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O Locomotion reIers to the ability oI a whole organism to move Irom one place to
another .
O Movement reIers to a change in the position oI any part oI an organism`s body but it
does not necessarily involve locomotion
O Support is provided by a Iramework called a skeleton
O There are three diIIerent type oI skeleton :
Exoskeleton ( on the outside oI the body )
Endoskeleton ( internal )
Hydrostatic skeleton ( made oI Iluid )
O Multicellular organisms :
Have soIt and collapsible body tissues which need to be held in a rigid Irame
and be supported












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Support the important
internal organs and
protect the internal
structures Irom
damage
Enable the organisms to
move Irom place to
place
Exoskeleton or cuticle
oI an insect covers the
surIace oI its body
Cuticle covered with
wax to prevent water
loss
Exoskeletons are thin
and Ilexible at the joints
Non-living structures
and incapable Ior
growth
In order to increase in
size, arthropods have to
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Found in all vertebrates
Consists oI rigid
Iramework made up oI
bones and cartilage to
which muscles are
attached. Vertebrates
depends on bones Ior
locomotion
Functions :
O Maintaining the body
shape
O Supporting the soIt
body tissues
O Protecting the internal
organs Irom injury
Certain parts oI
endoskeleton store
minerals
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SoIt-bodied organisms
Consist oI internal
Iluids with the
conIined spaces oI the
body
The Iluid is held under
pressure in
compartments
surrounded by muscles
A skeleton is which
cannot be compressed
is Iormed as the liquid
cannot escape
A soIt-structured wall
is Iormed so that
muscles can act
against it

PROBLEM FACED IN SUPPORT AND LOCOMOTION
EXAMPLE :

O ater is a medium oI support but it dense , viscous and resists movement
O Air is much less dense but a lot oI eIIort is needed by an animal to overcome
gravitational pull

THE HUMAN SKELETON
O Human skeleton may consists mainly oI bones but a Iew part such as nose , soIt disc
between vertebrate and ears are made oI cartilage
O Two main parts :
-the axial skeleton
-the appendicular skeleton
Axial skeleton
Consists oI the skull, vertebral column, ribs and sternum (breastbone)
SKULL


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The skull which contain 22 bones, rests on top oI the vertebral column
Includes :
The cranial bones enclose and protect the brain
The Iacial bones protect and provide support Ior the entrances to the digestive
and respiratory system
Bones which make up the skull are held securely together by immoveable joints
called sutures
The jaw is only Ireely moveable bone oI the skull


RIBS AND STERNUM







The thorax consists oI a skeletal portion called the thoracic cage
Thoracic cage contains oI ribs and sternum
Function oI thoracic cage :
Encloses and protects the organs in the thoracic cavity and upper abdominal cavity
2 pairs oI ribs make up the sides oI the thoracic cavity. They articulate the 2
vertebrae oI the thoracic region
Sternum or breastbone is a Ilat, narrow bone, located in the centre oI the anterior
thoracic wall
VERTEBRAL COLUMN
Also called as the spine or the backbone
Composed oI a series oI called vertebrae
Vertebral column
(a) Encloses and protect the spinal cord
(b)Supports the head
(c) Serves as a point oI attachment Ior the ribs, pelvic girdle and the muscles oI the
back
Vertebral column has 33 vertebrate which consists oI 7 cervical vertebrae, 2 thoracic
vertebrae, 5 lumbar vertebrae, 5 sacral vertebrae (sacrum) and 4 caudal vertebrae
(coccyx)
The cervical, thoracic and lumbar vertebrae are moveable while the sacrum and
coccyx are not moveable
Between the vertebrae are intervertebral discs which permit various movement oI the
vertebral column and absorb vertical shock. These intervertebral are made oI cartilage

THE VERTEBRATE
A typical vertebra has a centrum, an opening called vertebral Ioramen and processes
The spinal cord goes through the vertebral Ioramen

Cervlcal verLebrae
O unlque feaLure of Lhe cervlcal verLebrae ls LhaL all cervlcal have Lransverse foramen Lhrough
whlch blood vessels and nerve passes
O 1he flrsL Lwo cervlcal verLebrae has a sllghLly dlfferenL shape from Lhe oLher cervlcal
verLebrae 1he flrsL cervlcal verLebra ls Lhe aLlas 1he second verLebra ls Lhe axls

1horaclc verLebrae

O Pave splnous processes LhaL are long and dlrecLed downwards
O Splnous and Lransverse processes serve as polnLs lf aLLachmenL for muscles and llgamenL

Lumbar verLebrae

O Are Lhe largesL and Lhe sLrongesL verLebrae ln Lhe verLebral column
O 1he process are shorL and Lhlck
O Pave large cenLrums whlch bear Lhe welghL of Lhe lower back

Sacrum and coccyx

O Sacrum Lrlangular bone formed Lhrough Lhe fuslon of flve bones
O Coccyx Lrlangular ln shape and formed Lhrough Lhe fuslon of four bones

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ConslsLs of Lhe pecLoral glrdle upper llmbs pelvlc glrdle and Lhe lower llmbs

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ach of Lhe lefL and rlghL pecLoral glrdles conslsLs of Lwo bones
O Clavlcle collarbone a long slender Sshaped bone LhaL ls poslLlon horlzonLally above
Lhe flrsL rlb
O Spacula shoulder blade ls large flaL Lrlangular bone slLuaLed ln Lhe posLerlor of Lhe
Lhorax

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ConslsLs of Lwo hlp bones
rovldes a sLrong and sLable supporL for Lhe verLebral column
Plp bones are [olnL Lo each oLher aL a [olnL called Lhe publc symphysls

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Pumerus ls Lhe longesL and largesL bone of Lhe upper llmbs lL arLlculaLes wlLh Lhe spacula
aL Lhe shoulder and Lhe wlLh ulna and Lhe radlus aL Lhe elbow
1he carpus or wrlsL of Lhe hand conslsLs of elghL small bones called carpals
1he meLacarpus or palm of Lhe hand conslsLs flve bones called meLacarpals
1he phalanges are Lhe bones of Lhe flngers LoLal phalanges ln each hand ls 14 Lwo phalange
ln Lhe Lhumb oLher four dlglLs have Lhree phalanges each

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emur ls Lhe longesL heavlesL and Lhe sLrongesL bone ln Lhe body
Pead of femur forms a ballandsockeL [olnL wlLh Lhe hlp bone
1he oLher end of Lhe femur forms a hlnge [olnL wlLh Lhe Llbla
1he paLella or kneecap ls a smaller Lrlangular bone whlch proLecLs Lhe knee [olnL a hlnge
[olnL
1lbla bears Lhe welghL of Lhe body
lbula whlch ls parallel Lo Lhe Llbla ls smaller Lhan Lhe Llbla
1he Larsus or ankle of Lhe fooL conLalns seven bones called Larsals
lve bones called Lhe meLaLarsals form Lhe skeleLon of Lhe meLaLarsus
1he phalanges of Lhe fooL are slmllar Lo Lhose of Lhe hand boLh ln number and arrangemenL