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DIGITAL ELECTRONICS: CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMS

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DIGITAL ELECTRONICS:
CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMS

Bishnu Charan Sarkar

Professor (Retired), Physics Department
Burdwan University
Suvra Sarkar
Associate Professor, Electronics Department
Burdwan Raj College

2018

i
Digital Electronics: Circuits and Systems
by Bishnu Charan Sarkar and Suvra Sarkar

First Published: 2018

© Debdeep Sarkar
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or copied
in any form by any means without prior permission. All efforts are made to
ensure that the published information is correct.

ISBN: 978-81-88391-57-8

Price: INR 450

Cover Design: Debdeep Sarkar

Published by : Sad-Ul-Tan Prakasani, Burdwan

Printed by : Sadhana Press, 11, J. B. Mitra Road, Burdwan.
West Bengal, India

Available at:
• Bani Book Suppliers (C/O Bandhab Pustakalay, B.C. Road,
Burdwan), Mobile No. 9732293370 (Uttam)
• A. K. Distributors, S. C. Sen Road. Purulia. PIN-723101.
Mobile No. 9647600457

ii
 To the beloved memories of our parents
Late Radhakinkar Sarkar and Late Niharbala Sarkar
Late Sunil Sarkar and Late Sandhyarani Sarkar

iii
iv
 PREFACE
Electronics science and technology has undergone a huge change during the last
100 years or so. From the days of vacuum tubes, we are in the age of lap-tops, smart
phones and Internet. To enhance the knowledge, Electronics is taught in under-
graduate and post-graduate levels as a major science subject and it is an important
component of Physics courses of all universities. Independent as well as supporting
courses in Electronics are there in electrical, communication, computer science, and
instrumentation engineering graduation programs. As such, different courses on
Electronics have been designed. Generally the subject of Electronics is divided into
two main parts, namely, Analog and Digital. Recently, the new CBCS syllabus on
Physics (Honours) proposed by the UGC (GoI) contains important parts on
Electronics. The present book is written on Digital Electronics portion of that
syllabus. The course on Analog Electronics would be addressed in a companion
book. That book is an abridged and UGC syllabus-oriented version of our earlier
book, “Analog Electronics: Devices and Circuits”.
Authors have a long experience in class room teaching on this subject; one of the
authors (BCS) had taught it for more than 36 years at different levels. This book is
based on that experience. Also the book-writing idea has originated from the desire
to make those teaching experiences a permanent one. In this process, though
students are not present in front, their virtual presence is always felt.
We remember suggestions and help in different forms of our (BCS) students like
Dr Santanu Chattopadhyay (SKU), Dr Madhusudan Ghosh (CU), Dr Tanmoy
Banerjee (BU), Dr Soumen Chakraborty (KNU), Dr Manaj Dandapathak (WBUT),
Dr Joydeep Chakraboty (BU), Dr (Ms) Chaitali Koley (NIT-Mz) and others in
compiling this book. Our son Debdeep has taken interest in writing this book.
We would like to thank our publisher, printer and distributors for their interest
and support. Also we thank Mr. Prabodh Dey for his help in publication. Authors
would consider their work rewarded if the students find the text useful for learning
Digital Electronics and Microprocessors.

September-2018, Bishnu Charan Sarkar

Univ. Teachers Housing Coop., Suvra Sarkar
Plot-2, Krishnapur Road., E-mails: bcsarkar_phy@yahoo.co.in,
Burdwan-713104 suvrabrc@gmail.com

v
About the authors
————————————————————————————————-
Prof. Bishnu Charan Sarkar received his M.Sc. (with University Gold Medal)
and Ph.D. degree in 1975 and 1985 respectively from the University of Burdwan. He
was a faculty member of the Physics Department, Burdwan University since 1980
and has retired in 2017 as a Professor of the same department. He was in-charge of
Electronics section and also the coordinator of the M.Tech. Program in ECE
(Microwaves) of that department. He has a research experience of about 40 years
and has published more than 200 papers in journals, conferences and symposium-
proceedings. He did research in the fields of synchronous communications, digital
signal processing, nonlinear electronic circuits, chaotic microwave oscillators etc.
He has supervised PhD works of 15 students till date. He has authored / co-authored
four technical books. He has also contributed 4 book chapters (Springer, Nova
Publishers) and edited three other technical books. He is a regular reviewer of
journals published by IEEE, IET, AIP, Elsevier, Springer etc. He was the Dean of
faculty of science, Burdwan University and Chairman of IETE, Burdwan sub-centre.

Dr. (Mrs.) Suvra Sarkar received her B.Sc. and M.Sc. degrees from the
University of Burdwan in 1981 and 1983 respectively, with University Gold Medals
in both cases. She was also a recipient of Jawaharlal Nehru Memorial Award in
1981. She received her Ph.D. degree from the University of Burdwan for her
research on solid-state microwave oscillators in 1990. She was a CSIR research
associate during 1991-1995. Till date she has published more than 65 technical
papers. She has co-authored one book chapter (Springer) and one text book on
Electronics. Currently she is an Associate Professor in the Department of
Electronics, Burdwan Raj College. She is the in-charge of the same department and
has teaching experience of about 22 years.

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About the book
————————————————————————————————
Elementary topics of Electronics are included in two core papers of the
UGC prescribed CBCS syllabus for Physics Honours (PHYH) students.
These papers are Core-VII of semester-III and Core-X of semester-IV.
Core-VII paper deals with digital electronics and core-X paper is on analog
electronics. The present book entitled “Digital Electronics: Circuits and
Systems” is written according to the UGC prescribed CBCS syllabus Core
Course-VII for Physics Honours students. The syllabus is adopted by number
of Indian Universities. Most of the Universities of West Bengal have taken up
this course for digital electronics.
Besides Physics Honours courses this book would be useful for
Electronics Science Honours students and Electronics General / Generic
of three year BSc course according to the UGC CBCS syllabus for their
relevant topics on digital electronics. Some additional and advanced topics
are included to give the discussion a contemporary outlook. All the chapters
are supplemented with review questions, solved problems and exercises.

The UGC CBCS Syllabus on Digital Electronics for Physics (H)

SEMESTER-III
PHYH-C VII: DIGITAL SYSTEMS AND APPLICATIONS
Introduction to CRO: Block Diagram of CRO, Electron Gun, Deflection
System and Time Base, Deflection Sensitivity Applications of CRO: (1)
Study of Waveform, (2) Measurement of Voltage, Current, Frequency, and
Phase Difference (3 Lectures)
Integrated Circuits (Qualitative treatment only): Active and Passive
components, Discrete components, Wafer, Chip, Advantages and drawbacks

vii
of ICs, Scale of integration: SSI, MSI, LSI and VLSI (basic idea and
definitions only), Classification of ICs, Examples of Linear and Digital ICs.
(3 Lectures)
Digital Circuits: Difference between Analog and Digital Circuits, Binary Numbers,
Decimal to Binary and Binary to Decimal Conversion, BCD, Octal and Hexadecimal
numbers, AND, OR and NOT Gates (realization using Diodes and Transistor),
NAND and NOR Gates as Universal Gates, XOR and XNOR Gates and application
as Parity Checkers. (6 Lectures)
Boolean algebra: De Morgan's Theorems. Boolean Laws., Simplification of Logic
Circuit using Boolean Algebra, Fundamental Products, Idea of Minterms and
Maxterms, Conversion of a Truth table into Equivalent Logic Circuit by (1) Sum of
Products Method and (2) Karnaugh Map. (6 Lectures)
Data processing circuits: Basic idea of Multiplexers, De-multiplexers, Decoders,
Encoders. (4 Lectures)
Arithmetic Circuits: Binary Addition, Binary Subtraction using 2's Complement,
Half and Full Adders, Half and Full Subtractors, 4-bit binary Adder/Subtractor. (5
Lectures)
Sequential Circuits: SR, D, and JK Flip-Flops. Clocked (Level and Edge
Triggered) Flip-Flops, Preset and Clear operations, Race-around conditions in JK
Flip-Flop, M/S JK Flip-Flop. (6 Lectures)
Timers: IC 555: block diagram and applications: Astable multivibrator and
Monostable multivibrator. (3 Lectures)
Shift registers: Serial-in-Serial-out, Serial-in-Parallel-out, Parallel-in-Serial-out and
Parallel-in-Parallel-out Shift Registers (only up to 4 bits). (2 Lectures)
Counters (4 bits): Ring Counter, Asynchronous counters, Decade Counter,
Synchronous Counter. (4 Lectures)
Computer Organization: Input/output Devices, Data storage (idea of RAM and
ROM), Computer memory, Memory organization & addressing, Memory
Interfacing, Memory Map. (6 Lectures)
Intel 8085 Microprocessor Architecture: Main features of 8085. Block diagram,
Components, Pin-out diagram, Buses, Registers, ALU, Memory, Stack memory,
Timing and Control circuitry, Timing states, Instruction cycle, Timing diagram of
MOV and MVI.(8 Lectures)
Introduction to Assembly Language: 1 byte, 2 byte & 3 byte instructions.
(4 Lectures)
Data types: Object types-signal, variable, constant, Data types –scalar types,
composite types, Incomplete types, File Type caveats, subtypes, Subprograms and
functions

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CONTENTS
————————————————————————————————

PREFACE viii-xi

DIGITAL ELECTRONICS
CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMS

Chapter 1: Elements of Integrated circuit 1-16

1.1. IC preliminaries 1
1.1.1. Semiconductors and transistors 2
1.1.2. Evolution of Integrated Circuit 3
1.1.3. Advantages and drawbacks of ICs 4
1.2. Classification of components and circuits 5
1.2.1. Active and passive components 5
1.2.2. Discrete circuits and integrated circuits 6
1.2.3. Application-based classification of ICs 7
1.3. IC design process (Qualitative) 7
1.3.1. IC wafer preparation 8
1.3.2. Epitaxial growth 9
1.3.3. Oxidation 9
1.3.4. Photolithography 9
1.3.5. Diffusion 11
1.3.6. Ion implantation 11
1.3.7. Metallization 11
1.3.8. Packaging 11
1.4. Scale of integration of ICs 12
1.5. Some additional comments on IC technology 14
Summary 14
Review Questions 16

Chapter 2: Number Systems 17-34

2.1. Introduction 17
2.1.1. Positional number system 17
2.2. Positional value of a digit in a number 19
2.3. Binary Number System 20

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 2.3.1. Binary equivalent of unsigned
decimal integer number 21
2.3.2. Binary equivalent of unsigned
decimal real number 22
2.4. Representation of signed integers 22
2.4.1. BCD Code 25
2.5. Other number systems 25
2.5.1. Octal number system 25
2.5.2. Hexa decimal number system 26
2.6. Basic Arithmetic operations on numbers 27
2.6.1. Binary addition 28
2.6.2. Binary subtraction 29
2.6.3. Binary subtraction in complementary arithmetic 30
Summary 31
Review Questions 32
Solved Problems 32
Exercise 34

Chapter-3: Basic Gates and Boolean Algebra 35-68

3.1. Analog and Digital Circuits 35
3.2. Basic Logic Gates 36
3.2.1. NOT gate 37
3.2.2. AND gate 37
3.2.3. OR gate 38
3.3. Derived Logic gates 39
3.3.1. NAND gate 39
3.3 2. NOR gate 39
3.3.3. Exclusive OR gate 40
3.3.4. Exclusive-NOR gate 41
3.4. Logic operation in electronic circuit 41
3.5. Universal logic gates 42
3.5.1. NAND gate as universal gate 43
3.5.2. NOR gate as universal gate 44
3.6. Theorems of Boolean algebra 46
3.6.1. Commutative theorem 46
3.6.2. Associative Theorem 47
3.6.3. Distributive theorem 47
3.6.4. Absorption Theorem 47
3.7. De Morgan’s Theorem 48
3.8. Logic circuit described by Boolean function 49
3.8.1. Min-term and SOP representation 50

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 3.8.2. Max-terms and POS representation 52
3.8.3. Incomplete truth tables and don’t care states 53
3.8.4: Equivalence of SOP and POS forms 54
3.9. Application of EX-OR gates 55
3.9.1. Controlled inverter (CI) 56
3.9.2. Modulo-2 adder/subtractor 56
3.9.3. Parity generator 56
3.9.4. Parity checker 57
3.10. Electrical characteristics of logic gates 58
3.10.1. Logic family 58
3.10.2. Operating temperature 58
3.10.3. Propagation Delay 59
3.10.4. Fan–in 59
3.10.5. Fan-out 59
3.10.6. Allowed range of input and output voltage levels 59
3.10.7. Noise Margin 60
Summary 60
Review Questions 61
Solved Problems 62
Exercise 66
Some common IC gates 68

Chapter-4: Combinational Logic Circuits 69-108

4.1. Introduction to combinational logic circuits 69
4.2. A typical logic circuit and circuit complexity 70
4.3. Simplification of Boolean functions 72
4.3.1. Algebraic technique 72
4.3.2. Karnaugh map technique for logic simplification 73
4.3.2.1. Construction of Karnaugh map 73
4.3.2.2. Different groups of 1’s in a map 75
4.3.3. Rules of Simplification 77
4.3.3.1. Simplification examples 77
4.4. Binary adder 78
4.4.1. Single bit half adder 78
4.4.2. Single bit full adder 80
4.5. Binary subtractor 82
4.5.1. Single bit half subtractor 83
4.5.2. Single bit full subtractor 84
4.6. Arithmetic circuits for multi-bit numbers 85
4.6.1. Multi-bit parallel adder 86
4.6.2. Multi bit parallel subtractor 87

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4.7. Adder/ subtractor circuit (ASC) 88
4.8. Multiplexer 89
4.8.1. Boolean functions using multiplexer 92
4.9. De-multiplexer 94
4.10. Decoders 96
4.10.1. BCD-to-seven decoder 98
4.11. Encoders 99
4.11.1. Decimal-to-binary encoder 100
4.11.2. Priority encoder 102
Summary 103
Review Questions 104
Solved Problems 105
Exercise 106
Some common ICs for Arithmetic and Combinational circuits 108

Chapter-5: Sequential Logic Circuits 109-140

5.1. Introduction to sequential circuits 109
5.2. Digital Latches 110
5.2.1. NOT latch 110
5.2.2. NAND latch 110
5.3. Flip-flop circuits 111
5.3.1. S-R Flip flop 111
5.3.2. S-R flip flop with preset and clear 112
5.4. J-K flip flop 114
5.4.1. Basic J-K flip flop 114
5.4.2. T flip flop 116
5.4.3. D flip flop 116
5.5. Race around problem of a J-K flip flop 117
5.6. Master slave J-K flip-flop 118
5.7. Excitation table of flip-flops 119
5.8. Shift Registers 121
5.8.1. SISO 122
5.8.2. SIPO 123
5.8.3. PISO 123
5.8.4. PIPO 124
5.8.5. Universal Shift Registers 124
5.9. Counters and Dividers 125
5.10. Asynchronous or Ripple counter/divider 126
5.10.1. Modulo-m counter/ divider 128
5.11. Synchronous counter 129
5.11.1. Ring Counter 131

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 5.11.2. Johnson Counter 132
5.11.3. Decade Counter 133
Summary 135
Review Questions 137
Solved Problems 137
Exercise 138
Some commonly used ICs for Sequential circuits 140

Chapter-6: Timer Circuits 141-156

6.1. Introduction 141
6.2. Multivibrators and their classification 141
6.3. NAND-based timing circuit 143
6.4. 555 IC 144
6.4.1. Pin description of 555 IC 145
6.4.2. Internal description of 555 IC 145
6.4.3. Operating principle of 555 IC 147
6.5. Astable multi-vibrator using 555 IC 147
6.5.1. Generation of square wave using 555 IC 149
6.6. Mono-stable multivibrator using 555 IC 150
6.7. Other timer ICs 152
Summary 152
Review Questions 153
Solved Problems 154
Exercise 155
Some Common Timer ICs 156

Chapter 7: Computer Organization 157-178

7.1. Introduction to computer 157
7.2. Functional description of a digital computer 157
7.3. Input and Output devices 158
7.4. Central processing unit (CPU) 159
7.5. Data Storage or Memory devices 161
7.6. Semiconductor memory circuit 163
7.6.1. Memory cell, address, capacity 163
7.6.2. Conceptual memory circuit 164
7.6.3. Practical memory cell and its organization 165
7.6.4. Typical memory IC 168
7.7. Read only memory (ROM) 169
7.8. Random access memory or Read write memory 170
7.8.1. Characteristics of RAM 170
7.8.2. Static and Dynamic RAM 170

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 7.8.3. Dynamic RAM with refreshing circuit 171
7. 9. Memory Management 171
7.9.1. Accessing speed of memory 172
7.9.2. Cache memory 172
7.9.3. Memory hierarchy 172
7.9.4. Memory Expansion 173
7.10. Memory Map 174
7.11. Discussions 175
Summary 175
Review questions 177
Solved Problems 178
Exercise 178

Chapter-8: Intel 8085 Microprocessor 179-216

8.1. Evolution of microprocessor 179
8.2. 8085 microprocessor and its characteristics 180
8.3. Pin description of 8085 180
8.3.1. Power supply and timing related pins 181
8.3.2. Data and address related pins 181
8.3.3. Control and status related pins 182
8.3.4. Hardware interrupts related pins 182
8.3.5. Direct memory access (DMA) related pins 183
8.4. Internal architecture of 8085 MP 183
8.4.1. Internal registers 184
8.4.2. Instruction decoder 186
8.4.3. Arithmetic and Logic unit (ALU) 186
8.4.4. Timing circuit 186
8.4.5. Control Unit 186
8.5. Microprocessor-based system 187
8.5.1. System Bus 187
8.5.2. External Memory 187
8.5.3. Input Output Devices 188
8.6. Instruction set 189
8.6.1. Data transfer group 189
8.6.2. Arithmetic group 190
8.6.3. Logical group 190
8.6.4. Branching group 190
8.6.5. I/O, Stack, and Machine control instructions 191
8.7. Addressing mode 191
8.7.1. Implied or implicit addressing mode 191
8.7.2. Immediate addressing mode 192

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 8.7.3. Register addressing mode 192
8.7.4. Direct addressing mode 192
8.7.5. Indirect addressing mode 192
8.7.6. Combined or mixed addressing mode 193
8.8. Machine cycles and timing diagram 193
8.8.1. One-byte instruction 193
8.8.2. Two-byte instruction 194
8.8.3. Three-byte instruction 194
8.9. Timing diagram of MOV and MVI instructions 195
8.10. Introduction to Assembly Language 197
8.10.1. Fields of ALP and its translation 197
8.10.2. Structures of ALP 198
8.10.3. Subprogram in ALP 198
8.11. Detailed instruction set 201
8.11.1. Data Transfer Group 201
8.11.2. Arithmetic Group 202
8.11.3. Logical Group 204
8.11.4. Branch group 205
8.11.5. I/O, STACK and machine control Group 206
8.12. Program examples 206
8.12.1. Direct addressing 207
8.12.2. Indirect addressing 207
8.12.3. Multiplication by repeated addition 208
8.12.4. Block data handling 209
Summary 210
Review questions 212
Solved problems 212
Exercise 215

Chapter-9: Cathode ray oscilloscope 217-238

9.1. CRO preliminaries 217
9.2. Structure of a CRO 218
9.3. Cathode ray tube (CRT) 219
9.3.1. The electron gun 219
9.3.2. The deflection system 220
9.3.3. The fluorescent screen 221
9.4. Electric field-based defection principle 221
9.5. Display of output waveform 223
9.6. Time base signal generator 226
9.7. CRO application in measurement of electrical voltage 227
9.7.1. DC voltage measurement 227

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 9.7.2. AC voltage measurement 228
9.8. CRO application in measurement of signal frequency 228
9.8.1. Direct method 229
9.8.2. Indirect method using Lissajous pattern 230
9.9. CRO application in measurement of phase difference
between two sinusoidal signals 232
9.9.1. Indirect method using Lissajous pattern 232
9.9.2. Direct method 234
Summary 234
Review questions 236
Solved problems 236
Exercise 237

Books for Further Reading 239

Model Question Papers 240
Set-I 240
Set-II 241
Set-III 242
Index 244

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