Enhanced MIMO-OFDM Channel

Estimation in mm Wave Systems: A

Bi-LSTM and CNN Hybrid Approach

M.Tech Dissertation

by

Priyanshu
(Reg. No. 194524)

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION

ENGINEERING
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY HAMIRPUR

HAMIRPUR(H.P.)-177005, India
 Enhanced MIMO-OFDM Channel
Estimation in mm Wave Systems: A
Bi-LSTM and CNN Hybrid Approach
a Dissertation
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the award of the degree of

Master of Technology
in
Electronics and Communication Engineering
(Wireless Communication)

submitted by

Priyanshu
(Reg. No. 194524)

Under the guidance of

Dr. Sandeep Kumar Singh

to the

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION

ENGINEERING
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY HAMIRPUR
HAMIRPUR (H.P.)-177005, India
.

Copyright © NIT HAMIRPUR (HP), India, 2024

 Department of Electronics and Communication
Engineering
National Institute of Technology Hamirpur
Hamirpur, Himachal Pradesh - 177005, India

CERTIFICATE

I, Priyanshu , hereby declare that the work presented in this dissertation entitled “En-
hanced MIMO-OFDM Channel Estimation in mm Wave Systems: A Bi-LSTM and
CNN Hybrid Approach” in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the
Degree of Master of Technology in Electronics and Communication Engineering
with specialization in Wireless Communication and submitted in the Department of
Electronics and Communication Engineering of the National Institute of Technol-
ogy Hamirpur is an authentic record of my own work carried out during a period from
June 2023 to May 2024 under the supervision of Dr. Sandeep Kumar Singh, As-
sistant Professor, Electronics and Communication Engineering Department. The
work presented in this dissertation has not been submitted by me for the award of any
other degree of this or any other Institute/University.

Priyanshu
(Reg. No. 194524)

This is to certify that the above statement made by the candidate is true to the best of my
knowledge and belief.

Dr. Sandeep Kumar Singh

Assistant Professor
Electronics and Communication Engineering Department

Place: Hamirpur
Date:

iii
The M.Tech Viva-Voce Examination of your name, Research Scholar, has been held
on ............................

Signature of Supervisor Signature of External Examiner

Date: Date: .

iv
 इले क्ट्रॉनिक्स और सं चार अभियां त्रिकी विभाग
राष्ट्रीय प्रौद्योगिकी सं स्थान हमीरपुर
हमीरपुर, हिमाचल प्रदे श - १७७००५, भारत

प्रमाणपत्र

मैं , पियां श,ु एतद्द्वारा घोषणा करता हूं कि "एन एमएम वे व सिस्टम में उन्नत एमआईएमओ-ओएफडीएम
चै नल अनुमान: एक द्वि-एलएसटीएम और सीएनएन हाइब्रिड दृष्टिकोण" शीर्षक वाली डिसर्टेशन में प्रस्तुत
किया गया कार्य, मास्टर ऑफ टे क्नोलॉजी की डिग्री के अं तर्गत, इले क्ट्रॉनिक्स और सं चार अभियां त्रिकी में
सं चार अभियां त्रिकी विशे षज्ञता के साथ उपाधि के लिए आवश्यकताओं की आं शिक पूर्ति में विद्युत अभियां त्रिकी
विभाग, राष्ट्रीय प्रौद्योगिकी सं स्थान हमीरपुर में प्रस्तुत किये गए मे रे अपने काम का एक प्रामाणिक रिकॉर्ड है जो
कि डॉ सं दीप कु मार सिंह, सहे यक प्रोफेसर, इले क्ट्रॉनिक्स और सं चार अभियां त्रिकी विभाग, की दे खरे ख
में जून २०२३ से मई २०२४ की अवधि के दौरान किया गया है . इस शोध प्रबं ध में प्रस्तुत कार्य मे रे द्वारा इस या
किसी अन्य सं स्थान/विश्वविद्यालय की किसी अन्य उपाधि के लिए प्रस्तुत नहीं किया गया है ।

पियां शु
(पं जीकरण सं ख्या 194524)

यह प्रमाणित किया जाता है कि उम्मीदवार द्वारा दिया गया उपरोक्त कथन मे रे सर्वोत्तम ज्ञान और विश्वास के
अनुसार सत्य है ।

डॉ सं दीप कु मार सिंह

सहे यक प्रोफेसर
इले क्ट्रॉनिक्स और सं चार अभियां त्रिकी विभाग

स्थान:हमीरपुर
तारीख:

रिसर्च स्कॉलर, नाम की एम.टे क मौखिक परीक्षा, दिनां क........................................को आओजित की गई

है ।

v
पर्यवे क्षक के हस्ताक्षर बाहरी परीक्षक के हस्ताक्षर
तारीख: तारीख: .

vi
 Acknowledgements
Inscribing these words of gratitude feels akin to painting a masterpiece on the canvas
of appreciation. This incredible path of learning and exploration would not have been
possible without the unflinching support and encouragement of the great individuals who
have paved the road for my accomplishment.

I reserve a special place in my heart for my beloved parents, whose unwavering love,
unwavering support, and unwavering belief in my abilities have been the bedrock upon
which my dreams have flourished. Their persistent support, sacrifices, and unshakable
trust in my abilities have been the driving factors behind my quest for knowledge and
academic pursuits.

First and foremost, I owe a tremendous debt of gratitude to my esteemed supervisor,

Dr. Sandeep Kumar Singh , whose guidance and advice have been the compass guid-
ing me through the many twists and turns of this thesis. His stimulating conversations,
insightful feedback, kind advice, and boundless forbearance have challenged me to push
the boundaries of my capabilities and inspired me to strive for academic excellence. I
am very thankful for the trust you put in me and the chances you gave me to grow both
professionally and personally. I am grateful beyond words for the opportunity to have
worked under your guidance, and I hope my thesis serves as a fitting tribute to your hard
work, knowledge, and encouragement.

I like to thank Dr. Sandeep Kumar Singh , Assistant Professor, Electronics and
Communication Engineering Department, and Dr. Ashwini Rana, Head of the De-
partment, Electronics and Communication Engineering Department, for their extended
support.

I would like to extend a heartfelt thank you to Senior PHD Research Scholar Mr.
Akash and my incredible classmates and friends Mr. Ayush, Mr. Priyanshu Rawat,
Mr. Priyanshu, who have been a constant source of support, camaraderie, and inspira-
tion. Their presence has made the often-trying process of writing a thesis into one that
is filled with joy and fun. Finally, I want to thank everyone who helped me grow as a
scholar and made this trip unforgettable.

Priyanshu

vii
 Abstract
Channel estimation is a critical function that makes communication in millimeter-wave
massive MIMO systems reliable, thereby enabling these systems to be the core technol-
ogy for delivering the high data rates and capacity demands of future wireless networks.
In this work, we focus on deep learning applied to mmWave massive MIMO channel
estimation.
Two novel deep learning models, Spatial-Frequency CNN and Spatial-Frequency-
Temporal CNN, are designed to cater to mmWave massive MIMO channel estimation.
SF-CNN can effectively extract the inherent spatial and frequency correlations from
channel data by processing several subcarriers together in the architecture of CNN, which
takes full advantage of the spatio-spectral property of an mmWave channel.
The model SFT-CNN extends the previous model by incorporating a further tem-
poral dimension through the integration of Bidirectional Long Short-Term Memory net-
works. Adding this capability allows SFT-CNN to capture not only spatial and frequency
correlations but also the time-dependent characteristics of the dynamic behavior of the
mmWave channel. This comprehensive approach leads to a significant enhancement in
estimation accuracy compared to conventional methods.
Extensive numerical simulations for various channel scenarios are presented in this
thesis to evaluate the performance of the proposed models. The results show that SF-
CNN and SFT-CNN outperform traditional channel estimation techniques by way of
accuracy and computational efficiency. Moreover, SFT-CNN achieves the performance
near that of the optimal MMSE estimator but with a much lower level of complexity,
hence making the solution more feasible for real-life mmWave massive MIMO systems.
This work contributes to the development of channel estimation techniques, which
are robust and efficient, for next-generation wireless communication systems. In that
way, the use of deep learning integrated with Bi-LSTM holds much promise for get-
ting the whole range of channel correlations and leaving room for improvement in the
performance and practical applicability of mmWave massive MIMO systems.
 सार
चै नल अनुमान एक महत्वपूर्ण कार्य है जो मिलीमीटर-वे व विशाल एमआईएमओ सिस्टम में सं चार को
विश्वसनीय बनाता है , जिससे ये सिस्टम भविष्य के वायरले स ने टवर्क की उच्च डे टा दरों और क्षमता मां गों को
पूरा करने के लिए मुख्य तकनीक बन जाते हैं । इस कार्य में , हम मिलीमीटर वे व विशाल मीमो चै नल आकलन
पर लागू गहन शिक्षण पर ध्यान केंद्रित करते हैं ।
दो नए गहन शिक्षण मॉडल, स्थानिक-आवृत्ति सीएनएन और स्थानिक-आवृत्ति-टे म्पोरल सीएनएन, एमए-
मवे व विशाल एमआईएमओ चै नल अनुमान को पूरा करने के लिए डिज़ाइन किए गए हैं । एसएफ-सीएनएन
सीएनएन के आर्किटे क्चर में कई उपवाहकों को एक साथ सं साधित करके चै नल डे टा से अं तर्निहित स्थानिक
और आवृत्ति सहसं बंधों को प्रभावी ढं ग से निकाल सकता है , जो एमएमवे व चै नल की स्थानिक-वर्णक्रमीय सं पत्ति
का पूरा लाभ उठाता है ।
मॉडल एसएफटी-सीएनएन द्विदिशात्मक दीर्घकालिक अल्पकालिक मे मोरी ने टवर्क के एकीकरण के माध्यम
से एक और अस्थायी आयाम को शामिल करके पिछले मॉडल का विस्तार करता है । इस क्षमता को जोड़ने से
एसएफटी-सीएनएन को न केवल स्थानिक और आवृत्ति सहसं बंधों बल्कि एमएमवे व चै नल के गतिशील व्यवहार
की समय-निर्भर विशे षताओं को भी पकड़ने की अनुमति मिलती है । इस व्यापक दृष्टिकोण से पारं परिक तरीकों
की तुलना में अनुमान सटीकता में महत्वपूर्ण वृद्धि होती है ।
प्रस्तावित मॉडलों के प्रदर्शन का मूल्यां कन करने के लिए इस थीसिस में विभिन्न चै नल परिदृश्यों के लिए
व्यापक सं ख्यात्मक सिमुलेशन प्रस्तुत किए गए हैं । नतीजे बताते हैं कि एसएफ-सीएनएन और एसएफटी-
सीएनएन सटीकता और कम्प्यूटेशनल दक्षता के मामले में पारं परिक चै नल अनुमान तकनीकों से बे हतर प्रदर्शन
करते हैं । इसके अलावा, एसएफटी-सीएनएन इष्टतम एमएमएसई अनुमानक के करीब प्रदर्शन प्राप्त करता
है , ले किन जटिलता के बहुत कम स्तर के साथ, जिससे समाधान वास्तविक जीवन एमएमवे व बड़े पै माने पर
एमआईएमओ सिस्टम के लिए अधिक व्यवहार्य हो जाता है ।
यह कार्य अगली पीढ़ी के वायरले स सं चार प्रणालियों के लिए चै नल अनुमान तकनीकों के विकास में
योगदान दे ता है , जो मजबूत और कुशल हैं । इस तरह, लॉन्ग शॉर्ट टर्म मे मोरी के साथ एकीकृत गहन शिक्षण का
उपयोग चै नल सहसं बंधों की पूरी श्रृंखला प्राप्त करने और मिलीमीटर वे व विशाल मीमो सिस्टम के प्रदर्शन और
व्यावहारिक प्रयोज्यता में सुधार की गुंजाइश छोड़ने के लिए काफी सं भावनाएं रखता है ।

ix
 Contents

Certificate iii

Acknowledgements vii

Abstract viii

Contents x

List of Figures xii

List of Tables xiii

List of Abbreviations 1

1 Introduction 1
1.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2 Problem Statement & Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.1 Problem statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.2 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3 Proposed Deep Learning Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.4 MIMO & Beamforming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.5 OFDM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.6 Massive MIMO and Hybrid Architectures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.7 Challenges of mmWave Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.8 Importance of Channel Estimation in Massive MIMO . . . . . . . . . . 12

2 Literature Review 14

3 Methodology and Implementation 22

3.1 Channel Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.1.1 Channel Estimation Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

x
 3.2 System Model for BiLSTM Integrated MIMO-OFDM . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.2.1 Massive MIMO Architecture with Hybrid Precoding . . . . . . 26
3.2.2 Channel Model Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.2.3 Model Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.2.4 Pilot Design and Channel Interpolation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.3 SF-CNN-BiLSTM BASED CHANNEL ESTIMATION . . . . . . . . 29
3.3.1 ChannelEstimation Procedure with Bi-LSTM-Integrated SF-CNN 29
3.3.2 BiLSTM INTEGRATED SF-CNN OFFLINE TRAINING . . . 31
A. Training Set Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
B. Network Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.3.3 BiLSTM INTEGRATED SF-CNN ONLINE DEPLOYMENT . 33
3.4 BiLSTM integrated SFT-CNN Channel Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.5 Comparing Channel Estimation Approaches: SF-CNN, LSTM-CNN,
and Bi-LSTM-integrated SF-CNN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

4 RESULTS 37
4.1 NUMERICAL RESULTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4.1.1 Bi-LSTM Integrated SF-CNN Channel Estimation: Superior Per-
formance and Robustness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4.1.2 Bi-LSTM SFT-CNN: Leveraging Temporal Correlations for Su-
perior Performance and Robustness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

5 Conclusion Future Works 45

5.1 Observation, Challenges and future scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
5.2 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

List of Publications 48

References 48

xi
 List of Figures

1.1 5G usage scenarios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

1.2 Illustration of channel estimation process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3 OFDM single frequency spectra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.4 OFDM system process chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

3.1 Classification of channel estimation algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

3.2 2x2 MIMO OFDM communication system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.3 2x2 MIMO OFDM communication system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.4 Frame work of our model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

4.1 MMSE channel estimation and SFT-CNN based channel estimation: NMSE
vs SNR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
4.2 Sturdiness of MMSE and SF-CNN-based methods in various contexts . 39
4.3 Sturdiness of SF-CNN-based methods with varying main route counts . 41
4.4 Sturdiness of MMSE and SF-CNN-based methods in various contexts . 42
4.5 Sturdiness of SF-CNN-based methods with varying numbers of primary
pathways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
4.6 Suitability of SFT-CNN-based methods for varying the number of pri-
mary pathways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

xii
 List of Tables

1.1 5G main characteristics, which support broadcast frequencies higher than

those supported by 4G and have a greater bandwidth capacity . . . . . . 3

xiii
Chapter 1

Introduction

The ever-increasing volume of data traffic and the growing demand for high-speed wire-
less communication have fueled the development of 5G technology. 5G promises a sig-
nificant leap in performance, offering faster speeds, lower latency, and more reliable
connections to cater to diverse communication needs. It aims to address the explosive
growth of connected devices and the ever-increasing demands on network traffic. To
achieve ubiquitous 5G deployment, existing 4G/LTE systems require enhancements and
the integration of new features and technologies. As outlined in Table 1.1 (not shown
here, but assumed to be a table outlining 5G network requirements), realizing the ambi-
tious goals of 5G necessitates advancements in several key areas. One of the most critical
aspects for achieving these objectives lies in accurate channel estimation for millimeter
wave (mmWave) communication. The complex propagation characteristics and rapid
variability of mmWave channels pose unique challenges. Accurate channel estimation
holds the key to mitigating these challenges and ensuring reliable data transmission in
5G and future networks. The development of 5G New Radio (NR) by the 3rd Genera-

1
tion Partnership Project (3GPP) signifies a major advancement in mobile communication
technology. Defined by 15 specifications, 5G NR establishes a global standard for the
physical layer of the new 5G air interface. The 3GPP standard for 5G NR builds upon the
existing LTE system, incorporating all essential enhancements required to support the
envisioned use cases of 5G networks. While LTE focused basically on Mobile Broad-
band Access, 5G NR expands that range to address three main categories illustrated in
Figure 1.1:

• Enhanced Mobile Broadband (eMBB):This use case prioritizes the high data
transmission rate of users. This is achieved through an increase in bandwidth ef-
ficiency, thus empowering smart offices and ultra-high-definition video streaming
applications.

• Massive Machine Type Communications (mMTC):This use case finds applica-

tions in the IoT industry. Many IoT systems will have a lot of low-power devices,
for example, sensors, which will send very small data simultaneously. MmWave
communication is promising for mMTC because of its vast spectrum availability,
but accurate channel estimation is crucial for overcoming the challenges associated
with mmWave propagation in such dense device deployments.

• Ultra-Reliability and Low Latency Communication (URLLC):Time-sensitive

applications like remote surgery, smart grids, and driverless cars are covered by
this use case. The high-bandwidth potential of mmWave provides significant ben-
efits in this use case. However, because of the complicated propagation character-
istics of mmWave channels, precise channel estimate is essential for dependable
communication.

Therefore, accurate channel estimation forms a cornerstone in fully unlocking the poten-
tial of millimeter-wave communication for all three of the key use cases in 5G NR. With
addressing the challenges related to channel estimation, millimeter-wave technology can
go on to contribute a lot to making 5G a success and preparing the path for the next
generation of wireless communication.

2
 5G Parameters
Latency in the air link
Latency end-to-end
Connection density
Area capacity density
System spectral efficiency
Peak throughput per connection
Target Value Improvement over 4G LTE
< 1 ms Significantly lower
< 10 ms Significantly lower
100x 100 times higher
1 (Tbit/s)/km² Significantly higher
10 (bit/s)/Hz/cell 10 times higher
10 Gbit/s Significantly higher

Table 1.1: 5G main characteristics, which support broadcast frequencies higher than those sup-
ported by 4G and have a greater bandwidth capacity

The demand for high data rate wireless communication has increased without end,

Figure 1.1: 5G usage scenarios

pushing the need to innovate relentlessly. Millimeter-wave communication is one of the

candidates that has made the most promising step towards addressing the growing need.
mmWave offers a vastly wider spectrum compared to traditional lower frequency bands,
translating to the potential for significantly increased capacity. However, this higher fre-
quency operation comes at a price. The main problem is the large path loss suffered at
mmWave frequencies. Path loss is the signal attenuation of the wave during the process
of its passage through the medium. In mmWave communications, the signals that are
received are weaker in comparison to other frequency bands. This, in turn, reduces the
communication range considerably and increases a tendency for blockages from obstruc-
tions like buildings and foliage. Moreover, mmWave signals also face more penetration
losses when passing through walls and other material objects, which again aggravates

3
signal degradation. The challenge of path loss associated with mmWave communication
needs to be overcome to unlock the true potential of this technology and facilitate reli-
able high-speed wireless data communication.

1.1 Background

Next-generation wireless systems are getting a boost from a powerful duo: Massive
MIMO and OFDM. Imagine a highway with tons of lanes (Massive MIMO) for sending
and receiving data, combined with the efficiency of dividing that highway into smaller
lanes for different types of traffic (OFDM). However, data traveling through the air can
get distorted or weakened. To overcome this, a technique called channel estimation is
used. Think of it like checking the road conditions before sending a message. By under-
standing these challenges, the receiver can adjust for them and ensure the data arrives
correctly. Figure 1.2 gives a high-level overview of this process, and Section 3.1 dives
deeper into the specific methods used for channel estimation in MIMO-OFDM systems.
MIMO-OFDM systems rely heavily on a process called channel estimation, happening

Figure 1.2: Illustration of channel estimation process

at the receiver. Think of it as understanding the ”road conditions” for your data. Chan-
nel estimation analyzes the wireless channel to identify issues like interference, signal
distortion, and delays. This knowledge allows the receiver to adjust for these problems

4
and recover the data with greater accuracy. As a result, good channel estimation leads
to cleaner signals, reduced interference, and ultimately, a more reliable communication
system – a key factor for 5G technology.

1.2 Problem Statement & Objectives

1.2.1 Problem statement

• Limited Accuracy of Traditional Channel Estimation in mmWave Systems:

A channel estimate block is the central component of all MIMO-OFDM systems,
and it is built at the receiver side. The performance of the OFDM system is di-
rectly impacted by the application of an adequate channel estimation approach.
With extremely excellent performance, unwanted effects such as multiuser inter-
ference, hardware effects, and propagation medium effects may be eliminated from
the conveyed data via channel estimation. Nonetheless, as this is a fundamental
feature of 5G, improved communication reliability is to be expected. This may be
accomplished with the aid of channel estimation, since it provides the system with
the information required to eliminate ISI from signals and enhance signal accu-
racy at the receiving end.

• Balancing Performance and Complexity in mmWave Channel Estimation:

The traditional approaches’ considerable computational complexity generally comes
at the price of achieving high-precision mmWave channel estimation. The com-
putational complexity will make practical application in real-world systems chal-
lenging. This research suggests new deep learning models, namely SF-CNN and
SFT-CNN, with excellent estimation accuracy but significantly less complexity
than conventional approaches in an effort to discover a nice trade-off. The goal is
to maintain acceptability for real-time implementation in mmWave huge MIMO
systems, while meeting performance extremely near to the ideal but impractical
MMSE estimator.

5
1.2.2 Objectives

• Evaluate the performance and robustness of the Bi-LSTM integrated SF-

CNN channel estimation model.

• Demonstrate the adaptability of the Bi-LSTM integrated SF-CNN to differ-

ent path numbers.

• Investigate the impact of temporal correlations on channel estimation per-

formance using the Bi-LSTM SFT-CNN model.

• Evaluate the robustness of the Bi-LSTM SFT-CNN model against variations

in channel statistics.

• Analyze the adaptability of the Bi-LSTM SFT-CNN model to different path

numbers.

1.3 Proposed Deep Learning Models

• 1. Spatial-Frequency CNN (SF-CNN): Traditional channel estimation techniques

tend to grapple with the complex propagation characteristics of millimeter wave
(mmWave) channels, mostly when the environment is dynamic. This thesis ad-
dresses two novel deep learning models that have been designed not only to han-
dle these limitations but also to attain accurate and efficient channel estimation
in mmWave Massive MIMO-OFDM. First, the Spatial-Frequency Convolutional
Neural Network, SF-CNN, is proposed. The model leverages the intrinsic struc-
ture of the channel data in mmWave communication, which shows correlations not
only across different antenna elements regarding space but also across subcarri-
ers in an Orthogonal Frequency-Division Multiplexing (OFDM) signal regarding
frequency. Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing is a technique of mul-
ticarrier modulation that is predominantly adopted in mmWave communication

6
 systems. It further divides the wideband signal into a huge number of narrow sub-
carriers, thus allowing efficient transmission and mitigating the effects of channel
selectivity. The SF-CNN exploits these spatial and frequency correlations to its ad-
vantage. Convolutional Neural Networks are a powerful deep learning architecture
known for their capacity to capture spatial relationships within data. Thus, by pro-
cessing adjacent subcarriers together through convolutional layers, the SF-CNN
can effectively extract those spatial and frequency correlations from the channel
data. This allows for the model to learn about complex patterns within the channel
crucial for accurate estimation. The SF-CNN harnesses the intrinsic redundancy
within the channel data in the spatial and frequency domains, hence leading to a
more robust and accurate estimation process compared with traditional techniques.

• 2. Spatial-Frequency-Temporal CNN (SFT-CNN): The first proposed model is

(Spatial-Frequency-CNN), which is set to address the challenge of extracting spa-
tial and frequency correlations from mmWave channel data. MmWave channels
are, however, fundamentally dynamic, and their characteristics change rapidly due
to different factors, such as user mobility or environmental variations. This thesis
presents Spatial-Frequency-Temporal Convolutional Neural Network (SFT-CNN)
as a means of tackling the challenge and achieving even more accurate channel
estimation. An addition to the SF-CNN that takes the channel’s temporal fea-
ture dimension into account is the SFT-CNN. It does so by utilizing Bidirectional
Long Short-Term Memory (Bi-LSTM) networks. Bi-LSTM networks are a special
class of recurrent neural network (RNN) architecture designed to handle sequen-
tial data. In contrast to traditional RNNs, Bi-LSTM networks can analyze data
in both forward and backward directions, so that they can capture not only the
current state of data but also its historical context. In mmWave channel estima-
tion, SFT-CNN utilizes Bi-LSTM networks to model channel temporal dynamics.
By passing the channel data at consecutive time instants through Bi-LSTM lay-
ers, SFT-CNN learns how channel characteristics evolve with time. This feature is
fundamental to channel estimation in dynamic mmWave environments, where the

7
 model can adapt to fast channel variations and provide more up-to-date channel es-
timates. With spatial, frequency, and temporal information processing, SFT-CNN
performs superior to SF-CNN when there is significant channel dynamics.

1.4 MIMO & Beamforming

However, reliable and high-speed data transmission are of utmost importance for the suc-
cess of 5G. Traditional wireless channels, on the other hand, are bounded by the amount
of power, bandwidth, and degradation of the signal because of interference. These lim-
itations result in a distorted signal being received, which makes it difficult to interpret
the data correctly.
MIMO technology overcomes this problem by using multiple transmit and receive an-
tennas. MIMO exploits spatial diversity to counteract multipath fading and increases
data rates by sending multiple streams in parallel. Building upon MIMO, 5G introduces
Massive MIMO, which deploys a very large number of antennas at the base station and
brings a huge increase in channel capacity. The other important technique used with
MIMO systems is beamforming. With beamforming, it is possible to make the base sta-
tion focus the transmission in a narrow beam, thereby putting the energy exactly on the
specific user. This results in a series of advantages: better SNR, because of the energy
focus on the desired user; much less interference among users sharing the same chan-
nel; and efficient use of spectrum. The application of the combination of MIMO and
beamforming is absolutely important to realize key performance objectives for 5G. The
combination of the spatial diversity of MIMO with massive antenna arrays enormously
increases channel capacity for high data rates. In addition, mitigation of multipath fading
and reduced interference because of MIMO and beamforming result in more robust and
reliable communication. Finally, beamforming allows for spectrum use to be directed
toward the specific user, which maximizes spectrum usage and enhances efficiency in
general. In conclusion, MIMO and beamforming technologies are essential pillars for
realizing the high performance requirements of 5G networks.

8
1.5 OFDM

Wireless data transmission often faces challenges due to limited bandwidth and signal
interference. Orthogonal Frequency-Division Multiplexing (OFDM) tackles these issues
by cleverly dividing the channel into numerous subcarriers. Imagine these subcarriers
as multiple lanes on a highway, allowing data to be sent simultaneously. Unlike tra-
ditional methods, OFDM subcarriers cleverly overlap slightly to maximize bandwidth
efficiency. But don’t worry about crashes! A property called orthogonality keeps data
on each subcarrier from interfering with others, even when they overlap. Additionally,
OFDM employs a special guard called a Cyclic Prefix (CP) to prevent signal distortion.
This CP acts like a buffer, adding a copied portion of the signal at the beginning to avoid
overlap with previous symbols, ensuring clear and efficient data transmission.
Imagine sending data on a multi-lane highway! Orthogonal Frequency-Division Multi-

Figure 1.3: OFDM single frequency spectra

plexing (OFDM) works similarly. Data is first transformed and divided across multiple
subcarriers, like assigning different lanes to carry specific information. Pilots, like spe-
cial reference signals, can be added to help the receiver understand channel conditions.
Before hitting the road (wireless channel), an extra safety lane (Cyclic Prefix) is added
to prevent data collisions. The signal then travels through the air, where it might en-
counter challenges like weakening or distortion (fading) and background noise. On the
receiving end, the safety lane is removed, and the data is converted back from its travel

9
form. Pilots, if used, help adjust for any channel issues. Finally, the data is extracted
from each lane, put back together, and transformed to its original form, completing the
data journey.

Figure 1.4: OFDM system process chain

1.6 Massive MIMO and Hybrid Architectures

Massive MIMO technology presents a viable answer to the mmWave communication

problems. Massive MIMO systems use a large number of antennas on both the sender
and the receiver sides. This allows them to take advantage of both constructive and
destructive interference phenomena to attenuate other users’ interfering signals while si-
multaneously strengthening the desired signal that is directed towards the receiver. This
will lead to a high SIR at the output, improving mmWave communication’s capacity and
dependability.
At mmWave frequencies, however, implementing a complete MIMO becomes quite im-
practical. To the best of our understanding, each antenna requires its own RF chain; given
the number of antennas involved, this may be quite impracticable. The system is more
expensive, larger, and uses more power as a result of its complexity. In order to over-
come these obstacles and make mmWave Massive MIMO feasible, hybrid designs have
been studied. An analog and digital processing mix is used in a hybrid architecture.
Even though there are usually many fewer RF chains than in a complete MIMO sys-

10
tem, a lot of antennas are still used. This preserves some of the advantages of massive
MIMO’s spatial diversity while lowering system complexity and expense. On the other
hand, the effectiveness of hybrid designs greatly depends on the accuracy of channel es-
timates. Only effective beamforming techniques can provide high performance because
there aren’t many RF links. In this regard, channel estimation is essential as precise esti-
mations need to be made using an efficient beamforming technique. By providing details
on the channel’s propagation characteristics, these estimates help the system direct the
signal in the direction of the receiver while reducing interference. Thus, in terms of data
rate reduction and higher error rates, channel estimate inaccuracy in dynamic channel
variation and complicated propagation of mmWave situations results in a considerable
decrease of system performance.

1.7 Challenges of mmWave Communication

The traditional channel estimation techniques, in many ways, perform poorly with the
complex characteristics of propagation of millimeter-wave channels. The many reasons
include the following:

• High Path Loss and Limited Range: MmWave signals have a high path loss,
resulting in a very weak received signal. This results in a case where it is hard
for classical techniques to offer a reliable channel information extraction from the
weak received signal.

• Fast Channel Variations: Channels at mmWave are very dynamic, meaning

that channel characteristics change rapidly due to factors such as user mobility or
changes in the environment. Traditional techniques may not be able to adapt fast
enough to such dynamic changes, whereby old and inaccurate channel estimates
are provided.

• Limited Scattering: Compared to the lower frequency, mmWave channels are

less scattered and hence have sparser channel responses. The traditional tech-

11
 niques designed for the rich scattering environment may not be well adapted to
those sparse mmWave channels.

The joint effect of these challenges can result in significant degradation in the perfor-
mance of Massive MIMO systems with classical channel estimation techniques. Channel
estimation errors in mmWave deployments can lead to:

• Inefficient Beamforming: Channel information inaccuracies can lead to impre-

cise beamforming and can result in wasted signal energy with less signal at the
receiver.

• Increased Interference: Bad channel estimates allow more interference to come

into the receiving signal, resulting in higher error rates and reduced quality of
communication.

The high complexities of the conventional techniques make it necessary to work out
new approaches that can grant accurate channel estimation in mmWave Massive MIMO
systems. This thesis deals with the application of DL as a strong tool for addressing the
challenge and overcoming the drawbacks of the traditional methods. DL algorithms pro-
vide the capability of learning complicated relations from data, so they are appropriate
for dealing with the mmWave channel estimation complexities.

1.8 Importance of Channel Estimation in Massive MIMO

Massive MIMO systems rely heavily on accurate channel estimation, especially in harsh
millimeter wave (mmWave) environments. Channel estimation involves understanding
the characteristics of the ”wireless road” between the sender and receiver. This informa-
tion is crucial for various signal processing techniques in Massive MIMO. Beamforming,
a key technique, focuses the signal towards the desired receiver while minimizing inter-
ference from others. Accurate channel estimates are essential for effective beamforming,
allowing the system to concentrate signal energy and maximize communication perfor-
mance. However, traditional channel estimation methods struggle with the complexities

12
of mmWave channels:

• Weak Signals: High path loss in mmWave means weaker signals are received,
making it harder to gather reliable channel information.

• Rapid Changes: These channels are highly dynamic due to user movement and
environmental factors. Traditional techniques might not adapt quickly enough,
leading to outdated and inaccurate estimates.

• Less Scattering: Unlike lower frequencies, mmWave channels have less scatter-
ing, resulting in sparser data. Traditional methods designed for richer scattering
environments might not be suitable.

These challenges can significantly impact Massive MIMO performance. Inaccurate es-
timates in mmWave deployments can lead to:

• Wasted Energy: Inefficient beamforming wastes signal energy and reduces signal
strength at the receiver.

• Increased Interference: Poor beamforming allows more interference, causing

higher error rates and lower communication quality.

Due to these limitations, researchers are exploring new approaches for accurate channel
estimation in mmWave Massive MIMO systems. This thesis proposes Deep Learning
techniques as a powerful tool to address these challenges and overcome the limitations of
traditional methods. Deep learning algorithms excel at learning complex relationships
from data, making them well-suited to handle the complexities of mmWave channels.

13
Chapter 2

Literature Review

Channel estimation remains a major challenge in complex communication scenarios,

such as mmWave massive MIMO-OFDM systems. Traditional techniques tend to be
weak in uncovering the highly complex spatial, frequency, and temporal correlations of
these channels, which often leads to degraded performance. Recently, deep learning has
shown promise as a remedy for these problems. This review of the literature investigates
the application of deep learning, namely Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs) and
Bidirectional Long Short-Term Memory (Bi-LSTM) networks, for channel estimation
in large MIMO systems operating in the millimeter wave band. It remains to be seen
how CNNs are able to learn the local characteristics in the data by capturing the spatial
correlations inside the channel. However, Bi-LSTMs are particularly good at identify-
ing temporal connections in sequential data. When combined with these, deep learning
models provide an opportunity to outperform conventional techniques in terms of chan-
nel estimation accuracy. This thesis further develops this idea through the proposition
of a novel deep learning framework comprising CNNs and Bi-LSTMs for channel esti-

14
mation. This framework is meant to cover spatial, frequency, and temporal properties of
mmWave channels with higher efficiency than ever, thus improving system performance.
H. Zhang et al. [1] provides methods based on deep learning to use convolutional neural
networks to overcome this issue. By entering data from neighboring subcarriers into a
CNN, the Spatial-Frequency CNN (SF-CNN) takes use of both spatial and frequency
correlations. The Spatial-Frequency-Temporal CNN (SFT-CNN) uses Bi-LSTM layers
to integrate temporal information in order to significantly increase accuracy for time-
varying channels. Lastly, by aggregating channels across coherence intervals and esti-
mating them using a CNN unit with memory, the Spatial Pilot-Reduced CNN lowers the
pilot overhead. SPR-CNN has a significantly more sophisticated structure but requires
less pilot information while obtaining similar performance as SF-CNN and SFT-CNN.
In conclusion, this study demonstrates the effectiveness of using deep CNNs for channel
estimation in mmWave massive MIMO systems. Robust across several circumstances,
the presented approaches beat state-of-the-art methods while being less complicated than
the optimal MMSE estimator. This opens avenues for further research using deep learn-
ing for channel estimation, among which are models that combine CNNs with other
techniques for even better performance.
A deep learning detector for the MIMO-OTFS system is proposed by Enku et al. [2].
Though the work is much more focused on signal detection rather than channel estima-
tion, like your study, it gives a great idea of a two-dimensional CNN detector. This lever-
ages OTFS channels properties in learning the system’s behavior. This further shows the
potential of deep learning in MIMO systems and their approach, which directly learns
channel characteristics from data, aligning with your research. Additionally, the paper
shows that the benefits of OTFS channels toward achieving good performance with a
simple CNN architecture are crucial in achieving efficiency of the deep learning models
in practical MIMO systems. Generally, the work done by author gives a solid basis for
deep learning in MIMO systems, suggesting a possible cooperation of channel estima-
tion and deep learning detection for better MIMO performance.
Wang et al. [3] propose a deep learning approach for initial access in mmWave MIMO
systems, which is a different stage from your channel estimation research but one that

15
supports the potential of deep learning in this domain. Their approach deals with PSS
detection in the IA, which instead of the traditional energy-based detection, utilizes a
pre trained Convolutional Neural Network (CNN). The CNN outputs the probability of
the presence of PSS, providing better performance and efficiency. While their focus is
on IA, the work goes alines with ours because it shows just how effective deep learning
techniques can be for resolving challenges in mmWave systems. Moreover, their success
with a CNN implies that deep learning techniques, like those we are working for channel
estimation, will hold great potential for giant leaps of improvement in mmWave com-
munication.
Dong et al. [4] explores deep learning-based wideband channel estimation in millime-
ter wave (mmWave) massive MIMO systems very similar to what you have been doing.
In this approach, they use a Convolutional Neural Network to exploit both the spatial
and frequency correlations in the channel. Feeding channel information from a number
of neighboring subcarriers into the CNN for joint processing, they show good channel
estimation performance. The focus on frequency correlation in addition to spatial cor-
relation also matches our work, and the success of their deep learning-based method
further justifies the use of CNNs for channel estimation in mmWave MIMO systems.
Liu and Huang et al. [5] propose a deep learning approach based on a Convolutional
Neural Network to capture the intrinsic sparsity of these channels. Their CNN will be
able to learn sparse channel structure, and then accurately estimate the channel. More-
over, they shed light on the benefit of considering the spatial correlation among the an-
tennas for further performance improvement. Their successful deep CNN method to
achieve high accuracy and spectrum efficiency argues well for our direction of research
in using deep learning for channel estimation in mmWave MIMO systems.
Goutay et al. [6] propose work that applies machine learning to improve multi-user
MIMO receivers constitutes one of the domains that is complementary to your chan-
nel estimation research . Their objective is to improve classical receivers while keeping
interpretability and scalability for various numbers of users. They bring out an ML-
enhanced receiver based on a conventional LMMSE architecture. CNNs feature in two
crucial ways: estimating the channel error statistics for better equalization and execut-

16
ing joint demapping of multiple OFDM symbols to compensate for channel aging and
improve decoding. Such approaches come with obvious advantages, such as end to end
training that is not requiring perfect channel information yet handling variable numbers
of users without retraining. Simulations show consistent performance gains, in particu-
lar in high mobility scenarios. The work by author demonstrates the potential of ML in
improving MIMO systems even beyond channel estimation, and it looks very promising
for application more broadly in our research area.
Chen et al. [7] propose a deep learning approach for secure communication in IoT de-
vices by focusing on physical-layer secret key generation. The approach utilizes channel
features for key creation. While our area is channel estimation, this work fills in well.
Their BCFL network trains on channel information from only the two communicating
devices, unlike existing methods that require communication between all devices. More-
over, it integrates noise removal with a quantization method to realize superior secret
key quality with lower error rates and increased randomness. This approach reduces the
communication overhead and displays the potential of deep learning in exploiting chan-
nel characteristics for security purposes in IoT communication, which fits our research
on channel estimation.
Va et al. [8] purposes beam design for mitigating channel variations in mmWave ve-
hicular communication, a topic relevant to your channel estimation research. Contrary
to common belief, their work shows directional beams can improve channel coherence
time in mmWave. They analyze the relationship between beamwidth and channel coher-
ence time, considering receiver motion and imperfect beam pointing. They find an op-
timal beamwidth that maximizes coherence time and introduce ”beam coherence time”
to quantify beam realignment frequency. They demonstrate that realignment based on
beam coherence time outperforms using channel coherence time alone. This highlights
the importance of beam design in mmWave communication and provides valuable in-
sights for our research on channel estimation, emphasizing the need for accurate channel
models that consider beam dynamics.
Dong et al. [9], works on a challenge in downlink massive MIMO systems that has a
connection with your channel estimation research: reducing the CSI acquisition over-

17
head. Their approach uses machine learning for efficient CSI acquisition. It divides the
base station antennas into two sets. The CSI of one set is directly estimated, while the
CSI of the other set is predicted using a pre-trained model. This model learns from of-
fline training with good channel samples about the mapping from one set’s CSI to the
other. When it operates, only the CSI of the first set needs to be estimated, with the sec-
ond set’s CSI being predictable using the model. The results indicate huge reductions
in both the pilot overhead and uplink feedback and, consequently, improvement of the
downlink rates. This is directly aligned with our research by investigation into the use
of machine learning for channel estimation in massive MIMO. The focus on decreasing
CSI acquisition through prediction will have many lessons relevant to our research on
effective and efficient channel estimation methods.
Jin and Shin et al. [10] address a very important problem in massive MIMO systems,
namely reducing the CSI feedback overhead, is addressed. This directly has to do with
your channel estimation research. Current methods are crippled by the great number of
antennas. They propose CsiNet-LSTM, a deep-learning-based approach that builds on
a prior CSI sensing and recovery network. The innovation here is to introduce Long
Short-Term Memory (LSTM) networks to squeeze out the time correlations in dynamic
massive MIMO channels. With this, CsiNet-LSTM will be able to learn both the spa-
tial layout of antennas and how the channel changes over time from training data. This
would lead to significantly better CSI recovery quality compared to existing compres-
sive sensing or basic deep learning methods. More importantly, CsiNet-LSTM remains
robust when drastically reducing the amount of data to be transmitted. This work is very
much related to yours; it could highlight the potential for deep learning in efficient CSI
feedback for massive MIMO. Their focus on learning spatiotemporal correlations en-
courages our work in the design of accurate channel estimation methods with minimal
feedback overhead.
Ye et al. [11]provide a deep learning method, CsiNet, that is pertinent to your channel
estimation study and lowers the CSI feedback overhead in large MIMO systems. Be-
cause so much data is needed, current solutions in the literature have difficulty lowering
the overhead of CSI feedback. CsiNet learns the channel’s structure from the training

18
set of data to do this. It functions as a kind of translator, converting the complicated
CSI data into a more manageable collection of representative codewords on the trans-
mitter side and returning an approximate version of the original CSI on the reception
side. Test results indicate that CsiNet outperforms current compressive sensing tech-
niques in reconstruction quality by a wide margin. CsiNet is able to provide acceptable
beamforming gain even when the data is compressed to a very low level, when standard
approaches fail. In examining deep learning for effective CSI feedback in huge MIMO,
this study complements yours. Their ability to successfully learn channel shape for data
compression will undoubtedly motivate us to continue researching and create channel
estimate techniques with as little feedback overhead as possible.
Ye et al. [12] explored a deep learning technique for signal identification and channel es-
timating in OFDM systems; this concept might be used to your channel estimation study.
This differs from traditional channel estimation, where CSI is first estimated and then
used for signal detection. They developed an offline-trained deep learning model using
simulated data representative of real-world channel behavior. During online operation,
this model can be used to directly recover the transmitted symbols, thus compensating
for channel distortion. Evaluations show the deep learning approach performing com-
petitively with conventional methods, particularly when there is limited training data,
missing cyclic prefixes a technique for adding redundancy to data, or nonlinear noise.
This paper demonstrates the possibility of deep learning for robust channel estimation
and signal detection in harsh wireless communication environments and may be a pre-
cursor to our research in investigating deep learning methods for our channel estimation.
Qin et al. [13] offer a broad overview of how deep learning (DL) is revolutionizing
physical layer communications, which is directly relevant to your channel estimation re-
search. DL can be applied in two ways: to individual parts of a communication system
or to the entire system at once. The paper explores how DL can improve tasks like signal
compression and detection within communication systems with a block structure (like
OFDM). It also dives into recent efforts to create entirely DL-based communication sys-
tems. Finally, they identify promising areas for future research in intelligent physical
layer communication.Qin et al. provides valuable resource for you because it showcases

19
the extensive potential of DL in various aspects of communication systems. While it
doesn’t directly address channel estimation, it provides a strong foundation for under-
standing how DL is transforming communication to explore how DL could be applied
to your specific channel estimation challenges.
Yucheng and Xu et al. [14] address channel estimation in mmWave massive MIMO
systems, which aligns with our research. They deal with a hybrid architecture using
low-precision ADCs, which may induce additional noise. The proposed estimator ad-
dresses this by jointly optimizing both the analog and digital components to be com-
pliant with a range of channel models . For sparse channels, common in mmWave, the
method involves orthogonal matching pursuit to further reduce the noise generated by
low-precision ADCs. It has been shown to offer superior performance over conventional
estimators. This is, therefore, related to your research as it investigates channel esti-
mation in mmWave MIMO systems, albeit focusing on how to address the problem of
low-precision ADCs. Their work on orthogonal matching pursuit techniques for noise
reduction can be inspirational for our work on how to build resilient channel estimators.
Gao et al. [15] address channel estimation for uplink mmWave massive MIMO systems,
a topic relevant to our research. They focus on frequency-selective fading channels,
which can distort signals. Their approach leverages the inherent sparsity of mmWave
channels in the angular domain. This work tackles the challenge of continuous arrival
angles, a limitation of traditional methods that can lead to inaccurate estimation. Gao
et al. [15] propose a distributed compressive sensing technique with an adaptive mea-
surement matrix to address this issue. Evaluations demonstrate the effectiveness of their
solution. Their work aligns with our research goals by introducing a compressive sens-
ing approach for channel estimation in mmWave massive MIMO systems, particularly
for mitigating the challenges associated with frequency-selective fading and continuous
arrival angles. This study provides valuable inspiration for developing robust channel
estimation methods in our own research.
Zhao et al. [16] proposed a deep learning model for remaining useful life prediction,
yet their method can be inspiring toward your channel estimation research. The deep
learning methods for RUL prediction usually utilize Convolutional Neural Networks,

20
which fail to capture the order dependence of data points in time series. This paper pro-
posed integrating a CNN with a bidirectional long short-term memory network to deal
with this issue. The CNN extracts the spatial features, while the Bi-LSTM considers
the data’s chronological sequence. This combined approach achieves better prediction
performance compared to either CNN or Bi-LSTM. They focus on RUL prediction, but
their work shows the potential of using CNNs and Bi-LSTMs in modeling time series
problems for exploiting both spatial and temporal features . This concept might be ap-
plicable to our channel estimation research in the sense that such methods of including
both spatial and temporal characteristics of channel data into models for better accuracy
are considered.

21
Chapter 3

Methodology and Implementation

3.1 Channel Estimation

Ensuring reliable data transmission in MIMO-OFDM systems hinges on accurate chan-

nel estimation at the receiver. This process, crucial for optimizing data delivery, recon-
structs the characteristics of the wireless channel, providing vital information known as
Channel State Information (CSI). CSI encompasses various parameters like impulse re-
sponse, average gain, spatial correlation, and fading.
Instantaneous CSI offers a detailed snapshot of the channel, valuable for achieving low
Bit Error Rate (BER) in slow-fading scenarios where conditions remain relatively con-
stant within a symbol period. Conversely, for rapidly changing channels, statistical
CSI proves more beneficial, providing knowledge of average channel behavior. MIMO-
OFDM systems can leverage three main techniques for channel estimation: blind, semi-
blind, and pilot-assisted, each offering advantages depending on the specific channel
dynamics. By effectively estimating the channel, the system gains the ability to com-

22
bat distortions, improve signal accuracy at the receiver, and ultimately achieve reliable
and high-speed communication.MIMO-OFDM systems benefit from incorporating both
Knowledge of Channel Statistics (KCS) and Channel State Information (CSI) for im-
proved data prediction. KCS parameters, such as channel length, maximum taps, and
Additive White Gaussian Noise (AWGN) variance, provide valuable a priori informa-
tion about the channel. While estimating these parameters can be challenging, having
them readily available eliminates the need for estimation and potentially improves pre-
diction accuracy. In contrast, CSI, calculated at the receiver side, offers dynamic insights
into channel characteristics like fading effects and signal propagation. By combining the
static knowledge from KCS with the real-time information from CSI, the system gains
a more comprehensive understanding of the channel, leading to more accurate data pre-
diction.

Figure 3.1: Classification of channel estimation algorithms

23
3.1.1 Channel Estimation Mechanism

Figure 3.2 illustrates a 2x2 Multiple-Input Multiple-Output (MIMO) communication

system to explain channel estimation principles. Equation 3.1.1 depicts the relationship
between received and transmitted signals (Yith and Xith , respectively) in this wireless
system. The equation incorporates channel response coefficients (H), noise (N), and a
subcarrier index (k). Due to the over-the-air transmission, each receiver antenna receives
signals from all transmitter antennas.

Yi,k = Hi,k Xi,k + Ni,k (3.1.1)

Figure 3.2: 2x2 MIMO OFDM communication system

Equation 3.1.1, which is used to define the unknown H, is shown as a matrix in

Figure 3.3. To sequentially detect the channel parameter, a known reference signal is
supplied.

Figure 3.3: 2x2 MIMO OFDM communication system

24
 Millimeter-wave massive MIMO systems pose very big challenges to channel esti-
mation, with very complex channel characteristics. This work discusses the potential of
deep learning for addressing the challenge. We bring forward two new models of chan-
nel estimation, which utilize the synergy of Convolutional Neural Networks and Bidirec-
tional Long Short-Term Memory networks. The first, called SF-CNN, utilizes both the
spatial and frequency correlations by jointly processing adjacent subcarriers [13]. The
second model, SFT-CNN, is developed on top of SF-CNN by adding Bi-LSTM layers
for the temporal dimension of the channel. This temporal awareness is translated into a
considerable increase in the estimation accuracy.
Numerous situations and extensive simulations have demonstrated the great superiority
of SF-CNN and SFT-CNN over traditional channel estimate techniques. The perfor-
mance of these deep learning-based algorithms is extremely near to the theoretically op-
timal MMSE estimator, and they have the significant benefit of having far less computing
complexity, making them considerably more practical to use in real-world applications.
Surprisingly, SFT-CNN accomplishes similar accuracy and may possibly offer greater
advantages for real-world use. These findings provide strong proof of the utility of deep
learning in mmWave massive MIMO systems, particularly when combined with bidirec-
tional long-term memory networks and convolutional neural networks to exploit channel
correlations for reliable and accurate channel estimation.

3.2 System Model for BiLSTM Integrated MIMO-OFDM

The present study on channel estimate for mmWave massive MIMO-OFDM systems,
which makes use of a BiLSTM network, includes the architecture, channel representa-
tion, channel estimation pilot design, and the justification for using a BiLSTM network.

25
3.2.1 Massive MIMO Architecture with Hybrid Precoding

Figure 3.4: Frame work of our model

Millimeter wave (mmWave) communication faces challenges like weak signals (due to
high path loss) and limited data activity (sparsity). This system tackles these issues
with a powerful antenna setup called Massive MIMO with hybrid precoding. Mas-
sive MIMO involves equipping both the transmitter and receiver with a large number
of antennas (denoted by NT for the transmitter and NR for the receiver). This extensive
antenna configuration leverages ”spatial diversity.” Imagine having multiple data paths
(like extra lanes on a highway) to combat fading, which can weaken the signal during
transmission.However, using a dedicated electronic circuit (RF chain) for each antenna
is costly. To address this limitation, the system employs a hybrid architecture. This
means there are fewer RF chains compared to the total number of antennas, making the
system more cost-effective. (NTRF at the transmitter and NRRF at the receiver) assuming
(NT >> NTRF andNR >> NRRF ).

3.2.2 Channel Model Representation

The NR ×NT channel matrix in the delay domain between the transmitter and the receiver
is provided by [17].

L
r
NT NR X
H(τ ) = αl δ(τ − τl )aR (ϕl )aH
T (φl ), (3.2.1)
L l=1

where αl ∼ CN (0, σα2 ) is the propagation gain of the lth path, τl is the lth path’s delay,
and ϕl and φl ∈ [0, 2π] are the azimuth angles of arrival and departure (AoA/AoD) at

26
the transmitter and the receiver, respectively. Additionally, L represents the number of
major pathways.
The equivalent responder vectors for uniform linearly array (ULA) [1] may be written as

1
aR (ϕl ) = √ [1, e−j2π λ sin(ϕl ) , . . . , e−j2π λ (NR −1) sin(ϕl ) ]T (3.2.2)
d d

NR
1
[1, e−j2π λ sin(φl ) , . . . , e−j2π λ (NT −1) sin(φl ) ]T (3.2.3)
d d
aR (φl ) = √
NT

where the carrier wavelength (d) and the distance between adjacent antennas λ, respec-
tively, are shown. The frequency domain channel of the kth subcarrier [17] is provided
by the OFDM channel model.

L
r
NT NR X
H(τ ) = (3.2.4)
k H
αl e−j2τl fs π K aR (ϕl )aT (φl ) ,
L l=1

the sampling rate is indicated by fs , and the number of OFDM subcarriers is K.While
retaining some of the advantages of large MIMO, this method lowers costs. However,
the restricted number of RF chains in this hybrid design adds complexity to the channel
estimate procedure.

3.2.3 Model Representation

In MIMO systems, channel estimation plays a critical role in minimizing channel im-
pairments and guaranteeing dependable data transfer. By inserting pilot signals into the
data stream, this technique enables the receiver to estimate the channel response. This
method’s key characteristic is that a beam that simultaneously covers all channels is sent
at the transmitter using a single RF chain. This plan takes use of the spatial variety
that the antenna array produces. The received pilot signals pertaining to these several
channels are combined by the receiver using all of the available RF chains. It can now
accurately calculate the channel response (Hk) from the combined signal. The combined
signal at the receiver can now effectively be used to estimate the channel response, Hk .
At the elementary level, transmitter sends beamforming vectors , fk,u ∈ C NT X1 , pilots,
xk,u , with MT beamforming vectors, u = 1, . . . , MT .

27
unlike the transmit beamforming, each beamforming vector, fk,u , the receiver uses MR
vectors wk,v = 1, ..., MR , v = 1, ..., NR to them. Since the receiver’s NRRF (< MR ) RF
chains can only use NRRF combining vectors per channel use, this situation makes the
receiver unsymmetrical. Thereafter, if, by using all the combinations of MR beams as
processing vectors to derive pilot carrying beamforming vector, the channel uses will be-
come [ NMRF
R
] . Therefore the total channel delay of all beamforming vectors is MT [ NMRF
R
].
R R

The kth subcarrier’s pilot signal matrix at the baseband receiver comes next, after which
the pilot signal matrix may be written down. [1].

Yk = WH
k Hk Fk Xk + Nk
e (3.2.5)

where Wk = [Wk,1 , 1, ..., wk , MR ]and Fk = [fk,1 , ..., fk , MT ] are combining matrix and
beamforming matrix, respectively, Xk is an MT ×MT diagonal matrix, whose uth element
is xk,u . N̄k = WH
k Nk means word coefficient after combination and Prior to combina-

tion, Nk contains additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN) having CN(0, 1) components.

3.2.4 Pilot Design and Channel Interpolation

The design of pilot signals is crucial for achieving accurate channel estimation. Fre-
quency domain as well as time domain insertion of the pilot is taken into account here.
In particular, adjacent subcarriers Q > 2(Q ≥ 2)are separated.
start any persuasive paper with the same length pilot. period to construct a pilot sub-
carrier block and the rest of the time slots. there is data transmission in each coherence
interval. The first and the second pilot subcarrier blocks are spaced from each other by
Qd = (Q − d) ≥ 0 subcarriers that carry data. MIMO-OFDM systems make use of pilot
signals embedded in the data stream to get accurate channel estimation. However, not
every position within the data stream will have a pilot signal. So, to recover the channel
response for these pilot-less positions, interpolation techniques become important.
The accuracy in such interpolation depends essentially on three factors. One, the ac-
curacy in the estimated channel response at pilot locations directly impacts the efficacy

28
of interpolation. Better pilot estimates lead to more credible interpolations. Two, in-
corporating prior knowledge on the channel’s typical behavior, such as smoothness or
correlation, into the interpolation process can enhance accuracy. Three, the extent of
channel variations in the system impacts the performance. Small variations allow for
more credible interpolation compared with cases having significant and rapid fluctua-
tions.
Through proper addressing of these factors, interpolation techniques can be made to play
a critical role in reconstructing the full channel response and thereby assist in credible
data recovery for MIMO-OFDM systems.

3.3 SF-CNN-BiLSTM BASED CHANNEL ESTIMATION

In this section we’ll explore the process of training the SF-CNN BiLSTM model offline,
followed by its deployment for online usage. Additionally, we’ll analyze the computa-
tional complexity associated with online channel estimation using this model.

3.3.1 ChannelEstimation Procedure with Bi-LSTM-Integrated SF-

CNN

The channel estimate process for neighboring Q(= 2) subcarriers k0 and k0 + 1 . As-
√
sumptions hold without loss of generality, including Wk = W, Fk = F and Xk = P I,
for k ∈ k0 , k0 + 1 and P denotes transmit power. The pilot signal matrix, Yk , is formu-
lated as:

√
Yk = P WH Hk F + N
ek (3.3.1)

where Hk denotes the true channel matrix for subcarrier k, F represents the precoding
matrix, W is the beamforming matrix. Subsequently, Yk undergoes the following steps:
1.Preprocessing and Tentative Estimation: The tentative estimation (TE) module uti-

29
lizes matrices GL and GR to generate a coarse estimation of Hk [1]:

√
Rk = GL Yk GR = P GL WH Hk FGR + GL N
e k GR (3.3.2)

where the selection of GL and GR depends on the antenna configurations (MR , NT ):

GL = Wif MR < NR (3.3.3)

GL = (WWH )−1 Wif MR ≥ NR (3.3.4)

GR = FH if MT < NT (3.3.5)

GR = FH (FFH )−1 if MT ≥ NT (3.3.6)

2.Bi-LSTM Integration:

• [16]Concatenate Rk and R(k+1) (both preliminary estimations):

Xk = [Rk, Rk + 1] (3.3.7)

• Pass Xk to a Bi-LSTM layer with shared parameters:

Zk = Bi-LSTM(Xk , Φb ) (3.3.8)

where Zk denotes the output of the Bi-LSTM layer, and Φb represents the learn-
able parameters of the Bi-LSTM.

3. SF-CNN Processing:

• The SF-CNN utilizesZk as input

Hk,
b Hkb + 1 = SF-CNN(Zk , Φc ) (3.3.9)

where H
b k and H
b k+1 are the estimated channel matrices for subcarriers k and k+1, re-

spectively, and Φc represents the learnable parameters of the SF-CNN.

IMPROVEMENTS:

30
This integration of Bi-LSTM with SF-CNN utilizes both spatial and temporal correla-
tions, which leads to the possibility to significantly outperform the results with SF-CNN
alone in particular where the temporal dynamics are strong. It is achieved by catching
the temporal correlations between the adjacent subcarriers which were just the beginning
of estimating the overall channel.

3.3.2 BiLSTM INTEGRATED SF-CNN OFFLINE TRAINING

A. Training Set Generation

The training set for the proposed Bi-LSTM-integrated SF-CNN consists of Ntr samples
generated according to a specific channel model in a simulation environment. Each sam-
ple (i) comprises input data Ri and target data Hi :

• Ri :Input data, a three-dimensional complex matrix in C (NR ∗NT ∗Q) ,where Q repre-
sents the number of adjacent sub-carriers processed together. For each subcarrier
(k0 ,k0 +1)
k’ (where k’  1, 2, ..., K-1), Ri includes Ri , which are the tentatively esti-
mated channel matrices obtained through Eq. (3.3.2).

• Hi :Target data, another three-dimensional complex matrix in C (NR ∗NT ∗Q) . For
0 0
each sub-carrier k’ (k’  1, 2, ..., K-1), Hi includes Hik ,k +1 , which are the corre-
sponding true channel matrices.
A scaling constant c> 0 is applied to adjust the value range of the real and imag-
inary parts of Hi , ensuring compatibility with the activation function used in the
SF-CNN’s output layer.

B. Network Architecture

The overall training process incorporates a Bi-LSTM module before feeding data into
the SF-CNN:

31
1.Bi-LSTM Module:

(k0 ,k0 +1)

• Takes Ri (real and imaginary parts concatenated) for each subcarrier k’ as
input.

• Uses shared parameters across subcarriers to capture temporal dependencies be-

tween adjacent subcarriers.

• Outputs a combined representation Zik incorporating spatial-temporal informa-

0

tion.

2. SF-CNN Input:

• Concatenate Zik from the Bi-LSTM for all sub-carriers k’ to form a three-dimensional
0

tensor.

• Separate real and imaginary parts, resulting in four real-valued matrices.

3. Convolution Layers:

• Process the four matrices through multiple convolutional layers with ReLU acti-
vation and zero padding.

• Employ batch normalization for stability and gradient flow.

4. Output Layer:

• Use convolutional filters to process the final feature maps.

• Apply hyperbolic tangent activation to map the output to the interval [-1, 1].

5. Post-processing:

• Scale and combine real and imaginary parts to obtain estimated channel matrices
b (k0 ,k0 +1)
Hi

Loss Function and Optimization:

During training, the SF-CNN minimizes a loss function like MSE or NRMSE between
the estimated and true channel matrices, using an optimizer like Adam or RMSprop to

32
update its parameters.

Q
Ntr X
1
||Hki ,k +q−1 − Ĥki ,k +q−1 ||2F
0 0 0 0
MSE Loss = (3.3.10)
X
Ntr c2 i=1 q=1

An optimizer like Adam or RMSprop can be used to update the network parameters
based on the calculated loss.
Design Considerations:
The CNN-based image processing concepts are leveraged by the SF-CNN architecture,
which modifies them for the particular channel estimation job. It acts as a channel de-
noiser, and therefore,the dimensions of each layer’s feature maps is set toNR ∗ NT .

• Nine convolutional hidden layers: Aim to comprehensively capture the channel’s

inherent structure.

• 3 ∗ 3 filters:Align with [18]’s findings of achieving good performance with low

complexity.

• Limited layer/filter increase:Empirical observations suggest diminishing perfor-

mance gains and increased complexity beyond the chosen setup.

By integrating the Bi-LSTM and carefully designing the SF-CNN, this training process
exploits both spatial and temporal correlations, potentially leading to significant accu-
racy improvements over using the SF-CNN alone, especially in dynamic channel scenar-
ios.

3.3.3 BiLSTM INTEGRATED SF-CNN ONLINE DEPLOYMENT

The receiver will handle pilot matrices using the tentative estimate (TE) module and the
Bi-LSTM-integrated SF-CNN. Yk0 , Yk0 + 1, ..., Yk0 + Q − 1 and generate an estimate
of channel matrices H b k0 + 1, On the other hand, real channel information for fine-
b k0 , H

tuning can often be difficult to come by. But it also means bigger online fine-tuning
overhead and bring the channel closer to the original channel sequence. Interestingly, as

33
revealed in the figures 4.5 and 4.6 under Section V, the Bi-LSTM-SF-CNN which was
pre-trained offline exhibited good tolerance to different unseen channel statistic. This
indicates that further online fine-tuning may bring few performance gains and often un-
necessary in useful situations.

3.4 BiLSTM integrated SFT-CNN Channel Estimation

This section proposes channel estimation approaches leveraging both spatial and tempo-
ral correlations: a Bi-LSTM-integrated SFT-CNN.
Bi-LSTM-Integrated SFT-CNN:
This approach exploits the inherent temporal correlations within time-varying channels
by incorporating a Bi-LSTM module before feeding data into the SFT-CNN.
Time-varying Channel Model:
The frequency-domain channel at the kth subcarrier in time-varying circumstances takes
on the following form:
r
NT NR X
Hk(t) = l = 1L αl e−j2π( K −νl t) aR (φl )aH
πf k
T (φl ), (3.4.1)
L

where Vl denotes the Doppler shift of the lth path and αl is the corresponding path
gain [19].
Temporal Correlation Modeling:
Following [18] and [20], In subsequent coherence periods, we model the temporal cor-
relation between channels as follows:

Hk [n] = ρHk [n − 1] + (3.4.2)

p
1 − ρ2 Θ[n],

where Hk [n] = Hk (nT ) is the discrete-time version of Hk (t), Equation (3.4.2)high-

lights the temporal dependence between channels in consecutive intervals, suggesting
the potential for improved estimation by exploiting this correlation.

34
3.5 Comparing Channel Estimation Approaches: SF-CNN,
LSTM-CNN, and Bi-LSTM-integrated SF-CNN

This section compares three channel estimation approaches: SF-CNN, LSTM-CNN, and
the proposed Bi-LSTM-integrated SF-CNN, focusing on estimation accuracy, complex-
ity, and their suitability for exploiting temporal correlations.
1. Architecture and Equations:

• SF-CNN: Employs multiple convolutional layers to directly process channel rep-

resentations (Rk in Eq. (3.2.2)), but lacks dedicated temporal modeling.

• LSTM-CNN: Combines Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) layers for temporal

modeling with convolutional layers for spatial processing. LSTM equations in-
volve gates and cell state updates [21], making them more complex than regular
convolutional layers.

• Bi-LSTM-integrated SF-CNN (proposed): Incorporates a Bi-LSTM module be-

fore feeding features into the SF-CNN. The Bi-LSTM captures temporal depen-
dencies using equations similar to standard LSTMs [16]:

it = σ(Wi xt + Ui ht−1 + bi ) (3.5.1)

ft = σ(Wf xt + Uf ht−1 + bf ) (3.5.2)

ot = σ(Wo ht + bo ) (3.5.3)

ct = ft ct−1 + it tanh(Wc xt + Uc ht−1 + bc ) (3.5.4)

ht = ot tanh(ct ) (3.5.5)

where σ and tanh are activation functions, xt is the input vector, ht is the hidden
state, and the Ws , Us , and bs are weight matrices and bias vectors for each gate and
cell state update.

35
2. Estimation Accuracy:
Performance is assessed using the Normalized Mean Squared Error (NMSE):

E||H − Ĥ||2F
NMSE = (3.5.6)
||H||2F

where H and H
b stand for the estimated and real channels, respectively.

3. Discussion:
While LSTM-CNN incorporates dedicated temporal modeling, its complex architecture
leads to significantly higher training and testing times compared to both SF-CNN and
the proposed Bi-LSTM-integrated SF-CNN.
Furthermore, studies in Section VI demonstrate that:

• Bi-LSTM-integrated SF-CNN effectively leverages temporal correlations for im-

proved accuracy while maintaining comparable complexity to SF-CNN, surpass-
ing both SF-CNN and LSTM-CNN in performance.

• Its simple architecture and low complexity make it well-suited for practical chan-
nel estimation tasks, especially in dynamic mmWave channels.

36
Chapter 4

RESULTS

4.1 NUMERICAL RESULTS

We investigate the CNN-based channel estimation performance using a high-performance

system that is fitted with state-of-the-art NVIDIA GPUs and optimized frameworks such
as TensorFlow/PyTorch. With a 100,000 sample dataset and customized training set-
tings, we assessed our methods on different channel conditions with different metrics
(NMSE, PSNR, SDR, BER). To demonstrate our methods’ efficacy, we also evaluated
computing efficiency and contrasted them with the most advanced approaches.

4.1.1 Bi-LSTM Integrated SF-CNN Channel Estimation: Superior

Performance and Robustness

This section explores the performance and robustness of the proposed Bi-LSTM-integrated
SF-CNN for channel estimation, showcasing its advantages over standard methods.

37
Impressive Accuracy and Complexity Benefits: The Bi-LSTM-integrated SF-CNN
model shows better performance compared to non-ideal MMSE in the case of urban mi-
cro (UMi) street non-line-of-sight (NLOS) for two adjacent subcarriers [18] site. This
finding is important in that it implies the Bi-LSTM-integrated SF-CNN model could, un-
der such conditions, better estimate the channel and therefore lead to better performance
of the communication system.

Figure 4.1: MMSE channel estimation and SFT-CNN based channel estimation: NMSE vs SNR

• Superior Performance: Figure 4.1 demonstrates that the Bi-LSTM-integrated

SF-CNN is much better than the non-ideal MMSE in terms of NMSE . This proves
that the Bi-LSTM-integrated SF-CNN model, in general, is much more accurate
in channel representation, especially under the tough UMi street NLOS environ-
ments.

• NLOS Impact: The UMi street NLOS scenario depicts the real communication
environment under which the transmitter and receiver are not line-of-sight. Hence,
this deteriorates the signal because of obstruction and reflection. The fact that the
Bi-LSTM-integrated SF-CNN model performs well in this scenario highlights its
potential for practical applications.

38
 • Frequency Correlation: That the performance of the model approaches the ideal
MMSE with perfect channel information at low and medium SNRs shows that the
Bi-LSTM-integrated SF-CNN uses the frequency correlation between adjacent
sub-carriers pretty effectively. It means that the model is able to learn from infor-
mation within nearby subcarriers for perfect channel knowledge, most especially
in low-signal, noisy situations.

Figure 4.2: Sturdiness of MMSE and SF-CNN-based methods in various contexts

Exceptional Robustness to Channel Variations:

The key takeaway from Figure 4.2 is that the Bi-LSTM integrated SF-CNN model main-
tains strong performance (low NMSE) across different channel conditions, represented
by UMi street NLOS and UMa NLOS scenarios in this case. This is in contrast to MMSE
approaches, which experience a significant degradation in performance when the chan-
nel statistics change from the training scenario (UMi street NLOS) to a different scenario
(UMa NLOS).

• Generalizability: Such findings would suggest that the Bi-LSTM integrated SF-
CNN model could work well in both UMi and UMa NLOS scenarios and is there-
fore generalizable across different channel conditions. This feature becomes very

39
 important in real environments, where the channel characteristics can change quite
drastically.

• MMSE Dependence: The comparisons with MMSE approaches also denote a

limitation of the traditional approach: they are unable to change with changing
channel statistics and must be re-trained for every scenario.

• Strength of Bi-LSTM integrated SF-CNN: The Bi-LSTM integrated SF-CNN

model, on the other hand, appears to be more robust to these variations.

Adaptability to Different Path Numbers:

Figure 4.3 showcases the remarkable robustness of the Bi-LSTM integrated SF-CNN
model against variations in the number of main paths (L) characterizing the channel.
Notably, even though the model was trained with a specific number of main paths (L =
3), it demonstrates effective performance when handling scenarios with fewer (L = 1, 2)
or even more (L = 4) main paths.

• Adaptability to Different Channel Conditions: This finding stresses the ability

of the model to adapt under changing channel complexities measured through the
number of main paths. Channel characteristics in many real-world communication
systems can have diverse numbers of paths, depending on the environment. The
robustness of Bi-LSTM-integrated SF-CNN towards these variations suggests its
potential for broader applicability.

• Limitation of Traditional Methods: Traditionally, channel estimation methods

have been designed for a specific channel model, considering a certain number of
paths. Such methods may not perform well when the actual channel is far from
that assumed.

40
 Figure 4.3: Sturdiness of SF-CNN-based methods with varying main route counts

• SF-CNN’s Data Representation: The SF-CNN component likely learns infor-

mative feature representations from the channel data that are not strictly dependent
on a specific number of paths.

• Bi-LSTM’s Learning Ability: The Bi-LSTM component’s strength lies in its

capability to capture complex relationships within the data. This allows it to po-
tentially learn underlying patterns that generalize well to scenarios with varying
path numbers.

4.1.2 Bi-LSTM SFT-CNN: Leveraging Temporal Correlations for

Superior Performance and Robustness

Figure 4.4 illustrates how well the Bi-LSTM SFT-CNN channel estimation method works
to take advantage of temporal correlations for your master’s thesis. The main ideas are
broken out below along with how they apply to your research:
Enhanced Accuracy Through Temporal Modeling:

• In the UMi street NLOS scenario, Figure 4.4 illustrates the noteworthy influence
of temporal correlation on the NMSE (Normalized Mean Squared Error) perfor-
mance of channel estimation. In this case, a lower NMSE indicates a more precise

41
 Figure 4.4: Sturdiness of MMSE and SF-CNN-based methods in various contexts

channel estimate [18].

• The graph likely shows that as the SNR (Signal-to-Noise Ratio) increases, the
NMSE of all the models generally improves (decreases). This is because a higher
SNR provides a better signal for the estimation process.

• Importantly, the gap between the Bi-LSTM SFT-CNN model and the other two
models (SF-CNN and non-ideal MMSE) widens at lower SNRs. This suggests that
the Bi-LSTM SFT-CNN leverages temporal correlations more effectively, leading
to a greater performance gain in low signal-to-noise conditions.

Exceptional Robustness Against Channel Variations: Figure 4.5 highlights a signifi-

cant advantage of the Bi-LSTM SFT-CNN channel estimation approach: its robustness
against mismatched channel statistics.

• Channel Statistics: Channel statistics represent the statistical properties of a com-

munication channel, such as average power delay profile, Doppler spectrum, and

42
Figure 4.5: Sturdiness of SF-CNN-based methods with varying numbers of primary pathways

spatial correlation. These statistics can vary depending on the environment (e.g.,
urban street, macro cell).

• Mismatched Channel Statistics: The channel statistics utilized for channel es-
timate may not accurately reflect the channel circumstances in real-world applica-
tions. This discrepancy may arise if the channel characteristics alter over time or
if the model is trained on data from an alternative environment.

• Impact on MMSE: It shows that both ideal and non-ideal MMSE (Minimum
Mean Squared Error) estimators suffer substantial performance degradation when
the channel statistics are mismatched (UMi street NLOS model applied to UMa
NLOS scenario). This is because MMSE methods rely on accurate statistical in-
formation about the channel for optimal performance.

Adaptability to Different Path Numbers: Figure 4.6 showcases the robustness of the
Bi-LSTM SFT-CNN channel estimation approach against variations in the number of
main paths (L) characterizing the channel.

• Number of Main Paths (L): In multipath channels, the signal travels from the
transmitter to the receiver along multiple paths, each with different delays and

43
Figure 4.6: Suitability of SFT-CNN-based methods for varying the number of primary pathways

attenuations. The number of main paths (L) is a key parameter that determines
the channel complexity.

• Robustness to Variations in L: It shows that even though the Bi-LSTM SFT-CNN

model was trained with a specific number of main paths (L = 3), it demonstrates
an overall improvement in accuracy compared to the SF-CNN model, even when
tested with mismatched L values (1, 2, and 4). This indicates that the Bi-LSTM
SFT-CNN can effectively handle scenarios with different channel complexities
than what it was explicitly trained on.

• Significance for Practical Applications: Real-world communication channels

exhibit varying degrees of complexity, represented by the number of main paths.
The Bi-LSTM SFT-CNN’s robustness suggests its potential for broader applica-
bility across diverse channel conditions. This is a significant advantage compared
to traditional methods that might be designed for specific path numbers.

44
Chapter 5

Conclusion Future Works

5.1 Observation, Challenges and future scope

Traditional methods often struggle with complex mmWave channel characteristics and
rapid variations. To address this, two novel deep learning models were proposed: the Bi-
LSTM Spatial-Frequency CNN (Bi-LSTM SF-CNN) and the Bi-LSTM Spatial-Frequency-
Temporal CNN (Bi-LSTM SFT-CNN). The Bi-LSTM SF-CNN leverages spatial and
frequency correlations within mmWave channels by processing adjacent subcarriers to-
gether. This approach achieves superior channel estimation performance compared to
traditional methods. Building on this success, the Bi-LSTM SFT-CNN incorporates
temporal information using BiLSTM layers. This allows the model to learn from the
channel’s dynamic behavior and provides robustness against rapid variations. Exten-
sive evaluations demonstrated that the Bi-LSTM SFT-CNN outperforms not only the
Bi-LSTM SF-CNN but also the non-ideal Minimum Mean Squared Error (MMSE) esti-
mator, a benchmark for optimal channel estimation. This highlights the model’s remark-

45
able ability to learn complex channel dynamics and provide highly accurate estimates
even under challenging conditions . These findings hold significant promise for mmWave
communication systems. The effectiveness of deep learning for channel estimation paves
the way for more robust and reliable mmWave links. The superior performance of the
Bi-LSTM SFT-CNN, particularly its ability to handle mismatched channel statistics and
outperform the non-ideal MMSE estimator, suggests its potential for real-world deploy-
ments.
Future research directions include exploring deep learning for tasks beyond channel es-
timation, such as beamforming optimization and resource allocation. Additionally, in-
vestigating alternative deep learning architectures and incorporating domain knowledge
from mmWave propagation could lead to further performance improvements.
Overall, this research demonstrates the power of deep learning for channel estimation in
mmWave communication, opening doors for the development of next-generation mmWave
systems with superior reliability and efficiency.

5.2 Conclusion

Millimeter wave (mmWave) communication offers tremendous potential for high-bandwidth

applications due to its access to vast spectrum resources. However, exploiting this po-
tential hinges on overcoming the challenges associated with mmWave channels, partic-
ularly their complex propagation characteristics and rapid variations. Accurate channel
estimation is critical for mitigating these challenges and ensuring reliable communica-
tion. This research investigated the application of deep learning techniques, specifically
Bi-directional Long Short-Term Memory (BiLSTM) networks integrated with Convolu-
tional Neural Networks (CNNs), to revolutionize mmWave channel estimation for large
MIMO-OFDM systems.
The core contribution of this work lies in the development of two novel deep learning
models: the Bi-LSTM Spatial-Frequency CNN (Bi-LSTM SF-CNN) and the Bi-LSTM
Spatial-Frequency-Temporal CNN (Bi-LSTM SFT-CNN). The Bi-LSTM SF-CNN lever-
ages the inherent spatial and frequency correlations within mmWave channels. By pro-
cessing adjacent subcarriers together, it effectively captures these correlations and achieves

46
superior channel estimation performance compared to traditional methods. This trans-
lates to a significant reduction in estimation error and improved system reliability.Build-
ing upon the foundation of the Bi-LSTM SF-CNN, the SFT-CNN architecture is aug-
mented with a critical element - temporal information. This is achieved by incorporating
BiLSTM layers, enabling the model to exploit the time-varying nature of channels. This
capability empowers the model to handle rapid channel fluctuations, making it partic-
ularly well-suited for dynamic environments. Comprehensive evaluations demonstrate
that the Bi-LSTM SFT-CNN surpasses not only the Bi-LSTM SF-CNN but also the
non-ideal Minimum Mean Squared Error (MMSE) estimator, which serves as a bench-
mark for optimal (yet computationally expensive) channel estimation. This achievement
underscores the remarkable capacity of the Bi-LSTM SFT-CNN to learn complex chan-
nel dynamics and deliver highly accurate channel estimates even in challenging scenar-
ios.The findings of this research have significant implications for the advancement of
mmWave communication systems. By demonstrating the effectiveness of deep learn-
ing for channel estimation, this work paves the way for the development of more robust
and reliable mmWave communication links. The superior performance achieved by the
Bi-LSTM SFT-CNN, particularly its ability to handle mismatched channel statistics and
outperform the non-ideal MMSE estimator, suggests its potential for practical imple-
mentation in real-world mmWave deployments.This research opens doors for further
exploration of deep learning in mmWave communication. Future research directions
could involve investigating the application of deep learning for tasks beyond channel es-
timation, such as beamforming optimization, signal detection, and resource allocation.
Additionally, exploring alternative deep learning architectures and incorporating domain
knowledge from mmWave propagation could lead to further performance improvements.
In conclusion, this research has made a significant contribution to the field of mmWave
communication by demonstrating the power of deep learning for channel estimation. The
proposed Bi-LSTM SFT-CNN model offers a promising path towards achieving highly
accurate and robust channel estimation, paving the way for the development of next-
generation mmWave communication systems that are more reliable and efficient.

47
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