CONT I N UI N G E D U C AT I O N
Presented By:
Concrete Pathways to Net Zero
PART 2, OPERATIONAL CARBON
Richardsville Elementary School is the nation’s first zero energy school. Photo courtesy of Sherman Carter Barnhart Architects.
INTRODUCTION
From 1995 to 2005, U.S. building sector
operational energy consumption spiked
steadily from just under 33 quadrillion
British thermal units (QBtu) to a little over
39 QBtu. However, between 2005 and
2018, the architecture, engineering, and
construction (AEC) community managed to
flatten the curve, levelling out operational
energy consumption to approximately 39.4
QBtu throughout that time. This takes into
consideration the fact that the U.S. “continues
to add 3 to 4 billion square feet per year to its
building stock.”1
In large part, stopping the increase
of operational energy consumption is
due to various initiatives, including those
undertaken by the World Green Building
Council (WorldGBC), as well as the United
Nations (U.N.) and Architecture 2030. These
initiatives were discussed in detail in the
course Concrete Pathways to Net Zero: Part
1, Embodied Carbon and will therefore be
covered briefly here.
The WorldGBC’s Commitment
The WorldGBC launched its Net Zero Carbon
Buildings Commitment in 2018. Organizations
and businesses, as well as cities, states, and
regions, can all become signatories of what
the WorldGBC terms “the Commitment.”
The WorldGBC states the organizations
and businesses that have “signed up to the
Commitment now cover nearly 6,000 assets,
over 32 million m2 of total floor area, and USD
100 billion in annual turnover.” The goal for all
signatories is to achieve net zero operational
carbon emissions by the year 2030. Overall,
doing so will save “approximately 3.4 million
tonnes of CO2” in 2030 alone. For perspective,
“this is the equivalent to the emissions from
energy used to power 400,000 homes for
one year.”2
The U.N.’s Race to Zero
Like the World GBC’s Commitment, the U.N.’s
Race to Zero seeks “support from businesses,
cities, regions, [and] investors” as it strives
toward “a healthy, resilient, zero carbon
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Evaluate the changing nature of U.S.
energy consumption and the role various
initiatives, such as Net Zero Carbon Buildings
Commitment, Race to Zero, and Architecture
2030, play in lowering consumption.
2. Assess the ways in which design decisions can
impact concrete’s ability to support sustainability
initiatives.
3. Analyze various strategies to net zero energy
buildings.
4. Understand the role Passive House plays in
achieving net zero.
CONTINUING EDUCATION
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Use the learning objectives to focus your
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credit and obtain a certificate of completion, visit
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recovery that prevents future threats, creates
decent jobs, and unlocks inclusive, sustainable
growth.”3 Entities joining the Race to Zero
must pledge, among other requirements, to
reach net zero carbon emissions “in the 2040s
or sooner, or by mid-century at the latest.”4
Architecture 2030
In part, Architecture 2030 focuses on existing
building stock, noting “nearly two-thirds of
the building area that exists today will still
exist in 2050.” Currently, cities, where most of
this building stock is located, “are responsible
CONT I N UI N G E D U C AT I O N
for over 70 percent of global energy
consumption and CO2 emissions.” Architecture
2030 maintains that to meet the requirements
of the Paris Agreement to prevent global
temperatures from rising more than 2 degrees
Celsius, “a significant increase in the rate and
depth of existing building energy efficiency
renovations and procurement of renewable
energy (energy upgrades) is required.” To help
those in the AEC industry achieve these goals,
Architecture 2030 has undertaken a number
of initiatives. These include collaborating
with the WorldGBC in a new project titled
Advancing Net Zero, as well as 2030 Districts,
which is a collaboration with building districts
across North America that seeks “to achieve
significant energy, water, and emissions
reductions within […] commercial cores.”
Additionally, Architecture 2030’s Zero Tool
can help stakeholders ascertain a building’s
energy use intensity (EUI).5
In 2019, the American Institute of
Architects (AIA) more formally committed
to addressing climate change by backing a
“resolution for urgent and sustained climate
change.” The resolution “calls upon the AIA ‘to
prioritize and support urgent climate action to
exponentially accelerate the “decarbonization”
of buildings, the building sector, and the
built environment.’”6 In part, this resolution
was made in accordance with Architecture
2030’s 2030 Challenge, which strives for
“all new buildings, developments, and major
renovations [to be] carbon-neutral by 2030.”7
As existing global building stock is
renovated to meet the goals of climate
initiatives and new building stock is being
designed and constructed to more sustainable
standards, the resiliency and durability of
building materials become increasingly more
important. Concrete contributes to making
the built environment more durable, resilient,
and sustainable, and plays a large role in
efforts toward carbon neutrality.
NET ZERO, OPERATIONAL EMISSIONS,
AND EMBODIED EMISSIONS
Generally speaking, operational energy is that
consumed by the operation of a building and
includes heating, cooling, ventilation, and
lighting. More specifically, operational energy
is not solely “dependent on the function of
a building” but is also determined by myriad
other factors, including the “climate of the
region, building configuration, building
material characteristics, and […] occupancy
characteristics.”8 Overall, operational energy
“can constitute 80–90% of the total energy
associated with [a] structure.”9
Comparatively, embodied energy “is
the sum of energy consumed for the main
processes involved in production of [a]
material (direct energy input) and the energy
spent for procurement of raw materials
and other resources required for the main
production processes (indirect energy
inputs). It is the total primary energy required
for extraction of resources, transportation,
manufacture, assembly, disassembly, and end
of life disposal of a product.”10
Building operations, or operational carbon,
is responsible for 72% of annual greenhouse
gas (GHG) emissions from the building sector,
and embodied carbon the remaining 28%.
Embodied carbon alone accounts for 11%
of global GHG emissions, and Architecture
2030 maintains, “Embodied carbon will
be responsible for almost half of total new
construction emissions between now and
2050.”11 Operating residential and commercial
buildings consumes 70% of the electricity
load in the U.S.12 Clearly, both embodied and
operational carbon must be addressed to
meet climate goals effectively.
In addition to initial embodied energy,
recurring embodied energy must also be
considered and can be defined as energy in
buildings that “represents the non-renewable
energy consumed to maintain, repair, restore,
refurbish or replace materials, components,
or systems during the life of the building.”13
As the U.N.’s Race to Zero initiative points
out, in addition to energy use, new building
construction should also be resilient against
natural disaster to meet the net zero goal.
As a result of climate change, the planet
will experience more frequent and stronger
hurricanes, tornadoes, wildfires, floods, and
other natural hazards. Buildings must be
designed to meet these increased hazards.
Work at the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology (MIT) has demonstrated that
the severity and frequency of hurricanes
have increased since the 1980s. For instance,
“between 1980 and 1989, hurricanes killed
20 [people] per year. Between 2010 and
GLOSSARY
Embodied energy: “The sum of energy consumed
for the main processes involved in production of
[a] material (direct energy input) and the energy
spent for procurement of raw materials and
other resources required for the main production
processes (indirect energy inputs). It is the total
primary energy required for extraction of resources,
transportation, manufacture, assembly, disassembly,
and end of life disposal of a product.”
Insulating concrete forms (ICF): Made from
reinforced concrete and expanded polystyrene
insulation (EPS); made up of two layers of rigid
insulation held together with plastic ties, forming
units with a cavity in the center; reinforcing steel
is added to the cavity and then concrete is poured
into it. The forms remain in place to provide
insulation and weather barrier.
Net zero, or zero net carbon: “Zero” refers to
greenhouse gas emissions (GHG), and “net”
translates as positive emissions (burdens) and
negative emissions (benefits or offsets).
Operational energy: Energy consumed by the
operation of a building, which includes heating,
cooling, ventilation, and lighting; determined
by many factors, including climate of the
region, building configuration, building material
characteristics, and occupancy characteristics.
Passive House Institute (PHI): Founded in
Germany in 1996, it is a pioneer in energy-efficient
construction and renovation; has led research and
development of “construction concepts, building
components, planning tools, and quality assurance
for especially energy efficient buildings.”
Passive House Institute U.S. (PHIUS): Developed
cost-effective performance criteria to address the
many climate conditions in the U.S.
Recurring embodied energy: Energy in buildings
that “represents the non-renewable energy
consumed to maintain, repair, restore, refurbish, or
replace materials, components, or systems during
the life of the building.”
Resilience: “The ability to prepare and plan for,
absorb, recover from, and more successfully adapt
to adverse events.”
Tilt-up concrete walls: Concrete panels that are cast
horizontally on site on a concrete slab on ground
and lifted or “tilted” by crane into a vertical position.
Zero net energy building: “A highly efficient
building that produces on-site, or procures, enough
carbon-free renewable energy to meet building
operations energy consumption annually.”
CONT I N UI N G E D U C AT I O N
2019, that figure grew to 357.” 14 Since 1980,
hurricanes have financially cost the U.S. $1
trillion in damages.15 To mitigate the human
and economic costs of hurricanes and other
extreme weather events, structures need to
be made more resilient. As researchers at MIT
note, “one barrier to resilient construction is
its perceived cost”; however, “retrofitting a
building for resilience costs around 18 to 24
cents per square foot” and can ultimately
save significantly more money than hazard
repair. In Florida alone, “the state-wide
estimated benefits of hazard mitigation
quadruple from $5 billion to $20 billion
annually.”16 In short, hazard maintenance costs
incurred by conventional buildings often
exceed initial construction costs.17 Overall,
while designing an “enhanced” building, or
building for hazard resilience, might cost
more upfront, the long-term savings to
owners and governments are substantial.
One financial study on achieving net zero
determined, “Advancing net zero policy […]
means advancing economic development,
energy leadership, ingenuity, and resilience.
Planning for a net zero future creates
practical and achievable energy solutions for
residents and economic and environmental
benefits for a city itself.”18 Achieving net
zero means taking into account a variety of
factors that influence or impact embodied
and operational carbon.
Net Zero: Positive and Negative Emissions
Many of the initiatives listed in the previous
section seek to reduce both embodied and
operational carbon to reach the overall goal
of net zero. Net zero, or zero net carbon,
is where “zero” refers to GHG emissions
and “net” translates as positive emissions
(burdens) and negative emissions (benefits
or offsets).
In terms of embodied energy, burdens
include the production of building products
and structures. By making production
more efficient and/or using low-carbon
constituents, carbon emissions can be
avoided and/or permanently sequestered
or captured. Electricity and heat generation
are two burdens of operational energy. By
making a building’s envelope and systems
more energy efficient and/or by using on-site
renewable energy, lower energy demand can
be achieved and both energy bills and carbon
emissions can be reduced. Based on this
description of burdens and benefits, pathways
to net zero buildings must involve materials,
specifications, design, construction, building
envelope, energy systems, and renewables.
A zero net energy building, as defined
by Architecture 2030, is “a highly efficient
building that produces on-site, or procures,
enough carbon-free renewable energy to
meet building operations energy consumption
annually.” This definition can be applied to
both new and existing buildings, including
those in dense urban areas, and, generally
speaking, can be achieved by first reducing
carbon-based energy consumption “through
building design strategies and efficiency
measures” and next “through on-site
renewable energy generation.”19
This course will focus on operational
carbon and concrete’s contribution to
pathways to net zero energy buildings and
the impact of design decisions on net zero
operational carbon. Finally, the course will
examine several case studies where low
operational carbon was achieved with the
help of concrete.
CONCRETE’S CONTRIBUTION TO NET ZERO
OPERATIONAL EMISSIONS (LO2)
There are many factors that can influence
the way concrete is manufactured, designed,
built, used, and recycled that ultimately affect
the environmental footprint of a structure.
Whether one is designing a high-rise building,
pavement, bridge, dam, or warehouse,
concrete is an important component used
as foundation and superstructure, and these
structures can have a significant impact on
the environment throughout their life cycle.
Structural engineers and architects can
influence the performance and environmental
impact of structures through effective
design and specifications regardless of the
materials being used. However, concrete is
unique in that it is versatile both in terms
of physical characteristics (size, shape,
appearance, etc.) and mechanical properties
(strength, stiffness, permeability, etc.) so
that specifiers can influence performance,
including environmental impacts, of concrete
and concrete structures significantly through
design decisions and project specifications.
Influence of Design Decisions
The single biggest influence an architect
or engineer can have on the environmental
impacts of a structure is through efficient
design. While design loads, constructability,
aesthetics, and concrete mixtures all play
a role in reducing the carbon footprint of a
building and can affect the performance of
concrete and concrete structures, structural
efficiency, durability, resilience, and energy
efficiency as they relate to operational carbon
emissions will be the focus here.
Energy Efficiency
Concrete buildings are typically more energy-
efficient than lighter framed buildings because
of thermal mass. Thermal mass is a material’s
ability to store heat and release it over time.
There are three characteristics of thermal
mass. First, the time lag between peak heating
and cooling loads and outside temperature
peaks is greater for massive buildings. This
feature can be used in buildings by delaying
the need for heating or cooling energy to take
advantage of off-peak demand. In an office
building, that means heat gain can be delayed
until after everyone has gone home. Second,
massive buildings have lower peak heating
and cooling loads, allowing for smaller, more
efficient heating and cooling equipment. And
third, massive buildings require less overall
heating and cooling energy to maintain the
same interior temperatures since temperature
swings are moderated.
Figure 1. Total Global Warming Potential (GWP) over 60-year
lifespan for commercial buildings.
CONT I N UI N G E D U C AT I O N

In a research report published by MIT, the QUIZ

effects of thermal mass were explored using 1. Each year, the U.S. adds _________ billion square feet to its building stock.
life cycle analysis for a 12-story, 46,321 square a. 1–2 b. 2–3
meters (498,590 square feet) commercial c. 3–4 d. 4–5
building. The building was analyzed for a
60-year life for two climates (Phoenix and 2. Heating, cooling, ventilation, and lighting contribute to which of the following?
Chicago) and for two different structural a. Operational energy b. Embodied energy
materials (concrete and steel). The analysis c. Recurring embodied energy d. None of the above
demonstrated that the greenhouse gas
emissions due to operational energy of the 3. Operational carbon is responsible for _____ of annual GHG emissions from the building sector.
building were responsible for 95–96% of life a. 28% b. 45%
cycle emissions.20 Figure 1 demonstrates that c. 60% d. 72%
the concrete building has approximately the
same embodied emissions as steel but has 4. Since 1980, hurricanes have cost the U.S. __________ in damages.
lower operating emissions, which can lead to a. $1 million b. $100 million
lower life cycle emissions. c. $1 billion d. $1 trillion
The same research evaluated the global
warming potential (GWP) of single- and 5. Which of the following plays a role in reducing the carbon footprint of a building?
multi-family buildings, demonstrating there a. Structural efficiency and constructability b. Durability and resilience
are measurable differences between various c. Energy efficiency and design loads d. All of the above
construction materials and that concrete
structures can provide unique benefits 6. A research report published by MIT demonstrated that the greenhouse gas emissions due to operational
compared to other materials over an operating energy of the building were responsible for ______ of life cycle emissions.
life cycle. By considering a structure’s entire a. 95–96% b. 86–87%
operational life, the MIT research uncovered c. 72–73% d. 67–68%
concrete’s ability to offer a highly resilient
structure while providing thermal mass 7. A 6.5-inch concrete wall offers a fire resistance rating of _____ hours or more.
benefits resulting in energy savings. a. Three b. Four
• Concrete homes have a higher embodied c. Two d. One
GWP in the pre-use phase—but this phase
accounts for only about 2–12% of the 8. The use of ICF helped Jennings Creek Elementary School to reduce its energy costs by _______.
overall GWP for the life of the home. a. 25% b. 50%
• For a cold climate, such as Chicago, the c. 75% d. 100%
energy savings of an insulating concrete
form (ICF) house built from average to 9. Which of the following is a passive solar strategy?
tight levels of air infiltration saves 23% a. East/west building orientation b. Daylighting
of total operating energy. ICFs will be c. Compact building volume and thermal mass d. All of the above
discussed in more detail in the next
subsection. 10. The first Passive House was built in the U.S. in _____.
• Over a 60-year life cycle, the lower a. 2018 b. 2015
operating GWP (5–8% for single-family, c. 2003 d. 1996
4.4–6.2% for multi-family) outweighs pre-
use emissions.21
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complete the corresponding quiz for credit, Build with Strength, a coalition of the National Ready Mixed Concrete Association NRMCA, educates the
and receive your certificate of completion. building and design communities and policymakers on the benefits of ready mixed concrete, and encourages
its use as the building material of choice. No other material can replicate concrete’s advantages in terms of
strength, durability, safety and ease of use.
CONT I N UI N G E D U C AT I O N
Concrete being pumped into an ICF wall. Photo courtesy of
Quad-Lock
High Performance Envelopes
For most buildings, the key to low-energy
consumption is high-performance envelopes
that combine thermal mass and insulation.
Two concrete systems offer the best solution:
ICF walls and tilt-up concrete walls.
ICFs combine two building products:
reinforced concrete for strength and durability,
and expanded polystyrene (EPS) insulation
for energy efficiency. ICF walls are made up
of two layers of rigid insulation held together
with plastic ties to form ICF units with a cavity
in the center. The ICF units are stacked in the
shape of the wall, reinforcing steel is added
into the form cavity, and then concrete is
placed into the form. The result is a reinforced
concrete wall with a layer of insulation on
each side. What makes ICFs different from
traditional concrete construction is that the
forms remain in place after the concrete
is cured to provide thermal insulation. The
combination of reinforced concrete and
insulation provides an ideal load-bearing
wall, thermal envelope, fire barrier, and sound
barrier. ICFs also present long-term savings
opportunities for building owners.
Comparatively, tilt-up concrete walls are
concrete panels that are cast horizontally on
site on a concrete slab on ground. After the
Tilt-up concrete panel being “tilted” into place. Photo
courtesy of Tilt-up Concrete Association.
concrete has cured to a sufficient strength,
the panels are “tilted” up by a crane into a
vertical position. Consecutive panels in their
final vertical position then form a wall. Tilt-up
walls can be utilized on nearly every building
type, including distribution centers, schools,
churches, libraries, retail centers, and office
buildings. Benefits of tilt-up concrete walls
include the need for less equipment on site,
less labor, and fewer safety risks, as well
as a quick installation after the concrete is
cast. This equates to reduced construction
costs. Tilt-up walls also result in less waste
compared with traditional cast-in walls.
Additionally, tilt-up concrete walls provide
heat, sound, and fire insulation. Heating and
cooling costs are reduced, sound is mitigated,
and importantly, tilt-up concrete walls meet
fire resistance standards. For instance, a
“6.5-inch concrete wall offers a fire resistance
rating of four hours or more.”22
Structural Efficiency
Regardless of the design loading, a specifier’s
objective is to design the structural system
for optimized performance and to minimize
waste. There is no point in having a concrete
mixture with low environmental impact if
the structural member is overdesigned by
20%. Not only can efficient design lower the
impact of the structural system, but it also
tends to reduce impacts of other materials.
For example, minimizing the depth of beams
in the structure can significantly reduce the
floor-to-floor heights of a building, thus
leading to reduced quantity of exterior
cladding and interior finishes. Structural
efficiency, therefore, can help to reduce both
operational and embodied carbon emissions.
Durability
A structure that needs constant maintenance
results in significant environmental impact.
Structures exposed to harsh environments
must be designed appropriately to resist
deterioration. For concrete, that usually
means consideration of freezing and thawing
cycles, abrasion, chlorides (from road
salt or marine environments) or sulfates
(contained in soil or water). A combination
of good design detailing and durable
concrete mix designs can result in a durable
concrete structure. Appropriate concrete
cover, corrosion-resistant reinforcement,
low-permeability concrete, effective use
of supplementary cementitious materials
(SCMs), chemical admixtures that improve
corrosion resistance, surface coverings, and
crack control are all potential strategies for
providing a durable concrete structure.
The building code requirements for
structural concrete (ACI 318) requires licensed
design professionals to assign exposure
classes to concrete based on the severity
of the anticipated exposure of structural
concrete members (ACI 318-11 2011). The
code provides specific requirements for
concrete mixtures to resist various levels of
exposure. In most cases, the requirements
are performance-based, thus eliminating
the need for engineers to specify additional
prescriptive criteria.
Resilience
The Urban Land Institute (ULI) defines
resilience as “the ability to prepare and
plan for, absorb, recover from, and more
successfully adapt to adverse events.”
Addressing changes in the environment,
whether the changes are natural or man-
made, requires actions to mitigate their
negative effects and adapt to those changes.
For a community to be truly resilient,
it must address all human needs to some
degree—including designing buildings to
resist flooding, wind, sea-level rise, wildfires,
and other hazards. For a building to be
sustainable, one must consider potential for
future use and reuse, and design for long
service life with minimal maintenance costs.
Otherwise, the environmental, economic, and
societal burdens of the built environment
could be overwhelming. A building that
CONT I N UI N G E D U C AT I O N
NEOCITY ACADEMY: A TILT-UP CASE STUDY
Architect: Little Diversified Architectural Consulting
Engineer: CMTA, Inc.
General Contractor: Gilbane Building Co.
Location: Kissimmee, Florida
Project Type: Institutional
Size: 45,000 sq. ft.
Year of Completion: 2019
Background
At the completed NeoCity Academy, students can
make robots, build virtual models using 3D-enabled
computers, work with textiles, and mix music in
a production lab. The school, which houses 625
students from kindergarten through 12th grade, is for-
ward-looking—both in its curriculum and in the design
and construction of the building itself. In 2019, NeoCi-
ty Academy became Florida’s first net zero school.
The school’s roof, designed with 650 solar
panels, can produce 228 kilowatts of energy per
year, meaning the school is projected to save
approximately $115,000 annually on energy costs.
Overall, NeoCity Academy uses 76% less energy
than a non-net zero school. The school also features
air purification technology, employs enhanced
lighting and daylighting strategies, and rather than
a kitchen, has a food cantina truck, which further
reduces operational energy costs.36
Use of Tilt-Up Concrete Walls
A crucial component of a high-performance building is
its envelope. By tightening up the envelope, air leakage
can be minimized. Testing a building and its envelope
can also ensure the structure’s mechanical equipment
is right-sized. As Philip Donovan, Technical Principal
requires frequent repair and maintenance
or complete replacement after a disaster
would result in unnecessary cost, from both
private and public sources, and environmental
burdens including energy, waste, and
emissions due to disposal, repair, and
replacement.
Building with robust materials can
help mitigate the effects of hazards and
increase a structure’s resilience. Some of the
qualities of robust building materials include
durability; energy efficiency; versatility;
strength; and wind, water, seismic, and fire
resistance. Concrete building systems are
especially suited to provide resistance to
natural hazards. Leslie Chapman-Henderson,
NeoCity Academy entrance. Photo courtesy of Mark Herboth
Photography.
at Little Diversified, maintains, “A major portion of a
building’s energy loss occurs by air leakage through
the building’s skin. If you don’t test a building to see
how it’s performing, then how can you make sure that
the system is right-sized? If the envelope is leaking, the
system is going to run more, occupants are going to
be uncomfortable, and a lot more money will be spent
on energy.”37 Tracy Steward, Principal at CMTA, Inc.,
maintains the importance of “reducing energy demand
first and considering supply second” when designing a
high-performance building.38
Part of Donovan and Steward’s efforts to mitigate
potential leakage at NeoCity involved the use of tilt-
up concrete walls. Donovan states, “Concrete is the
best air barrier we can buy.” The school features 7.25-
inch panels secured to one another and the structural
steel infill. Substrate-appropriate anchors were used
and sealed at the heads.39
“The real critical areas,” Donovan continues,
“become the joints between the panels, but we built
president of the Federal Alliance for Safe
Homes, called concrete homes “the ideal” for
withstanding extreme weather.
Concrete has the necessary hardness and
mass to resist the high winds and flying debris
of tornadoes and hurricanes. It is also fire
resistant and non-flammable, which means
it can contain fires and will not contribute
to the spreading of fire. Reinforced concrete
framing systems can be designed to resist the
most severe earthquakes without collapse.
Concrete does not rot or rust, even if it is
subject to flooding.
In the end, resiliency planning offers
communities, building owners and design
professionals an opportunity to play a key
Aerial view of NeoCity Academy showing solar panels. Photo
courtesy of Mark Herboth Photography.
redundancy into those spaces.” Low-density
fiber board (LDF) was used to fill all gaps and
the joint between panels, and foam was run
continuously from the footing to the top of the
wall. A hydrophobic sealant was then applied from
both sides of the joint, again from the footing to
the top of the wall. This allowed for expansion and
contraction of the LDF. From either side of the
panel joint, fully adhered flexible flashing extended
a minimum of 3 inches. Ultimately, Donovan says,
“These are all components that are low-tech.
It’s low-tech air sealing that provides a high-
performance envelope.”40
Marc Clinch, Chief Facilities Officer for Osceola
School District, states, “‘The high-performance
component at NeoCity Academy represents a
less than six-year return on investment and just
an additional three years for the solar panels. This
is phenomenal for a building that will be here for
decades to come.’”41
role in determining the essential services and
infrastructure needs that underpin economic
vitality, contribute to the health and safety of
citizens, and support sustainability.
Aesthetics
Specifiers can help select concrete with color,
shape, and texture for nearly any application.
This marriage of structure and architecture
distinguishes concrete from most other
material in the sense that the surface of
concrete structural systems can be exposed
on the interior or exterior of a building, unlike
other materials that need to be protected
from weather and fire. This helps to reduce
the need for additional finish material, thus
CONT I N UI N G E D U C AT I O N
reducing environmental impact. Concrete
exposed to air absorbs carbon dioxide from
the atmosphere. Research conducted by
Possan, et al., indicates that during its lifetime,
concrete can uptake anywhere from 40 to
90% of CO2 emitted in its manufacturing
process. In some cases, considering a
structure’s demolition (leaving crushed
concrete exposed to air), its uptake can
approach 100%.23
Urban Heat Islands
Research at Lawrence Berkeley National
Laboratory has shown that temperatures in
urban areas rise by as much as 1–3 degrees
Celsius (2–5 degrees Fahrenheit), primarily
because of dark-colored roofing and
pavements. This is known as the urban heat
island effect, which results in higher cooling
costs in summer. One way to reduce the heat
island effect is to use light-colored, high-
mass building materials such as concrete for
roofing, cladding, and pavements, along with
strategic landscaping.24
Light colored concrete pavements absorb
less heat and reflect more light than dark-
colored materials, therefore maintaining a
low surface temperature. Using concrete
for roads and parking areas in urban and
suburban areas has been demonstrated
to have a positive impact on the localized
ambient temperatures and can reduce the
energy needed to cool buildings. Concrete’s
ability to reflect solar radiation is governed
by the material’s albedo, or measure of the
solar reflectivity of the material. An object’s
albedo is the extent to which the material
diffusely reflects light from the sun. Although
not always an indicator, materials with a light
color have a high albedo while materials that
appear darker typically have a lower albedo.
A material’s ability to reflect infrared
light is directly proportional to a material’s
ability to reflect heat from the surface. During
the hot summer months, the ambient air
surrounding dark-colored paving or cladding
materials can be up to 10 degrees Fahrenheit
warmer than material with a light color, or
high albedo.25 Several studies have been
made that illustrate this point. One such
study analyzed temperature differentials
in California at an ambient temperature of
55 degrees Fahrenheit for various colored
materials.26 The study found that the
maximum temperature differential between
a material covered with a black acrylic paint
and a material covered with a white acrylic
paint was 68 degrees Fahrenheit. A second
study measured the temperature of various
pavement types during a hot 90 degrees
Fahrenheit summer day and found that
weathered concrete had a temperature of 155
degrees Fahrenheit at the material surface,
while dark asphalt had a temperature of 195
degrees Fahrenheit, 40 degrees higher than
the lighter colored concrete pavement.27
Research shows that use of light- and
heat-reflective materials, along with careful
planting of trees, could lower the average
summer afternoon temperature in some
cities by as much as 5 degrees Celsius (41
degrees Fahrenheit), cutting the need for air
conditioning by 18%.28 And since all energy,
from air conditioning to lights, uses fuel, these
heat-reduction strategies can help reduce
global climate change by reducing energy
consumption and related GHG emissions.
ZERO ENERGY STRATEGIES
Strategies for achieving net zero-energy
buildings vary by building type. Buildings
with a high floor (roof) area to height
ratio (schools, warehouses, manufacturing
facilities, etc.) have unique challenges
and opportunities for energy-efficient
designs compared with those that have a
relatively low floor (roof) area to height ratio
(apartments, hotels, and office buildings).
There are excellent examples of zero-energy
or near-zero-energy designs for both types
throughout the country built using concrete
building systems.
“The key to achieving zero energy is
drastic energy reduction and cost shifting
to areas that pay dividends. It starts with
efficient floor plans that are fully optimized
(high net to gross ratio) and less expensive to
construct,” says Ben Robertson, engineer with
CMTA, Inc. “Sure, any building can be zero-
energy, but doing it without spending more
money is where true success is achieved.”
Although installing on-site renewable
energy infrastructure such as solar arrays
is coming down in price, it still requires an
upfront investment. Making the building as
energy efficient as possible helps to reduce
the size of the renewable power infrastructure
needed, thus keeping initial costs down. In
addition, using cost-effective construction
methods and materials allows room in the
budget for the initial investment in power-
generating equipment.
Zero Energy Schools
Schools, in particular, are ideal zero energy
candidates for several reasons:
1. Schools typically have low energy
demand. They operate only nine months
of the year, with well-defined and limited
operating hours.
2. Occupancy levels are predictable and
controlled, and after-hours occupancy
is limited.
3. Plug loads are low compared with other
building types that might run a lot of
appliances and computer equipment.
4. Schools are ideally suited for renewable
energy, especially in the form of solar
panels, since schools are often limited
to two stories and have a relatively large
roof area to volume ratio, meaning there
is plenty of room to install solar panels.
Most of the demand for energy comes
during the day when the sun is available to
generate electricity.
5. Schools are owner occupied, which
means there is an interest in minimizing
operating costs, including utilities. School
boards have bonding authority to fund
long-term projects.
6. School can meet sustainability goals,
since zero energy buildings reduce annual
carbon emissions both through energy
efficiency and use of renewable energy.
7. A healthier, more comfortable indoor
environment can help stimulate learning,
help reduce student absences, and lead to
increased teacher retention, according to
the Center for Green Schools.
8. Since many zero energy schools are built
using concrete construction with safe
rooms and can generate their own power,
zero energy schools are disaster resilient;
they can serve as a community shelter
during and after a disaster.
In addition to schools, there are several
other building types that fall into similar
categories with regard to size and shape.
Warehouses, distribution centers, and
CONT I N UI N G E D U C AT I O N
JENNINGS CREEK ELEMENTARY: AN ICF CASE STUDY
Architect: Sherman Carter Barnhart Architects
Engineer: CMTA, Inc.
General Contractor: Alliance Corporation
ICF Installation: Shawn Jones Masonry
Location: Bowling Green, Kentucky
Project Type: Institutional
Size: 88,500 sq. ft.
ICF Use: 52,800 sq. ft.
Year of Completion: 2018
Background
In 2010, Sherman Carter Barnhart Architects
(SCB) designed the U.S.’s first net zero energy
school: Richardsville Elementary in Bowling
Green, Kentucky. At 77,000 square feet, the
school was ten times larger than the average net
zero structures being built at that time. Not only
was Richardsville Elementary constructed at a
comparable cost to non-net zero builds at the
time, but it annually receives energy rebates of
more than $30,000.42 Sherman Carter Barnhart has
gone on to become one of the country’s leading
zero energy school architects with dozens of
successful projects in their portfolio.
More recently, SCB was commissioned to design
Jennings Creek Elementary School, which is also in
Bowling Green, as a net zero building. Part of the
school’s sustainable features include a 327-kilowatt
photovoltaic alternative renewable energy source,
passive daylighting strategies, geothermal
HVAC, LED lighting, stained polished concrete
floors, efficient kitchen strategies, and a super-
insulated R-32 roof.43 Crucially, the school was also
constructed with an ICF building envelope.
Use of ICF
Kenny Stanfield, lead architect at SCB, comments
on the use of ICF, noting, “‘An ICF building envelope
provided not only superior insulation, but also an
unmatched thermal mass. The final design solution
was compact both in height and volume and
featured a “clerestory spin” to bring natural daylight
into the interior great hall and media center.’”44
Not only did ICF lend itself to net zero goals,
it also allowed for the creation of an aesthetic
façade. Shawn Jones Masonry installed the ICF
as well as the majority of the stonework, which
streamlined the construction process and allowed
for consistency. Ultimately, the main entry of the
school features numerous stone archways over top
of the ICF.
Jennings Creek Elementary Entrance. Photo courtesy of
Sherman Carter Barnhart Architects and Chris Phebus
Photography.
Aerial view of Jennings Creek Elementary showing solar
panels. Photo courtesy of Sherman Carter Barnhart Architects.
Together with the school’s other sustainable
features, ICF helped Jennings Creek Elementary
reduce its energy costs by 75%. Stanfield states,
“‘While the projected annual energy cost for an
equivalent school is $195,000, Jennings Creek had
an energy bill of $51,000, which was then “zeroed-
out” by the solar array, which generated more
energy than the school required, selling the excess
back to local utility.’”45
In total, the school saves nearly $200,000
annually in energy costs, equating to an anticipated
energy savings of $3.6 million over the 20-year
lifespan of the solar panels. It is equally important
to note that “the maximum budget allowed by
the State of Kentucky at the time of construction
was $221 per square foot. Including the solar array,
Jennings Creek Elementary’s cost was $205 per
square foot.”46
In Bowling Green, a town becoming known for
building sustainable schools with ICF, Jennings
Creek has earned the title of the most efficient
school in the state.
factories all have some similarities in terms
of size and shape. The following strategies
are key to achieving zero energy goals in
any building, including schools.
Passive Solar Strategies
Building orientation, daylighting, building
volume and thermal mass are all building
properties designers can optimize to
help reduce energy consumption without
increasing cost or compromising function and
aesthetics. Passive solar strategies include:
• East/West building orientation: If
possible, line up the building’s main
circulation axis in an east/west orientation
with academic spaces along the north
and south walls of the building to control
natural light.
• Daylighting: Use daylighting for classrooms
with a combination of exterior solar shades
to block sun during high sun orientation
or light shelves to reflect light deep
into interior spaces during low sunlight
conditions. Use clerestories or windows
mounted at higher elevation, with ceilings
sloped to the interior to allow light to
penetrate farther. Use aerogel insulated
glazing or low-e coatings to reduce solar
heat gain.
• Compact building volume: Use
rectangular, multistory designs (at least
two stories) to reduce the exterior wall-
to-floor area, window-to-floor area and
roof-to-floor area ratios.
• Thermal mass: Use building systems that
have high thermal mass, such as concrete,
for the walls and floors of the structure.
High Performance Envelope and Structure
Many architects now realize that ICF and
tilt-up walls incorporate all the properties
needed for zero-energy construction.
ICFs and tilt-up combine the strength and
durability of reinforced concrete with the
versatility and energy efficiency of rigid
insulation. ICFs and tilt-up are used for the
following reasons:
• They act as load-bearing walls, with
superinsulation, thermal mass, and air barrier
all in one. They create one of the tightest
envelopes available. Low air-infiltration rates
can be achieved with other systems, but it is
significantly more complex.
CONT I N UI N G E D U C AT I O N

• They reduce sound transmission from photovoltaic installations in the U.S.29 A target EUI for zero-energy schools is 20–24
outside and between rooms. Schools, precipitous decline in the cost of solar panels kBtu per square foot or lower if possible.31
classrooms, gymnasiums, music rooms, has made installations financially viable. The table below illustrates the targets
and theaters all benefit from reduced According to the National Renewable Energy the New Building Institute set for various
sound transmission. Laboratory (NREL), the cost of commercial building types in all U.S. climate zones.
• They keep occupants safe from Mother solar installations has fallen to $2.80 per • During construction, utilize design
Nature’s wrath. Concrete systems are watt in 2017, compared with $7.24 per watt strategies and building systems that are
resistant to fire, tornadoes, hurricanes, in 2010, a 60% decline in just seven years. efficient and cost- effective to help offset
floods, and earthquakes. This explains why 61% of the solar capacity the initial cost of solar panel installation.
in K–12 schools has been installed in the last
Energy-Efficient HVAC Systems and five years.30 Low-Impact Development Strategies
Technology That said, there is still a capital cost Conserving water is another way to reduce
The use of energy-efficient mechanical of solar panel installation that must be environmental impact and construction cost.
systems and active control technology is accounted for in budgets, including the strict Low-impact development strategies help
critical to keeping energy use intensity (EUI) budget limitations of most school boards. The meet zero-energy goals.
as low as possible. Strategies include: following are key strategies: • Utilizing native plantings and rain gardens
• Using efficient geothermal HVAC • Minimize the EUI of the building using helps reduce irrigation demands.
systems with variable-speed heat pumps. all the strategies previously mentioned. • Using permeable pavements reduces
For schools, one heat pump for two According to the New Building Institute, the stormwater runoff, filters stormwater,
classrooms should be used.
• Using occupancy sensors for lighting and
other occupancy-dependent systems.
• Controlling outside air ventilation with
dedicated outside air systems, heat
recovery wheels, and demand control
ventilation based on occupancy.
• Using automated dimming to reduce
artificial-lighting requirements; although
if using LED lighting, automated dimming
can be eliminated because LED lighting is
extremely energy efficient.
• Using ENERGY STAR convection ovens,
as they eliminate the need for energy-
intensive type I ventilation hoods.
• For schools, using ENERGY STAR laptops
on carts that permit computers to be
transported to classrooms instead of
having dedicated computer labs with
energy-intensive desktops.
• Using the dark sky approach to exterior
lighting. Security lighting with motion
sensors can alert local police if there is
activity on a property after dark.

On-Site Power Generation

Most zero energy schools use photovoltaic
panels as the main source of on-site power
generation, and solar panels are becoming
more common at schools across the United
States. According to the Solar Energy
Industries Association report Brighter Future:
A Study on Solar in U.S. Schools, there are
approximately 5,500 K–12 schools with solar
CONT I N UI N G E D U C AT I O N
and reduces the need for expensive
stormwater infrastructure.
• Permeable pavements and rain gardens
can eliminate the need for detention
basins. For schools, this leaves more space
for athletic fields and outdoor education
opportunities for students.
Overall, zero-energy schools are becoming
more popular. High-performance envelopes
using ICFs or tilt-up—along with the lower
cost of renewable energy, passive solar
strategies, energy-efficient HVAC systems
and technology, on-site power generation,
and low-impact development strategies—
are making it possible. Using concrete wall
Park Avenue Green. Photo John Bartelstone Photography.
Architect: Curtis + Ginsberg Architects
Location: New York City, New York
Project Type: Multifamily, Affordable Housing
Year Completed: 2019
Certifications and Designations: Passive House
Institute U.S.
Background
Architectural firm Curtis + Ginsberg utilized PHIUS
standards when designing Park Avenue Green, a
15-story, 154-unit, low-income multifamily building in
the Melrose neighborhood of New York City.
The design of the project leveraged the
irregularity of the site shape to create unique
spaces within units and common areas. The lobby,
in particular, was adapted to the orthogonal
angles of the site where the angles “resolve into a
series of triangles with a complex lighting layout
that is derived from the geometry of the space.”
The end result is a lobby that seems “larger and
more expansive” than it really is. The design of
systems also results in construction that is
faster, easier, and less labor intensive than
other construction methods, making it
possible to offset the cost of solar panels.
Concrete systems combine reinforced
concrete with fire, sound, thermal, air, and
moisture barriers in one step that reduces
the number of trades required on-site.
Construction can continue all year long
because the forms provide an ideal curing
condition for concrete during the hottest
and coldest weather. All of this leads to a
construction system that is ideal to meet the
demands of the zero-energy buildings.
CASE STUDY: PARK AVENUE GREEN
Park Avenue Green also took the surrounding
neighborhood into account, channeling a warehouse
vibe and complementing a neighboring apartment
building owned by the same proprietor while
“proportionally breaking up the façade with warm
colors to integrate the residential use into the
Melrose community.”47
Achieving Passive House
In terms of Passive House, Park Avenue Green has
a “highly insulated and thoroughly sealed building
envelope.”48 The envelope is “built from concrete
masonry units with a brick veneer on the ground
floor and an exterior insulation and finish system
(EIFS) on the other floors above.” Insulation on the
exterior walls is expanded polystyrene (EPS) with an
R-vale of 27.3. On the roof is polyisocyanurate with
an R-value of 50, and expanded polystyrene (XPS)
is used on the slab on grade and the foundation
walls, with respective R-values of 10 and 20.49
Mark Ginsberg, Principal at Curtis + Ginsberg,
notes, “‘The building is so well insulated that the
heat of people in the building will keep it between
50 to 60˚F when it’s 25˚ out. Even without power
for a few days,’” Ginsberg continues, “‘you’ll be
pretty comfortable in here. If the same thing
happens in reverse, if it’s 90˚F during the day and
70 at night, it will be around 80˚ [inside]. If you
open the windows at night and then close them
during the day, you might be able to do a bit
better. But the building, by the nature of being well
insulated and very tight, will retain a more even
temperature than what’s happening outside.’”50
In further adherence to PHIUS standards, the
building’s windows have a “U-factor of 0.14, a
PASSIVE HOUSE FOR MULTI-FAMILY
BUILDINGS
Many projects that achieve net zero do so
using Passive House strategies. The Passive
House Institute (PHI), founded in Germany
in 1996, is a pioneer in energy-efficient
construction and renovation. The organization
developed many of its energy-efficiency
strategies based on research conducted by
U.S. and Canadian scientists and builders
in the 1970s. In 1990, the PHI’s pilot project,
Kranichstein Passive House, “was Europe’s
first inhabited multi-family house to achieve a
documented heating energy consumption of
below 10 kWh/(m²a).” This consumption level
shading coefficient of 0.25, and an OITC [Outdoor-
Indoor Transmission Class] of 28,” adding to the
thermal tightness of the building envelope. 51
Ginsberg maintains, “‘As important as the
R-value of the insulation was, two other things were
also important: getting rid of any thermal breaks
and a very tight building. Then, when you make a
very tight building, you need to bring in fresh air,
so we had energy recovery ventilation units in each
apartment to bring in fresh air that was tempered
by the exhaust air. It’s important because if you
don’t do that, the tight building can lead to sick
building syndrome.’” 52
The design team working on Park Avenue Green
also devised innovative strategies to resolve issues.
For instance, when “energy modelling revealed that
the exhaust ductwork could cause condensation
problems within the wall assembly because of
the way it was configured,” leading to mold and a
damaged façade, “the team created a structurally
sound insulated assembly to surround the ductwork
and fit into the concrete blocks.” This custom
solution mitigated what could have resulted in a
significant condensation issue.53
The design of the building also “incorporates
storm resiliency features and includes cogeneration,
an extremely efficient variable refrigerant flow (VRF)
heating and cooling system” that also acts as an
emergency generator in the event of blackouts, as
well as “an array of photovoltaic panels on the roof.”54
All of these design and energy considerations
have resulted in Park Avenue Green becoming the
largest certified affordable housing development
structure awarded Passive House certification in
the U.S.
CONT I N UI N G E D U C AT I O N
CASE STUDY: BEACH GREEN DUNES
Architect: Curtis + Ginsberg Architects
Developer/Owner: The Bluestone Organization
Location: Far Rockaway, New York
Project Type: Multi-family, Affordable Housing
Year Completed: 2017
Certifications and Designations: Passive House
Institute U.S. and Enterprise Green Communities
certifications
Background
Completed in 2017, this 101-unit, 94,000-square-
foot apartment building, located just a block
from the Atlantic Ocean, is built in an area
devastated by Hurricane Sandy. Color and
ground floor fenestration create a distinctive
appearance, and amenities for residents include
recreation spaces, fitness facilities, laundry
rooms, and raised green spaces.
The Bluestone Organization, which builds
exclusively with concrete, selected ICFs for exterior,
corridor, and demising walls, and precast hollow-
core floors for disaster resilience and energy
efficiency. ICFs create a solid concrete wall with
continuous insulation, resulting in a comfortable
and airtight structure that lowers energy bills. The
reinforced concrete system helps create a structure
that is strong and durable, and can stand up to fire,
floods, and wind.
Achieving Passive House
The project, designed by Curtis + Ginsberg
Architects, incorporates many innovative features
to get it to achieve record-breaking low energy and
water consumption levels, including the use of ICFs,
energy recovery ventilation throughout, and a large
rooftop solar photovoltaic system. An underground,
natural gas fired cogeneration system produces
was ultimately “confirmed through years of
detailed monitoring.”32
The organization has led research and
development of “construction concepts,
building components, planning tools, and
quality assurance for especially energy
efficient buildings.” Since Passive House’s pilot
project, many more projects, including office
buildings, factories, schools, gymnasiums,
pool halls, and retrofits have earned Passive
House status. General Passive House criteria
are as follows:
Beach Green Dunes. Photo © Peter Mauss/Esto
electricity and all of the building’s hot water needs,
and also serves as a back-up emergency generator
that supplies power to safety systems in the event
of a power outage.
These design choices are bolstered by green
innovations like a bioswale garden that treats
and retains storm water. Bioswale gardens, which
essentially resemble a dry creek bed, contain
gravel-filled soil that allows stormwater to be
absorbed and plants to be grown. As water enters
a bioswale, plants, rocks, and dirt slow it down, and
plants and microbes further help to break down
pollutants in the water. In short, bioswales “tackle
the issue of pollution in waterways due to urban
run-off by absorbing 30% more stormwater into
the ground than a conventional lawn and reduce
70% of surface water pollution that originates from
stormwater run-off.”55
Beach Green Dunes not only achieved PHIUS
certification, but it was the first multifamily building
with more than 100 units to do so. In 2018, Beach
Green Dunes was also awarded the Passive House
Institute U.S. Honorable Mention award.
1. The Space Heating Energy Demand is
not to exceed 15 kWh per square meter
of net living space (treated floor area)
per year or 10 W per square meter peak
demand. In climates where active cooling
is needed, the Space Cooling Energy
Demand requirement roughly matches the
heat demand requirements above, with an
additional allowance for dehumidification.
2. The Renewable Primary Energy Demand
(PER, according to PHI method), the
total energy to be used for all domestic
applications (heating, hot water, and
domestic electricity) must not exceed 60
kWh per square meter of treated floor
area per year for Passive House Classic.
3. In terms of Airtightness, a maximum of
0.6 air changes per hour at 50 Pascals
pressure (ACH50), as verified with an
onsite pressure test (in both pressurized
and depressurized states).
4. Thermal Comfort must be met for all living
areas during winter as well as in summer,
with not more than 10 % of the hours in a
given year over 25 °C.33
For a more robust overview of the
requirements listed above, Passive House’s
Passipedia should be referenced. The PHI
further notes the criteria listed above should
be implemented in tandem with “thermal
bridge-free design, superior windows,
ventilation with heat recovery, quality
insulation, and airtight construction.”34
Passive House in the U.S.
The first Passive House in the U.S. was built
in 2003 by architect Katrin Klingenberg in
Urbana, Illinois. Klingenberg went on to co-
found Passive House Institute U.S. (PHIUS),
which developed cost-effective performance
criteria to address the many climate
conditions in the U.S. In 2015, the PHIUS+
Passive Building Standard – North America
was released, and in 2018, the standard was
updated. The standard not only takes climate
conditions into account but also materials and
changing markets across the U.S.
In general, adopting Passive House
principles and/or standards can lead to a
low-carbon future by drastically lowering
energy use and having the ability to be
a part of all-electric energy strategies.
Passive building also “provides a proven
methodology for designing a net zero energy
building” through both “active and passive
measures.” For instance, “once conservation
targets are met, on-site or off-site renewable
energy is used to offset remaining energy
use. With reduced loads, less renewable
energy is needed, and less grid support is
needed when the building is not powered
by renewable energy production. Up-
front conservation efforts will be critical
for the widespread facilitation of net zero
buildings into the existing electric grid.”35
CONT I N UI N G E D U C AT I O N
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Architects, engineers, and other building
professionals will be better equipped to design
and construct sustainable buildings that have
a positive impact on future generations by
first understanding the changing nature of
U.S. energy consumption. Having a working
knowledge of sustainability initiatives such
as Architecture 2030 and the Race to Zero
can also enable stakeholders to participate in
broader, often global dialogues and actions
that strive toward reducing carbon emissions.
Adopting some of the strategies espoused
by various sustainability initiatives permits
building professionals to design structures
with net zero in mind. Finally, as existing
global building stock is renovated to meet the
goals of climate initiatives and new building
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more sustainable standards, the resiliency
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in efforts toward carbon neutrality. 
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CONT I N UI N G E D U C AT I O N
20
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