
alr
ight
sandf
reedomsf
ort
hatmat
ter
,
ar
etheobl
i
gat
ionst
orespectandt
heobl
i
gat
iont
opr
otect
.Byt
he
f
ormerwemeant
hatt
hest
atemustr
efr
ainf
rom posi
ti
veact
sthat
v
iol
atet
her
ightpr
otect
edundert
heconst
it
uti
onandbyt
hel
att
erwe
mean t
hatt
he st
atemustt
ake posi
ti
ve measur
est
hatar
e ai
med
atcr
eat
ingt
heconduci
veenv
ironmentf
ort
hef
ull
enj
oymentoft
her
ight
pr
otect
edbyl
aw.

2.Thef
actt
hatar
ighti
sconsi
der
edasi
nvi
olabl
edoesn’
timpl
ythatt
he
r
ightcannotber
est
ri
ctedunderanyci
rcumst
ances.I
tonl
ymeanst
hat
t
hest
atecannotv
iol
atet
hatr
ightbyf
orceorv
iol
ence,t
hought
her
e
mi
ghtbel
egalgr
oundst
hatr
est
ri
ctt
her
ight
.Fori
nst
ance,wecant
alk
ofal
awf
ular
restwher
eaper
son’
sri
ghtt
oli
ber
tycanl
awf
ull
ybe
r
est
ri
cted.

3. I
nal
i
enabi
l
ityofr
ight
simpl
i
est
hataper
son’
sri
ghtcannotbeal
i
enat
ed
t
othest
ateev
eni
finmoder
ntheor
yofst
atef
ormat
ion,
humanper
sons
ar
epr
esumedt
orel
i
nqui
sht
hei
rri
ghtt
othest
atei
nasf
arasnecessar
y
t
o admi
nist
ert
hecount
ryi
nthei
rint
erest
.Butsuchr
eli
nqui
shment
doesn’
tincl
udet
hoser
ight
sthatar
econsi
der
edasi
nal
i
enabl
e.For
i
nst
ance,i
ndi
vi
dual
sar
enotpr
esumedt
ohav
eal
i
enat
edt
hei
rri
ghtt
o
l
i
fe,l
i
ber
tyandsecur
it
yofper
sont
othest
ateast
hesear
ethemost
f
undament
alandi
nal
i
enabl
eri
ght
sofhumanper
sonsaspr
ovi
dedunder
Ar
t14oft
heFDREconst
it
uti
on.
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 240

4.Thedeat
hpenal
ty,ki
l
li
ngsi
nwart
imes,l
awf
ulorj
ust
if
iedki
l
li
ngs

suchassel
f-
def
ense,ki
l
li
ngsi
nsi
tuat
ionswher
ethel
aw-
enf
orcement
per
sonnel
isengagedi
nsaf
eguar
dingl
awandor
der
,et
c.

5. For
ceddi
sappear
ances,f
ail
uret
oinv
est
igat
eandpr
osecut
etheact
s
oft
he l
aw-
enf
orcementof
fi
cer
s who had used l
ethalf
orce whi
l
e
enf
orci
ngt
hel
aw.

6.Theobl
i
gat
iont
opr
otectt
her
ightt
oli
fei
mpl
i
est
hatt
hest
atemust
t
akeposi
ti
vemeasur
est
ocr
eat
easi
tuat
ionwher
ethef
ullenj
oymentof
t
her
ightt
oli
fei
spossi
ble.Thi
scoul
dbebypr
ovi
si
onofbasi
cheal
th
car
eser
vice,whi
chmayi
ncl
udebot
hpr
event
iveaswel
lascur
ati
ve,
cr
eat
ingaccesst
osaf
edr
inki
ngwat
er,
byr
educi
ngi
nfantandmat
ernal
mor
tal
i
tyr
ates,byl
egi
sl
ati
ngcr
imi
nall
awst
hatout
lawact
sofmur
der
andset
ti
ngupt
her
elev
antj
udi
ci
alaswel
lasi
nvest
igat
ioni
nst
it
uti
ons,
et
c.Al
ltheseposi
ti
vemeasur
esf
allwi
thi
nthepr
otect
ionobl
i
gat
ionof
t
hest
ate.I
ntheFDREconst
it
uti
ont
heobl
i
gat
ionoft
hest
atet
opr
otect
t
her
ightt
oli
fei
snotcl
ear
lyment
ioned.Howev
er,i
tisnotpossi
blet
o
i
magi
ne t
he r
ightt
oli
fe wi
thoutt
he exi
stence oft
hese posi
ti
ve
obl
i
gat
ions of t
he st
ate ‘
to pr
otect
’ and f
or t
he pur
pose of
under
standi
ng t
he cl
earmeani
ng oft
he f
undament
alr
ight
s and
f
reedoms,Ar
t13(
2)hasal
readygi
vent
hel
egalbasi
stol
ooki
ntot
he
mat
eri
alsour
ces,amongstofwhi
ch,we f
ind t
he I
CCPR t
o whi
ch
Et
hiopi
aisapar
tyandAr
t6(
1)hasmadei
tcl
eart
hatt
hest
atehast
his
obl
i
gat
iont
opr
otectt
her
ightt
oli
feapar
tfr
om i
tsdut
ynott
odi
rect
ly
ki
l
lit
speopl
e.

7. The l
egal
i
ty r
equi
rement
,the pr
opor
ti
onal
i
ty r
equi
rement
,the
necessi
ty of j
udi
ci
al pr
ocess and pr
ocedur
al saf
eguar
ds such
as
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 241

appr
ovalbyt
heheadofst
atewhi
chser
vesaschecki
ngmechani
sm
of

t
hej
udi
ci
arybyt
heexecut
iveor
ganofgov
ernment
,ager
equi
rement
,
heal
thcondi
ti
onsuchaspr
egnancyandment
alpr
obl
ems(
not
eher
e,
howev
er,t
hatphy
sicalcondi
ti
onssuchasdi
sabi
l
iti
esar
enotgr
ounds
t
obart
hei
mposi
ti
onoft
hedeat
hsent
ence)
,et
c.

8.Bef
oreexecut
ion,t
heper
sonmustbegi
vent
her
ightt
oappeal
,(Ar
t
20(
5)ofFDREandal
soseet
her
efer
encet
o‘af
teraf
inalj
udgment
’in
t
he I
CCPR whi
ch mustbe under
stood t
o mean a j
udgmentaf
ter
appeal
),appr
ovalbyt
heheadofst
ate,consi
der
ati
onoft
heper
son’
bei
ng f
iti
nter
ms ofment
alorot
herheal
th ar
e some oft
he
pr
econdi
ti
onst
hatneedt
obemet
.Theagef
act
ori
smostper
ti
nent
her
e because accor
ding t
othe Et
hiopi
an Cr
imi
nall
aw t
he deat
h
sent
encemaynotbei
mposedonaper
sonwhoi
s,att
het
imeoft
he
commi
ssi
onoft
heof
fence,wasundert
heageof8y
ear
s.Thus,i
nour
case,t
heper
son,ev
eni
fhei
s19whensent
enced,was15dur
ingt
he
commi
ssi
onoft
hecr
imeandaccor
dingl
y,t
hesent
encecannotbe
execut
edl
egal
l
y.

Suggest
edAnswer
stoexer
ciseI
I(Chapt
er2)

1.I
tappear
sthatwhi
l
ether
ightt
oli
femayber
est
ri
ctedsuchast
hrough
t
hedeat
hpenal
tyandot
herl
awf
ulki
l
li
ngs,nosuchr
est
ri
cti
onwoul
d
beconst
it
uti
onalwheni
tcomest
other
ightt
osecur
it
yofper
sonwhi
ch
t
empt
sust
osayt
hatt
heasser
ti
oni
str
ue.

2. Ar
resti
sput
ti
ngsomeonei
ntopol
i
cecust
odyf
orunt
ilt
ri
alort
il
lthe
r
eleaseonhi
m/heronbai
l
.Thi
scanbedoneei
therwi
tht
hecour
t’
s
or
derknownasar
restwar
rantorwi
thouti
t.Det
ent
ioni
sther
est
rai
nt
oft
heper
son’
sri
ghtt
oli
ber
tyasapuni
shment
,orpr
event
ingaf
ear
ed
actofcr
ime f
rom bei
ng commi
tt
ed and i
tisal
mostal
way
sdone
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 242

wi
thout t
he or
der of a cour
t by t
he execut
ive br
anch of t
he

gov
ernment
.‘Char
ge’i
saf
ormalal
l
egat
ionofper
son’
scr
imi
nalact
whi
ch i
ncl
udes el
ement
s ofa cr
ime,such as t
he act
,the ment
al
el
ement(
eit
heri
ntent
ionornegl
i
gence)aswel
last
hel
egalgr
oundt
hat
i
sal
l
egedt
ohav
ebeenv
iol
ated.Asy
ouwi
l
lsoonst
udyi
nyourcr
imi
nal
l
acour
se,
thesear
ethet
hreebasi
cel
ement
sofcr
imeandt
heabsence
ofanyoft
hese wi
l
lav
oid anycr
imi
nall
i
abi
l
ity
.Conv
ict
ion i
swhat
f
oll
owst
hesuccessf
ulpr
oofoft
heexi
stenceoft
heset
hreeel
ement
s
agai
nstaper
sonwhohadbeenchar
gedwhi
chwi
l
lconsequent
lyr
esul
t
i
npuni
shment
.

3.Posi
ti
vel
i
ber
tyi
sa cor
oll
aryt
othe r
eli
giouspr
inci
ple off
ree wi
l
l
wher
ebyi
ndi
vi
dual
saswel
lassoci
etyasawhol
eisf
reet
oacti
naway
s/
hechooses.Fori
nst
ance,whatgoest
ohi
s/hermout
hshoul
dn’
tnot
ber
egul
atedbyl
aw andt
hati
swhychewi
ngchat
,taki
ngdr
ugsor
smoki
ngci
gar
ett
eisnotpr
ohi
bit
edbyl
awev
eni
fiti
sknownt
hati
tis
danger
ousf
ort
heheal
thofaper
son.Newbr
andsofci
gar
ett
esar
enow
seenont
hei
rcov
erwr
it
ing‘
ci
gar
ett
eki
l
lsi
nst
ant
ly’
orsucht
hingswhi
ch
i
sonl
ymeantt
oinf
luencet
hef
reechoi
ceofi
ndi
vi
dual
sandnot
hing
mor
e.Negat
ivel
i
ber
ty,
ont
heot
herhand,
isr
elat
edwi
tht
her
ightnott
o
besubj
ect
edt
otheaut
hor
it
yofot
her
ssuchast
hroughr
est
ri
cti
onof
hi
s/herr
ightt
o mov
ement
.Thi
sist
he aspectofl
i
ber
tyt
hati
s
pr
otect
edunderAr
t17oft
heFDREconst
it
uti
on.Asexampl
efort
he
posi
ti
vel
i
ber
tyonecanl
ooki
ntoSect12(
2)oft
heSout
hAf
ri
ca’
s
1996const
it
uti
on.

Suggest
edAnswer
stoExer
ciseI(
Chapt
erI
II
)
1.Tor
tur
emeans

 Anact

 Causi
ngsev
erement
alorphy
sical
pai
norsuf
fer
ing
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 243

 I
ntent
ional
l
yinf
li
cted

 Fort
hepur
posesof
a. Obt
aini
ng, f
rom t
he v
ict
im or a t
hir
d per
son,
i
nfor
mat
ionoraconf
essi
on,
b.Apenal
tyf
oranactoft
heper
sonorat
hir
dper
son,
or
c. I
nti
midat
ingorcoer
cingt
heper
sonorat
hir
dper
son
f
oranyot
herr
easonbased ondi
scr
imi
nat
ionofany
ki
nd;
 I
nfl
i
cted byoratt
he i
nst
igat
ion oforwi
tht
he consentor

acqui
escenceofapubl
i
cof
fi
ci
alorot
herper
sonact
ingi
n
anof
fi
ci
alcapaci
ty.

2.Tor
tur
e coul
d ei
ther be psy
chol
ogi
calor phy
sical
.Act
s of t
he
aut
hor
it
ies such as t
hreat
eni
ng t
he v
ict
im wi
tht
he deat
h ofhi
s
r
elat
ives,showi
nghi
mvi
deot
apesi
nwhi
chi
ndi
vi
dual
sar
ephy
sical
l
y
t
ort
uredandt
ell
i
nghi
mthatunl
esshet
alkshewoul
dbesubj
ect
edt
o
si
mil
arsi
tuat
ions can be consi
der
ed as psy
chol
ogi
calt
ort
ure.The
cl
assi
cal cases of phy
sical t
ort
ure ar
e wal
l
-st
andi
ng, hoodi
ng,
subj
ect
iont
owhi
tenoi
se,
deni
alofsl
eep,
foodordr
ink.

3. Tor
tur
eisnotexpl
i
cit
lyment
ionedunderAr
t18(
1)oft
heconst
it
uti
on
t
hatpr
ohi
bit
sil
l
-tr
eat
ment
sorpuni
shment
swhi
char
ecr
uel
,i
nhumanor
degr
adi
ng.The f
actt
hatt
ort
urei
s mor
e sev
eret
han t
hese l
i
sted
t
reat
ment
sorpuni
shment
s,t
hef
actt
hatEt
hiopi
aisapar
tyt
othe
I
CCPR whi
chpr
ohi
bit
sli
stst
ort
ureamongt
hepr
ohi
bit
edact
sofi
l
l-
t
reat
ment
s,t
he f
act t
hat Ar
t 13(
2) di
rect
s us t
oint
erpr
et t
he
pr
ovi
si
onsoft
hef
undament
alr
ight
sandf
reedomsi
nli
ghtof
,among
ot
her
s,t
heI
CCPR,onecanr
ight
ful
l
yar
guet
hatt
ort
urei
sincl
udedas
oneoft
hepr
ohi
bit
edact
s.
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 244

4.Fir
standf
oremostt
hest
atemustnotengagei
ntheact
soft
ort
ure
and

ot
hert
reat
ment
s;av
oidi
ncommuni
cadodet
ent
ions;pr
ovi
deaccesst
o
l
awy
ers,f
ami
l
ymember
set
cwher
epeopl
ear
edet
ained f
orl
awf
ul
r
easons;t
he st
ate shoul
d al
so t
ake such pr
otect
ive measur
esl
i
ke
l
egi
sl
ati
ng on excl
usi
onar
yrul
e ofev
idence wher
eby conf
essi
ons
obt
ainedt
hrought
ort
urear
etober
ender
edi
nadmi
ssi
blei
ncr
imi
nalor
ot
her pr
oceedi
ngs;pr
ovi
de t
rai
ning and i
nst
ruct
ions t
othe l
aw
enf
orcementof
fi
cial
snott
ousesuchi
l
l-
tr
eat
ment
s.

5.Thepr
imar
ydi
ff
erencei
stheabsenceofexpl
i
citr
efer
encet
otor
tur
ein
Ar
t18(
1)oft
heFDREconst
it
uti
onunl
i
kewhati
sdonei
nAr
t7oft
he
I
CCPR.Theot
herdi
ff
erencei
sthatt
hel
att
ergi
vesi
nvol
unt
arymedi
cal
exami
nat
ion orsci
ent
if
ic exper
iment
ati
on as one exampl
efort
he
pr
ohi
bit
edi
l
l-t
reat
ment
swhi
l
esuchr
efer
encei
snotmadei
nAr
t18(
1)
oft
heFDREconst
it
uti
on.

6.Cor
por
alpuni
shmenti
nit
snor
malf
ormf
all
sunderAr
t16t
hanAr
t
18(
1).Howev
er,t
her
ear
esev
eresi
tuat
ionswher
eitamount
stoa
t
reat
mentt
hati
spr
ohi
bit
edundert
hel
att
erpr
ovi
si
on.Forexampl
e,
t
heuseoff
ir
easameansofpuni
shmentonchi
l
dreni
srepor
tedi
n
somepl
acesordeni
aloff
oodt
othechi
l
dren,
orf
orci
ngt
hem outoft
he
houseet
c,ar
e,butsomeexampl
eswhi
char
eusedbysomepar
ent
s.
Thus,
thesecasesconst
it
uteal
evelofsev
eri
tyt
hatcanbemadet
ofal
l
underAr
t18(
1).

7.I
tisar
guedt
hatf
orci
ngawomant
ounder
got
hemat
erni
typr
ocesses
wi
thoutherwi
l
lamount
stoaser
vit
udeandt
huswhenev
ershei
snot
wi
l
li
ngt
ounder
got
hrought
hepai
nsofmot
her
hood,
shehast
obegi
ven
t
her
ightt
ost
opt
hebaby
’sdev
elopmentati
tsf
oet
usst
age.Thi
s
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 245

ar
gumentassumes,among ot
her
s,t
hatchi
l
d bi
rt
his ser
vit
ude.

Howev
er,i
tisnotpossi
blet
oacceptt
hiscont
ent
ionaschi
l
dbi
rt
hand
i
tsconsequentbur
densar
enat
uralphenomenonwhi
chi
snoti
mposed
byany
one.Ser
vit
udeorsl
aver
yisahumanconst
ructwhi
chassumes
t
heexi
stenceofsomeoneasanowneroft
heser
vicesoft
hesl
aveor
t
heser
vant
.Thus,
ifatal
labor
ti
onwer
etobeper
mit
ted,
ithast
obeon
gr
oundsot
hert
hanconsi
der
ingmot
her
hoodasser
vit
ude.Thi
scoul
d
bebecauset
hebi
rt
hoft
hechi
l
disnotpossi
blewi
thoutr
iski
ngt
hel
i
fe
oft
hemot
her
,et
c,whi
chi
spur
elyamedi
cal
quest
ion.

8.Sl
aver
ywast
heci
rcumst
ancewher
ebyaper
sonwoul
dbeconsi
der
ed
as t
he pr
oper
ty ofanot
her
,the sl
ave-
ownerand f
oral
lpr
act
ical
pur
posest
heownerhadt
heul
ti
mat
epr
erogat
iveont
heper
sonoft
he
sl
ave.Hi
stor
ical
l
y,t
hiswasappl
i
ed t
othebl
ackpeopl
e who wer
e
absol
utel
ysegr
egat
edf
rom t
hei
rwhi
teowner
s;t
heywer
enott
obe
t
ri
edi
nthesamecour
twi
tht
hewhi
te,wer
enotent
it
ledt
oappearas
wi
tnesses,et
c.Ser
vit
udewashi
stor
ical
l
yexi
stedf
ort
hosewhi
teswho
wer
esubj
ect
edt
oser
veot
herwhi
tepeopl
etowhom t
heyowedsome
f
orm ofobl
i
gat
ion.Bot
hoft
heact
sar
epr
ohi
bit
edundert
heFDRE
const
it
uti
onaswel
lasundert
heI
CCPR.

9.Theof
fi
ceatt
heMOLSAhasbeeni
nst
it
utedf
ort
hev
erypur
poseof
t
ackl
i
ng t
he i
l
legalact
s oft
raf
fi
cki
ng i
n per
sons.Whatmakes an
i
nter
nat
ionalbr
oker
ageofper
sonsf
ort
hepur
poseofempl
oymenti
s
pr
ovi
si
on off
alse i
nfor
mat
ion,cont
rol
l
ing t
he empl
oymentoft
he
per
sonbei
ngsentabr
oad,
det
aini
ngt
het
rav
eldocument
soft
heper
son
et
c.But
,thr
ought
hei
nvol
vementoft
hegov
ernment
,suchi
l
legalact
s
wi
l
lbecont
rol
l
ed.Ot
her
wise,connect
ingempl
oyeesandempl
oyer
sis
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 246

nott
raf
fi
cki
ngi
nit
sel
f.Ther
efor
e,whati
sdonebyt
heMOLSAi
snot

unconst
it
uti
onal
.

10.I
ntheder
ogat
ionpr
ovi
si
onoft
heFDREconst
it
uti
on,nodi
sti
nct
ioni
s
made among t
he subpar
agr
aphs ofAr
t18,whi
ch i
ncl
udes bot
h
absol
uter
ight
sand r
ight
swhi
ch ar
esubj
ectt
oli
mit
ati
onsev
en i
n
nor
malt
imes.The I
CCPR,howev
er,makes such di
sti
nct
ion and
accor
dingl
y,i
tisonl
ythosepr
ovi
si
onsofAr
t18(
1)(
2)whi
char
enot
subj
ectt
oli
mit
ati
ont
hatar
emadet
obenon-
der
ogabl
edur
ingdecl
ared
emer
genci
es.

11.The quest
ion an be spl
i
tint
o t
wo;f
ist can Ay
r ele use hi
s
pol
i
ticalopi
nionasagr
oundf
orhi
sconsci
ent
iousobj
ect
iont
opr
ovi
de
mi
l
itar
yser
vice,andsecondev
eni
fwesayhecan,i
sitpossi
blef
ort
he
memberoft
hemi
l
itar
ytoconsci
ent
iousl
yobj
ectt
ohi
sdepl
oyment
t
oawarzone.Asf
arast
hef
ir
stquest
ioni
sconcer
ned,
thegr
oundf
or
t
her
ightt
o consci
ent
iousobj
ect
ion,aswesaw abov
e,i
sAr
t27of
t
heconst
it
uti
onwhi
chpr
ovi
desf
orf
reedom oft
hought
,rel
i
gionand
opi
nion.Thenor
maluseoft
heobj
ect
ion,howev
er,i
sbasi
cal
l
yrel
ated
t
orel
i
giousopi
niont
hanpol
i
ticalorot
her
.Ev
eni
fthati
sthenor
mal
usage,i
tisst
il
lnotpossi
blet
osayt
hatanobj
ect
ionbasedonpol
i
tical
opi
nioni
snotaccept
abl
e.Thesecondquest
ioni
srat
hert
ri
ckybecause
Ayel
ehasal
readyj
oinedt
hemi
l
itar
y.Ont
heonehand,consci
ent
ious
obj
ect
ioni
sper
missi
bleatt
het
imeofj
oini
ngt
hemi
l
itar
yandt
hat
st
agehasl orAy
ongpassedf ele.Ont
heot
herhand,t
hegr
oundofhi
s
obj
ect
ioni
snotsomet
hingt
hathewoul
dhav
efor
eseenatt
het
imeof
j
oini
ngt
hemi
l
itar
y.Thesef
ormsofdi
ff
erenceshappenmostoft
he
t
imesandi
nmanycount
ri
es.Whatt
hemi
l
itar
yper
sonnelt
hinksi
tto
bepr
opermi
ghtdi
ff
erf
rom t
hatofi
tssuper
ior
,whi
chi
stheexecut
ive
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 247

branch of t
he gov
ernment
. The i
nter
est
s at st
ake, i
n
such

ci
rcumst
ances,
wil
lbet
henat
ionaldef
enceont
heonehand,
andont
he
ot
hert
her
ightoft
hemi
l
itar
ytoengagei
nwar
sthati
tconsi
der
sbei
ng
j
ust
.Iti
s,howev
er,anaccept
ednor
mthati
nsuchci
rcumst
ances,t
he
f
ormershoul
d be gi
ven pr
ecedence.Dearst
udent
,you can ar
gue
ot
her
wise,andIal
soneedy
out
odi
scusst
hemat
terf
urt
herwi
thy
our
f
ri
ends.

Suggest
edAnswer
stoExer
ciseI(
chapt
er4)
1.Ev
eni
fther
eisnocl
earr
uleast
otheuseofhandcuf
fs,
arr
esthast
o
bedonei
namannert
hatr
espect
sthehumandi
gni
tyoft
heper
son
(
Art
21).Moreov
er,t
he use oft
he handcuf
fwher
ethe per
son t
o be
arr
est
ed

i
snotr
esi
sti
ngmi
ghtv
iol
atet
her
ightoft
heAt
naf
uaspr
ovi
dedunder
Ar
t16r
elat
ingt
osecur
it
yofper
son.I
nthecr
imi
nalpr
ocedur
ecode
t
oo,t
her
eisapr
ovi
si
ont
hatst
ipul
atest
hatar
restcanonl
ybedoneby
t
ouchi
ng(
SeeAr
t56(
3)whi
chpr
ovi
des[
Thepol
i
ceof
fi
cer
]shal
lthen
t
ouchorconf
inet
hebodyoft
heper
sont
obear
rest
edunl
esst
her
ebea
submi
ssi
ont
ohi
scust
odybywor
doract
ion.
)Thus,
wher
eiti
spossi
ble
t
omaket
hear
restbywor
ds,t
henev
ent
ouchi
ngi
snotal
l
owedunder
t
heEt
hiopi
ancr
imi
nal
procedur
elaw.I
naddi
ti
ont
othat
,thei
nfor
mat
ion
descr
ibi
ngt
her
easonsf
orhi
sar
restaswel
last
hewar
ningcl
auses
mustbegi
ven ‘
prompt
ly.
’Thepr
ompt
nessi
snotcl
ear
lydescr
ibed
undert
heEt
hiopi
anl
aw exceptt
heconst
it
uti
onalpr
ovi
si
onAr
t19(
2),
whi
ch st
ipul
atet
hatt
he i
nfor
mat
ion shoul
d becommuni
cat
ed ‘
up
on ar
rest
.’Thus,i
tis not l
i
kel
ythat one canconsi
derAt
naf
u’s
si
tuat
iont
o bei
ncompl
i
ancewi
tht
hepr
ompt
nessr
equi
red oft
he
pol
i
ce.Thus,al
ltheseconst
it
uteav
iol
ati
onoft
heconst
it
uti
onalr
ight
s
oft
heper
son.Unf
ort
unat
ely
,ther
ear
enocl
earpr
ovi
si
onsundert
he
const
it
uti
ont
hatspeakaboutt
heconsequencesof
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 248

i
l
legal
i
tiest
hatmi
ghthav
ebeencommi
tt
eddur
ingar
restwhi
l
ethi
shas

beenst
ipul
atedunderAr
t9(
5)oft
heI
CCPRwhi
chpr
ovi
dest
hatt
he
per
soni
l
legal
l
yar
rest
edmustbecompensat
ed.One’
sri
ghtt
oresor
tto
t
heex
tra-
cont
ract
uall
i
abi
l
itypr
ovi
si
onsoft
heci
vi
lcodeundert
he
Et
hiopi
anl
awi
sst
il
lrel
evanther
e.

2. I
tis di
sti
nct f
rom cr
imi
nalpr
oceedi
ng as i
tis nota pr
ocess
ofi
dent
if
yinggui
l
tori
nnocence.I
tisaspeci
fi
cremedyf
orone’
sri
ghtt
o
l
i
ber
tywher
ebyt
hear
rest
ingaut
hor
it
ywi
l
lbeaskedt
opr
esentt
he
per
soni
ncour
tforexpl
anat
ionofwhyhedoesn’
trel
easehi
m.The
publ
i
cpr
osecut
ori
snotnecessar
il
yinv
olv
edi
nthi
spr
oceedi
ng.Thus,
i
tisdi
sti
nctf
rom cr
imi
nalpr
oceedi
ngs.Mor
eov
er,i
tisnota ci
vi
l
pr
oceedi
ngei
therst
ri
ctl
yspeaki
ng.Thi
sisbecauset
her
emedysought
i
s notessent
ial
l
ya ci
vi
lremedy
,whi
ch i
s pr
edomi
nant
lymonet
ary
compensat
ion.I
naddi
ti
ont
othat
,thecl
aim canbebr
oughtbyany
per
son,whi
chi
snotnor
malf
orci
vi
lpr
oceedi
ngswher
eacl
aimanthas
t
oshowav
est
edi
nter
estt
obr
ingaci
vi
lsui
t.Ther
efor
e,i
nst
ri
ctness,i
t
i
snotpossi
blet
ocat
egor
iseapet
it
ionf
orhabeascor
pusei
theras
ci
vi
lorcr
imi
nal
proceedi
ng.

3. Whet
herornotweshoul
dtaket
hoser
equi
rement
scumul
ati
vel
yornot
hasani
mpor
tanti
mpl
i
cat
ionont
hear
rest
edper
son’
sri
ghtt
oli
ber
ty.
Wher
ewei
nter
prett
hem ascumul
ati
ver
equi
rement
sto denybai
l
,
t
henwear
egi
vi
ngawi
derpr
otect
iont
other
ightt
oli
ber
tysi
ncewe
cr
eat
eabet
teroppor
tuni
tyf
oraper
sont
ober
eleasedonbai
lthan
bei
ng deni
ed ofhi
sri
ghtf
orbai
l
.The opposi
tei
str
ue wher
e we
consi
dert
hose r
equi
rement
sasal
ter
nat
ive onest
her
ebynar
rowi
ng
downt
heci
rcumst
ancesi
nwhi
chaper
soncoul
dbegr
ant
edwi
thhi
s
bai
lri
ght
.Thev
iceoft
hef
ir
sti
nter
pret
ati
oni
swewi
l
lbegr
ant
ingbai
l
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 249

t
oper
sonswhohav
ecommi
tt
edaser
iouscr
imet
her
ebyr
iski
ngt
hei
r

r
eappear
ance f
ort
ri
al.And i
nthe second,t
he r
ightt
oli
ber
ty of
i
ndi
vi
dual
swi
l
lbei
ndanger
.Thus,i
twi
l
lbeamat
terofbal
anci
ng
t
heset
woi
nter
est
sthathast
obef
oll
owedi
fanewappr
oachi
stobe
sought
.

4. Ther
e ar
e basi
cal
l
ythr
ee r
easons f
ort
he r
ightofbai
l
.The f
ir
st
r
elat
eswi
thourup-
comi
ngdi
scussi
onunderAr
t20(
3)whi
chi
sabout
pr
esumpt
ionofi
nnocence.Al
lindi
vi
dual
swhet
heratt
hel
evelofar
rest
ort
ri
alhav
ether
ightt
obepr
esumedi
nnocentandt
husdet
aini
ng
t
hem i
ndef
ini
tel
yasl
ongast
het
ri
alt
akesv
iol
atest
hisr
ightsi
ncet
hey
ar
ebei
ngpenal
i
sedf
oracr
imewhi
cht
her
ehasnotbeenaconcr
ete
deci
si
onofgui
l
t.Thus,t
heywi
l
lhav
etober
eleasedonbai
lexcepti
n
ci
rcumst
anceswher
ethepubl
i
cint
erestsor
equi
res,
especi
all
yincases
ofser
iouscr
imesorbasedont
hegr
oundsst
atedunderAr
t67oft
he
cr
imi
nalpr
ocedur
ecodet
hatwehav
edi
scussedabov
e.Thesecond
j
ust
if
icat
ioni
sther
ightofdef
ence.Thi
sisapoi
ntt
hatweshal
lbe
di
scussi
ngi
nrel
ati
ont
oAr
t20aswel
l
,whi
chessent
ial
l
yisar
ightt
hat
makest
hei
ndi
vi
dual
’
sbei
ngoutofdet
ent
ionv
erymuchnecessar
y,as
heneedst
omov
eher
eandt
her
etopr
epar
ehi
sdef
ence.Fi
nal
l
y,t
he
r
ightofbai
lhasal
sopr
act
icalj
ust
if
icat
ioni
nrel
ati
ont
opubl
i
cbudget
.
Si
ncet
hegov
ernmenthast
hedut
ytopr
ovi
det
headequat
efaci
l
iti
esf
or
al
lthosewhoar
eunderi
tsdet
ent
ion,i
tiscumber
somet
ohav
eal
l
peopl
e who ar
e wai
ti
ng t
ri
aland t
hose who hav
e al
ready been
sent
encedt
oser
veapr
isont
erm.Ther
efor
e,atl
eastbyr
eleasi
ngt
hose
per
sonswhosegui
l
thasnoty
etbeendet
ermi
ned,t
hegov
ernment
’s
moneycanbesav
ed.Fort
heseandot
herr
easons,t
her
ightofbai
lhas
beenconsi
der
edani
mpor
tantpar
toft
hecr
imi
nal
procedur
elaw.
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 250

Suggest
edanswer
stoExer
ciseI
I(Chapt
erI
V)

1. Fai
rtr
iali
ncl
udespubl
i
chear
ing,speedyt
ri
al,t
ri
albef
oreor
dinar
y
cour
tsandt
ri
alaf
terbei
ngchar
ged.

2.TheI
CCPR addsf
ew t
hingst
othi
sli
sti
ngofel
ement
soff
airt
ri
al.
Thesear
eequal
i
tybef
oret
het
ri
bunal
s,t
her
ightt
ohav
eone’
scase
consi
der
edbyani
ndependent
,acompet
entandi
mpar
ti
alt
ri
bunal
,and
ar
ightnotonl
ytopubl
i
cbutal
sof
airt
ri
al.

3.Themai
npur
poseofpubl
i
chear
ingi
stohav
ethecaseopent
opubl
i
c
scr
uti
nyandcr
it
ici
sm.

4. The i
nvest
igat
ion,t
he pr
osecut
ion as wel
las t
he t
ri
alst
ages
hav
eimpactonspeedyt
ri
al.

5. ‘
Presumedi
nnocentunt
ilpr
ovengui
l
ty’i
sst
ati
ngt
hatt
heper
sonwi
l
l
begui
l
ty,nomat
terwhat
.Howev
er‘
presumedi
nnocentunl
esspr
oven
gui
l
ty’
seemst
obet
heappr
opr
iat
ephr
aseasi
tmakest
hepr
esumpt
ion
ofi
nnocencet
her
uleunl
essgui
l
tisest
abl
i
shed.

6.I
fwe wer
eto pr
esume gui
l
trat
hert
han i
nnocence t
hen we ar
e
assumi
ng t
hatcr
imi
nal
i
tyi
sthe r
ule and i
nnocence t
he except
ion
whi
chmustnotbet
hecase.Soci
ety
’sbehav
iouri
sbei
ngshapedby
cul
tur
e,r
eli
gionandot
hersoci
etalv
aluest
othebet
terandwemust
st
artbypr
esumi
ngt
hatwhoev
eri
ssuspect
edi
sinnocenceunl
essgui
l
t
hasbeenpr
oved.

7.Fi
rst
,thepubl
i
cpr
osecut
ort
akest
hebur
denofpr
ooff
ir
standt
he
suspectwi
l
ljusthav
etowai
t.Second,t
hepr
oofneedst
obebey
ond
andr
easonabl
edoubt
.Andf
inal
l
ythebenef
itofdoubti
stogot
othe
Const
it
uti
onal
LawI
I:BDU,
LawFacul
ty 251

suspectand al
lthese ar
e pr
imar
il
y because oft
he pr
esumpt
ion
of

i
nnocence.

8.Ther
ear
etwocondi
ti
onst
hatwi
l
lhav
etobef
ulf
il
ledbef
oreaper
son
cangetanat
tor
neyatt
hest
ate’
sexpense.Thesear
efi
rsteconomi
c
i
nabi
l
ityt
opayf
oranat
tor
neyandsecondt
her
ehast
obeabel
i
eft
hat
i
flef
tunr
epr
esent
ed by an at
tor
ney
,mi
scar
ri
age ofj
ust
ice woul
d
happen.

9.Thet
woar
erel
atedv
erymuchsi
ncewhenwesaynol
awnocr
imewe
ar
est
ati
ngt
hataper
soncanonl
ybehel
dcr
imi
nal
l
yresponsi
blewher
e
t
her
eexi
stsal
aw t
hatal
readypr
ohi
bit
sthatact
.Thenon-
ret
roact
ivi
ty
pr
inci
ple st
ates t
his same f
acti
nthata per
son’
s actcannotbe
consi
der
edunderanewl
awwhi
chwasi
ssuedaf
tert
hecommi
ssi
onof
t
hatact
.

10.Her
e t
he case concer
ns a spl
i
tti
ng of cl
aim by t
he publ
i
c
pr
osecut
orsi
ncewhi
l
ehewoul
dhav
ebr
oughtbot
hoft
hechar
ges
t
oget
heri
thadmadet
wocasesoutofi
t.Si
ncesuchspl
i
tti
ngi
snot
pr
ohi
bit
edundert
hecr
imi
nalpr
ocedur
eofEt
hiopi
a,wemi
ghtsayt
hat
doubl
ejeopar
dycannotbeadef
ensef
ort
hewoman.Mor
eov
er,t
he
const
it
uti
onsay
s
‘
same off
ence’whi
l
ethe cr
imi
nalpr
ocedur
e code say
s‘same
char
ge’

f
ort
hedoubl
ejeopar
dypr
ohi
bit
iont
ober
aisedasadef
ense.I
nthi
s
case t
her
e was nei
thersame char
ge norsame of
fence and i
tis
notpossi
blet
orai
set
hedef
enceofdoubl
ejeopar
dy.