U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE R, P. LAMONT, Secretary BUREAU OF MINES SCOTT TURNER, Director Bulletin 349 LIQUID-OXYGEN EXPLOSIVES BY G. ST. J. PERROTT and N. A. TOLCH UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON : 1932 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D.C. - - = Price 25 centsCONTENTS Introduetion.- Acknowledgments Historical review. Europe. North America. South America, Liquefaction of oxygen. Storage, soaking, and carrying containers. Vacuum-walled metal con- tainers. Vacuum-walled metal soaking containers_.. Heat-insulated boxes. Life of L. O. X. cartrid; Factors affecting rate of evapo- ration. Combustibie ‘absorbent mate- Diameter of cartridge_ Environment... Cartridge paper. Effect of atmospheric pressure ‘on evaporation rate. Explosive properties of L. 0. X_ ‘heoretical considerations Calculating theoretical ciency. Temp explosion. Pressure de plosion. Change oi sure with oxygen eontent and packing density. Conelusions. Explosive testing metho Ballistie pendulum. Rate of detonation— triche method. Strength of L. 0. ‘on volume basis. Tests of L. O. X. in ballistic pendulum. Conclusions. Relation between oxygen ratio and propulsive strength. Cartridges of large diameter. Strength of fabric bag. Effect of cartridge diameter on strength. Rate of detonation of Ls 0. cartridges. Conelusions. Explosion-by-influence tests Sensitivity to impact. ‘Test procedure. Effect of oxygen content on sensitivity to impact__ Results of other investigators Effect of sensitizers Tgnitibility of L. 0. X- fect of purity of oxygen on explosive L.O. X_. properties of Materiais used and ‘experi- mental procedure Discussion of results. Conelusion___- Accessories used for L. 0. fring Cordeau Bickford firing. Effect of low temperatures on electric detonators, Delay-action electric ‘deto- nators. Firing with “fuse and deto- ea Liquid-ox, gen explosives not suited for use in coal mines_ Conclusion as to hazards. Evolution of gases by detonation of L. O. = Gases evolvs Bage. Gases tests with L. O. X. Leadville, Colo. Gerro de Pasco, Clorinda Tunnel. Diamante mine-. Pachuea, Mexico. Use of L, O, X. operations. Field of usefulness of Enos Coal Mining Co., Oak- land City, Ind_.. Liquid-oxygen plant. - Manufacture of cartridges Changing ond transporting Drilling of boreholes: Blasting crew. Preparation of holes for shooting... Loading of holes. pyramid. Goat 6 ti -yramic ‘orporation, Pinckneyville, Tl... PageUnited Electric Coal Cos., Duquoin, Il. Norton Coal “Mining Go., Nortonville, Ky. Sunlight Coal Co., Boonville, ind. Chile Gopper Co., Chuquica- mata, Chile. Material blasted. Liquid-oxygen plan rage liquid oxygen. Cartridge manufacture. Soaking of eartridges.. Blasting practice Real del Monte Co.; Pachues, Maxingsmoeneterte Production and ‘Type of cartrid Iron mines of Lorraine. Production of gen. Cost of L. O. X_ Use of L. O, X. in France- Galerie d’Erronville.. CONTENTS Page Methods of impregnating cart- ridges with liquid oxygen 64| _ while in borehole... Survey of accidents and acci- 64 dent statistics Advantages of L. 0. X. 65 | Disadvantages of L. 0. X_--~ Conclusion as to safety of 65 L. 0. X__ - 65 | Accidents with L. 0. X___--- 65 Norton Coal Mining Go., 65 Dawson Springs, Ky__-” 65 Limestone quarry, Upton, 66 y= 66 Mine “at Chuquicamata, 66 Chile.. Bellhag quarry, England. 68 Dnieprostroy quarry, Rus- si oe 7 68 Consumption of and inj 69 ties from explosives Accident statistics in the 69 mines of Lorraine. 71 | Recommendations for sai 71 | _ ling and use of L. 0. X-_--.. 72 | Bibliography 73 | Index.ILLUSTRATIONS: Fig. 1. Large liquid-oxygen container... as 2. Method of charging soaking boxes with liquid oxygen. 3. A, Construction details of vacuum-walled metal container; B, evapo- ation tests on containers at rest. 4, A, Vacuum-walled soaking containers; B, evaporation losses of soak- ‘ing containers. ___ ea - 5. Relation between explosive strength, oxygen content, and time of evaporation, lampblack cartrid - 6. Rate of evaporation of oxygen, 134 by 8 inch cartridge: 7. Rate of evaporation of oxygen, 114 by 8 inch cartridge . 8! Effect of diameter of cartridge on rate of evaporation, lampblack B_ 9. Effect of diameter of cartridge on rate of evaporation, lampblack C_ 10. Effect of diameter of cartridge on rate of evaporation, lampblack L. 11. Comparison of rate of evaporation in borehole and in’ ai -- 12, Cannon, charged with explosive, being rolled into position at mortar_ 13. L. O. X. cartridge ready for rate-of-detonation test _ = 14, Relative propulsive strength of lampblack and gas-black cartridges of various densities... Sees : 15. Relative propulsive strength of lampblack and gas-black cartridges plotted against density Ee 7 16. Propulsive strength of various mixtures at different times of evapora~ tion. = . Relation between oxygen content and propulsive strength_ Rate of evaporation in ballistic eannon__ -_ Relation of oxygen ratio to strength per gram of cartridge packed with lampblack or other form of carbon. 20. Effect of cartridge diameter on stre evaporation. Method of maki - . Impact device. : Cutting sample of L. 0. X. cb Placing L, O- X- sample on anvil for impac . Relation between purity of liquid oxygen and prop L. O. X. cartridges, as shown by ballistic pendulum. 26. Relation between oxygen content and period of evaporat tridges saturated with liquid oxygen-nitrogen mixtures. 27. Effect of purity of oxygen on eficieney of LO, X-—-- 28. Change of rate of detonation of L. O. X. cartridges wit oxygen. -- 29. Effect of liquid oxygen on electric detonators in lead-plat 30. Flame photographs of L. 0. X. 31. Sampling gases from Bichel gage 32. ‘Typical rounds at Cerro de 7 33. ‘Typical overburden at Enos coal property. 34. Iiterior of liquid-oxygen plant at Enos property, - 35. ‘Typical 27-hole 69-inch round in Camelia mine, Pachuea, broken with .. O. X. eartridges.. won --- 36, Comparative blasting tests of L. O. X. and 40 per cent gelatin dyna- mite at Camelia mine, June-July, 1924, according to E. L. Young_ vLIQUID-OXYGEN EXPLOSIVES * By G. Sr. J. Punrorr? and N. A. Toucn? INTRODUCTION Liquid-oxygen explosives (L. O. X.) consist of a. combustible ab- sorbent material saturated with liquid oxygen. When used for blasting they are detonated in the same way as ordinary dynamites. The explosive effect is produced by the rapid reaction between oxy- gen and combustible, initiated by the detonator; the reaction pro- duces a large volume of gas at high temperature and pressure. ‘The L. O. X. cartridge is a paper or fabrie wrapper filled with carbonaceous material. Before the cartridges are used in blasting operations they are soaked until they are saturated in liquid oxygen contained in a vacuum-walled or other container suitably insulated. After the saturated cartridges have been loaded and tamped in boreholes they are fired with detonators (caps), electric detonators, or cordeau in much the same way as other explosives. By suit- able variation of the nature and density of the combustible cartridges having a wide variety of explosive characteristics may be made. Because of the low temperature (—183° C.) of liquid oxygen a large temperature difference exists between the cartridge and its surroundings, and evaporation of oxygen begins the instant the ear- tridge is removed from the liquid, This gives rise to both advan- tages and disadvantages of using liquid oxygen—advantages in that the cartridge is nonexplosive before being soaked and again non- explosive after being soaked as soon as the liquid oxygen has evapo- rated, and disadvantages in that the explosive strength diminishes as the oxygen evaporates and if the round is fired after a certain time the gases produced contain increasing percentages of carbon monoxide. Liquid-oxygen explosives have been used in the United States and abroad in underground blasting in metal mines and in opencut work, such as quarrying and stripping. The development of this explosive has been hampered somewhat by the enthusiasm of its proponents, who have made extravagant claims as to the safety and efficiency of the explosive, which were not always verified in actual practice. The facts appear to be that L. O. X. has a definite but limited field of usefulness. In this country quarrying and stripping operations seem the most promising field of application. In such operations cartridges of large diameter and long explosive life can Work on manuseript completed April, 1931. 2 Former explosives physical chemist and supervising enginesr, Pittsburgh Experiment Station, Bureau of Mines. * Associate mining engineer, explosives section, Bureau of Mines. 12 LIQUID-OXYGEN EXPLOSIVES be used. Carbon monoxide, which may be present in the gaseous products of detonation of L.. O. X., is a hazard in underground work- ings but not important in opencut blasting. The explosive effect of L. O. X. under favorable conditions is comparable with that of a 40 per cent gelatin dynamite. The accident record of L. O. X. in underground blasting in Europe indicates that the hazard of using O. X. is about, equal to that of using commercial dynamites. In opencut blasting in the United States and South America accidents have occurred while drill holes were being charged; apparentl: these were due to unduly vigorous handling of the cartridges. All the safety precautions necessary in handling commercial dynamites must be observed in the use of L. O. X., and in addition its high in- flammability must be recognized. If safety precautions are observed the handling and use of L. Q. X. present, no undue hazard. The purpose of this bulletin is to examine the advantages and dis- advantages of L. O. X., both in the light of experimental investiga- tions by the Bureau of Mines and the results in actual blasting, and to discuss the probable future fields of usefulness for this novel type of explosive. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Thanks are due in particular to George 8. Rice, chief minin, engineer, who initiated the bureau’s investigations on L. O, X. in 191 and who has given the authors the benefit of his experience, advice, and criticism during the course of the work. Acknowledgment is made also to J. E. Tiffany, J. E. Crawshaw, D, B. Gawthrop, and L. V. Clark, of the explosives division, for their assistance in’ pre- paring parts of the manuscript. Under a cooperative agreement with the Chile Exploration Co. in 1930 experimental data were obtained on sensitivity to impact and explosion by influence, and regulations were formulated for the safe handling and use of liquid- oxygen explosives. Calculations of temperatures and pressures were made originally in 1924, but these were recalculated by Bernard Lewis, physical chemist, who used the latest specific heat and equi- librium data. HISTORICAL REVIEW EUROPE The first explosive of liquid-oxygen type was “ oxyliquit,” which was introduced by Linde (1)* in 1897 and was prepared from char- coal saturated with liquid air and inclosed in an insulating paper wrapper. A patent for it was granted in 1898. It will be noted that this explosive contained liquid air, not liquid oxygen, because at that time liquid oxygen could not be separated economically from liquid air on a large scale. ‘The first use of oxyliquit in blasting was in 1897 in driving a crosscut in a coal mine at Pensberg, Upper Bavaria, Germany. ‘The use of exyliquit in gassy and dusty coal mines (1) was dem- onstrated to be unsafe by tests made at Schlebusch in 1898, because ignition was obtained when a charge of oxyliquit was fired in the presence of mixtures of gas and coal dust. ‘Numbers in parentheses refer to bibliography at end of this bulletin.HISTORICAL REVIEW 3 The first important use of oxyliquit was in 1899 in driving the Simplon Tunnel between Italy and Switzerland (1). In these trials the mixture used for absorbing the liquid air was crude petroleum, soot, and kieselguhr in the proportions of 20, 30, and 50, respectively. Favorable results are said to have been obtained by these methods, although little further work was done until the beginning of the World War. At this time the development and use of L. O. X. progressed rapidly because of the necessity that arose in Germany for conserving the glycerin and nitrates used in other types of explo- sives and because of developments whereby liquid oxygen coul separated economically from liquid air and then stored without undue evaporation losses. Before the World War a number of patents were granted in differ- ent countries for the use of liquid air or oxygen with various com- bustible materials, such as charcoal, lampblack, crude oil absorbed in kieselguhr, aluminum and magnesium powders, calcium hydride, coal, and naphthalene, Other patents specified the means of forming and insulating the cartridges. One method of applying the liquid air or oxygen to the absorbent combustible material of the cartridge was by immersing the cartridges in the liquid until saturated, removing them from the container, and then inserting them in the borehole as quickly as possible, By’a second method covered in several patents by Baldus and Kowatsch (3) the cartridges were first inserted in the borehole and then filled with liquid air or oxygen through small tubes. Otto Simonis (5) in England proposed a cartridge of two compartments, one containing liquid air and the other combustible material. In 1904 Sir James Dewar (6), of Great Britain, patented a method of producing and maintaining a high vacuum in double- walled metal containers in which he used charcoal between the evacuated walls. The Germans used this principle during the World War in making their liquid-oxygen storage containers, which were used in connection with L, ©. X-. According to Pabst (4), by 1917 the use of L. O. X. had increased to such an extent that 160 coal, metal, salt, and potash mines were using L, O. X. where plants had a total hourly capacity of 4,800 liters. NORTH AMERICA In the United States development of L. O. X. was begun in 1917 by the Bureau of Mines (2, 7), when George S. Rice, chief mining engineer, initiated experimenal work at the Explosives Experiment Station of the bureau near Pittsburgh. Field tests were also made in this district. These investigations showed that various L. O, X. mixtures compared favorably in strength with 40 per cent straight nitroglycerin dynamite and indicated that the explosive was worthy of a trial ona larger scale in this country. In 1920 the Real del Monte Co, (8), Pachuca, Mexico, became interested in the possibility of using this explosive in its under- ground metal mines at Pachuca. The company arranged for tests at the Bureau of Mines in January, 1921, and after study of the test results purchased a liquid-oxygen plant and began blasting in August, Tn 1992 the Ingersoll-Rand Co, and the Air Reduction Co. (9), New York City, became interested in L. O. X. and installed a plant at4 LIQUID-OXYGEN EXPLOSIVES the 900-foot level in a magnetite mine of the Witherbee-Sherman Co., Mineville, N. Y. Later, blasting was carried on in the quarries of the Calcite Quarry Co., Myerstown, Pa. The pioneering work of George B. Holderer, engineer with the Air Reduction Co., marked the beginning of stripping operations with L. O. X. in this country. From 1928 to 1924 the Purox Co. (10), Denver, Colo., carried on considerable underground blasting in the Whitecap mine, Yak Tun- nel, Leadville, Colo., and some experimental blasting in the iron-ore mines of the Birmingham district, Alabama. A by-product. of this work proved its most important achievement, namely, the develop- ment and manufacture of highly efficient vacuum-walled storage con- tainers for liquid oxygen, These were the first American-made con- tainers. From 1923 to 1925 the bureau (10, 11, 12, 18) carried on further experimental, work a Pittsburgh and field investigations at Lead- ville, Colo., Pachuca, Mexico, and Cerro de Pasco, Peru. ‘The funda- mental factors affecting the explosive properties of L. O. X. were worked out, underground blasting technique was studied, and toxic gases produced in blasting were investigated, In April, 1926, the Enos Coal Mining Co. (14) purchased the liguid-oxygen plant that had been used in the experimental work of the Air Reduction Co. and successfully applied L. 0. X. toa large coal-stripping operation in Indiana, which has been in operation since that date. The total 24-hour production of liquid oxygen is now 8,000 pounds, and the daily production of coal is 4,500 tons. Other stripping operations have been initiated in Illinois (23, 24), Indiana (26), and Kentucky (26). The fol lowing 1930 L. 3. . production statistics have been re- ceived from coal-stripping operators: 5,364,000 pounds of liquid oxygen was manufactured, 339,000 cartridges were used having a total soaked weight of 4,435,000 pounds, and 26,316,000 cubic yards of overburden was stripped ‘which uncovered 3,890,000 tons of coal. These figures do not include the statistics from four strip mines using L. O. X. which in 1928 produced 235,000 tons of coal and in 1929, 85,000 tons. SOUTH AMERICA In South America during 1924 and 1925 the Cerro de Pasco Cop- per Corporation (10) carried on experimental blasting in its under- ground mines at Cerro de Pasco, Peru. Beginning in 1926, the Chile Exploration Co. (15), of Chile, in- stalled a liquid-oxygen plant with a rated capacity of 75 liters an hour and successfully applied the explosive to large-scale opencut blasting, With this unit 200,000 tong of ore was blasted manthly, and by October 31, 1927, a total of 1,265,700 tons had been blasted. Individual blasts each averaged 80,000 tons; these large blasts were made possible with L. O. X- by the installation of three 1,000-gallon vacuum-walled storage containers. All of these operations are described in more detail in the section on mining operations (pp. 60-74). Experience in the United States, Mexico, and South America shows a definite field for L. O. X. in opencut blasting, where large cartridges of long life may be em- ployed, and a more limited field in underground operations.STORAGE, SOAKING, AND CARRYING CONTAINERS 5 LIQUEFACTION OF OXYGEN Liquid oxygen is separated from liquid air in a rectifying still by methods similar to those used in the rectification of alcohol. ‘The two rinepal types of machines for liquefying ait were developed by inde ‘and Claude, respectively. Oxygen was firet liquefied by Louis Calletet (16), a Frenchman, on December 2, 1877; he obtained the requisite low temperature by suddenly expanding the oxygen under pressure. On December 22, 1877, Raoul Pictets 2 Swiss, working independently and by a dif: ferent process, known as the “ easeade method,” also liguefied oxygen, In 1f09 Linde (0) “developed « method whereby lguid le could be made commercially. At Pachuca (8) in the iquetaction of air by this method the ait is first purified by removal of the dust par- tietes, water vapor, and carbo dioxide fnitially present in the air. The oil mist introduced through lubrication of the compressors is also eliminated as far as possible. ‘The purified afr is then subjected to an initial pressure of 2,700 pounds per square inch by means of suitable compressors. The temperature of the air is lowered by tak- ing advantage of the Joule Thompson effect, which is brought about by free expansion of the air through a special nozzle, ‘The Pachuca plant had a rated capacity of 80 ters of liquid oxygen an hour. ‘The Claude method of making liquid air 44 essentvally the same as the Linde method, except that the refrigeration is obtained by ex- panding a part of the air in an expansion engine. “Much lower pres- Eures and correspondingly lower powers are needed; the pressure required depends on the sizeof the plant; for example «plant pro Gucing 75 Kters of liquid oxygen on hour requires that the air be compressed to 900 pounds per square inch (9). STORAGE, SOAKING, AND CARRYING CONTAINERS Much of the success of L. O. X. blasting depends on the proper selection, use, and maintenance of the containers employed for stor- ing, transporting, and handling liquid oxygen and of those employed for soaking, transporting, and handling the L. O. X. cartridges, All containers must be of rugged construction and adequately heat in- sulated to confine the evaporation of liquid oxygen to the minimum. Several types of containers have been developed for particular needs; they are as follows: 1, Large-scale containers for storage of liquid oxygen (capacities, 3,555 and 12,000 liters). 2. Vacuum-walled metal containers (capacities, 5 to 100 liters). 3. Vacuum-walled metal soaking containers. 4. Heat-insulated wooden boxes for soaking and carrying L. O. X. cartridges. LARGE CONTAINERS Stephan (17) mentions a 12,000-liter container which is used for storing liquid oxygen for large blasts. The evaporation loss is only 0.12 per cent of the liquid per hour when the container is at least two-thirds full. Well-insulated soaking boxes are used in connec- tion with this storage container. The cartridges (150 by 500 mm.) are placed in the boxes, which are then filled with liquid oxygen6 LIQUID-OXYGEN EXPLOSIVES. drawn from the large container. After the cartridges have been soaked the soaking boxes are placed on motor trucks and transported to the points at which the cartridges are to be used for blasting. An 8,000-liter container similar in construction to the 12,000-liter container is shown in Figure 1. Schultz and Hunter (15) used three 1,000-gallon vacuum-walled containers at Chuquicamata, Chile, for storing the liquid oxygen from a plant producing 75 liters per hour. These containers were designed by L. E. Bedortha, of the Purox division, Oxweld Acetylene Co., Los Angeles, Calif. Each was a double-walled steel vessel with a vacuum space between the walls. The walls were five-eighths inch thick and were lined with sheet copper polished to a mirror finish. The vacuum spaces were filled with dry nitrogen to prevent tarnish- ing of the copper during shipment of the containers from the United States to Chile. After the containers had been set up they were re- evacuated to a degree closely approximating that estimated as pos- sible when the containers were designed. The vacuum, which is maintained while the tanks are kept constantly in operation, ranges from 0.00006 to 0.003 mm. The percentage loss in 24 hours for the highest vacuum is 2.2 and for the lowest vacuum, as much as 6.3. Pumping must be constant, at least during the time when the tanks contain liquid oxygen, to hold the necessary fine vacuum. For this purpose a vacuum-pump apparatus is used for each container. It consists of a Gaede mercury diffusion pump connected to the vacuum space through an air trap and backed by a Cenco-Hyvac oil pump. ‘he degree of vacuum is read on a Columbia gage. In the smaller vacuum-walled metal containers, described later, a charcoal adsorbent is placed in the vacuum space between the walls; in the larger containers, however, it was not considered advisable to use the charcoal adsorbent owing to the difficulty of replacing it from time to time. The three containers have a total capacity of 10,000 liters; one week is required to fill them with liquid oxygen. They are set below the floor level of the plant to permit gravity filling from the liquid-oxygen draw-off valve. ‘VACUUM-WALLED METAL CONTAINERS Vacuum-walled metal containers ranging in capacity from 5 to 100 liters are used for storing liquid oxygen at the plant and for its transportation from the plant to the points at which the cartridges are to be soaked. Because of an average difference in temperature of 190° C, between the atmospheric temperature and that of the boiling point of liquid oxygen the containers must be perfectly in- sulated against the outside temperature to confine the evaporation of the liquid oxygen to a minimum. ‘This requirement is met only by the use of vacuum-walled containers. A study of the factors that affect the efficacy of such containers was made and reported on by a committee of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research of Great Britain (18). Glass would be the ideal material for making vacuum-walled con- tainers; but owing to its fragility it hardly comes into consideration in practice, and its use remains confined to laboratories. Figure 3, A, shows construction details of a vacuum-walled metal container as used for the storage and transportation of liquid oxy-Form 30 PENALTY FOR PRIVATE USE To AVOID ‘PAYMENT OF POSTAGE, #300 DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE BUREAU OF MINES OFFICIAL BUSINESS U. S. Bureau of Mines, Anchorage, BV Alaska. ‘coven enorme omen se 19706‘Bureau of Mines Bulletin 349 ‘Figure 1—Large liquid-oxygen container Figuas 2—Method of charging soaking boxes with liquid oxygenSTORAGE, SOAKING, AND CARRYING CONTAINERS 7 gen. The principles applied to the construction of these vacuum containers are the same as those of the thermos flask. The con- tainer consists of an inner and outer spherical copper or brass shell with a vacuum space between, Even when the best and most effi- cacious methods are selected for the manufacture of the containers no metal has been found that does not eventually permit air to pass through. On the other hand, the requirements of the vacuum, in view of the economi- cal storage of liquid oxygen, are too high to be met satisfac- torily by use of an air pump alone. For this reason a com- partment: containing a small amount 0: activated charcoal is soldered to the inner vessel. In properly constructed andevac- uated vessels lossesby radiation are greater than losses by con- duction. Hence the state of the reflect- ing surfaceisof great importance; the vac- uum walls should be highly lished _ to reduce heat radia- tion. The neck of each vessel is sol- dered into the upper parts of its shell. The inner and outer necks are connected ee by a junction piece TIME, DAYS at the top. Evacua- B. i Fiavre 3.—A, Construction détalls of vacuum-walled metal tion of the vacuum Props SioA) oovapurution tests ou cohtalners at reat : REMAINING PER CENTORIGINAL OXYGEN chamber is obtained ¢y Cavectty, pounds through a lead tube “1 eS connected to the out- 5 i20 er vessel and to an air pump. When the required vacuum is obtained the lead tube is pinched off and soldered over; it is then covered with a metal dome which is soldered to the outer vessel. When the container is filled with liquid oxygen it cools the activated charcoal in the vacuum space and thus promotes the absorption of the residual air in the vacuum. After the inner and outer shells have been assembled and the inner space has been evacuated they are incased in and supported by a rugged metal housing which protects them from injury. The free space between the outer shell and the housing is packed with ordinary wood excelsior. Carrying handles are firmly riveted to the outer shell8 LIQUID-OXYGEN EXPLOSIVES near the top. The smaller sizes have a handle similar to a bucket han- dle provided for convenience in handling. Figure 3, B, shows the results of evaporation tests made by O’Neil and Van Fleet (9) on con- tainers when at rest. These investigators also made tests to deter- mine the amount of evaporation taking place during shipment cover- ing three to four days by rail and several hundred miles by motor truck and found that the average loss in transit of eighty 15-liter containers was 10 per cent for 24 hours. The evaporation loss from these same flasks when at rest was 7.6 per cent per 24 hours. Because of the higher efficiency of the larger containers it is more advantageous to use one large vessel than several small ones. Experience in the use of vacuum-walled metal con- tainers has shown that the loss of efficiency is gener- ally due to the permanent contact established between the inner and outer shells of the vacuum space by the inevitable rough handling. —— ‘After a year’s use under- ground of fifty-five 15-liter containers in the Wither- bee-Sherman iron mine at Mineville, N. Y., only 15 had to be reevacuated. Reevacuation of vacuum- walled metal containers is not difficult. The experi- ence of users who have 2 4 6 8 © 2 & 6 repaired these containers TIME,HOURS has shown that in the lar, majority of instances the work involves disassem- bling, renewing of char- coal, and repolishing. To be certain that the leakage has been corrected it has been found important to draw a high degree of vacuum of the order of 0.0001 mm. of mercury and give the container a 24-hour test for loss of vacuum. Sa 8 POUNDS LIQUID IN VESSEL. Figuer 4.—A, Vacuum-walled soaking contai B, Evaporation losses. of soaking, container Uninsulated copper can; 2, cork-block inst ion; 3, hair-felt Insulation after 2 months’ u 4, :uairfelt insulation, mew; 5, vacuum inst ion ‘VACUUM-WALLED METAL SOAKING CONTAINERS The vacuum-walled metal soaking containers used at the Wither- bee-Sherman mine have a capacity of 20 liters and are typical of similar containers used elsewhere. (See fig. 4, 4.) They are built on the same principle as the storage containers just described except that the inner container is cylindrical instead of spherical. ‘Twenty-STORAGE, SOAKING, AND CARRYING CONTAINERS 9 liter soaking containers have been made from uninsulated copper cans and double-walled cans; the insulation between the walls is either of cork block or hair felt. The evaporation losses of these different types of soaking containers are shown in Figure 4, B. At the Witherbee-Sherman mine the cartridges to be soaked were placed in a copper-wire basket made to fit easily inside the container. A small amount of oxygen was then poured into the container to chill it, and the basket filled with cartridges placed within. Next, liquid oxygen was poured into the soaking container. HEAT-INSULATED BOXES Mineville, V. ¥—In L. O. X. blasting at the Witherbee-Sherman mine, already referred to, it was found that the soaking containers shown in Figure 4, A, were rather awkward to handle and were liable to be damaged in handling when used as carrying containers. A. “dry” carrier consisting of a double-walled vessel with about 1/4 inches of hair-felt insulation between the walls was therefore devel- oped. The inner vessel was made of copper and the outer one of steel. The soaked cartridges in the basket were removed from the soaking container and were placed for transportation in the dry carrier with a little liquid oxygen. It is claimed that the cartridges remain saturated by capillarity from the liquid oxygen in the bottom of the carrier. . Near Oakland City, Ind-—A larger box which will carry as many as sixty-six 41% by 1914 inch cartridges is used by the Enos Coal Mining Co. at its coal-stripping operation near Oakland City, south- ern Indiana, A container having a capacity of only 54 cartridges is also used here and is described by Holderer (14).° The container is a copper-lined balsa-wood box 30 inches wide, 40 inches long, and 20 inches deep. Holderer states that this is the most efficient type of box that has yet been devised for soaking and transporting L.O, X. cartridges. For test purposes several cartridges, each of which when fully soaked had weighed 12 pounds, were returned in the soak- ing box to the plant after a lapse of eight hours and weighed; each had lost only a half pound. Figure 2 shows the method of soaking the cartridges in the box just described. The liquid oxygen is trans- ferred from a number of 100-liter vacuum-walled containers by means of compressed air, Three hundred liters of liquid oxygen brings the level of the liquid well up to the top of the cartri According to recent information received from this plant, a con- tainer having a capacity of 66 cartridges requires no additional oxygen for the 12 additional cartridges because it is more efficiently insulated. Chuquicamata, Chile—At Chuquicamata, Chile (15), in connec- tion with the three 10,000-liter vacuum-walled storage tanks de- scribed, boxes 86 inches wide, 72 inches long, and 22 inches high, inside measurements, are used for soaking the cartridges. Each box holds fifty 7 by 20 inch or one hundred and twenty-five 5%4 by 12 inch cartridges. Twelve of these boxes will hold all the liquid oxygen from the three storage containers. The soaking boxes are carried on two 40-foot flat cars with steel roofs to shield the boxes from the sun. T'wo types of boxes have been built—one with 1-inch hair-felt insulation and the other with 4-inch balsa-wood insulation,10 LIQUID-OXYGEN EXPLOSIVES The latter has proved nearly twice as efficient as the former in keep- ing down evaporation losses. It has been found that the 7 by 20 inch 8-pound cartridge will absorb 34 times its own weight of liquid oxygen only when the cartridge is kept nearly immersed in the liquid oxygen throughout the absorption period of 40 minutes, In practice it has not proved economical to soak this cartridge with more than 2.9 times its weight of liquid. When more than this is used the cost of the dirty waste liquid remaining in the soaking box after removal of the cartridges exceeds the economical gain from added explosive strength obtained by the use of the greater amount of liquid. Table 1, prepared by Schultz and Hunter (15), shows the quantity of liquid oxygen used in each operation incident'to one blast for a shot fired 1%, hours after starting to remove the cartridges from one of the hair-felt insulated soaking boxes using 54%4 by 12 inch cartridges. Of the total liquid oxygen poured into the soaking boxes 41.8 per cent, was usefully employed at the time of explosion; 64.6 per cent, however, was absorbed when the cartridges were removed from the soaking boxes, 23 per cent represented evaporation loss during soak- ing and transportation, and 124 per cent was dirty waste liquid remaining in the boxes after removal of the cartridges. Enough of this dirty liquid is filtered through canvas for use around the liquid- air traps of the vacuum apparatus. Tapue 1—Disiribution of liquid oxygen for one blast, according to Schultz and Hunter Per cent of gaa actured Filling-pipe loss (3.97 liters per hour, average)... -- Storage loss: ‘Storage while filling (48 hours, 3.66 liters per hour) Storage while not filling (85 hours, 4.2 liters per full tanks). Qooling-down tank. Remaining in tank because of convex bottom. seo Nea wt Total storage loss. -- Discharge loss: Loss, cooling boxes (hair felt insulated) Loss, cooling cartridges. Evaporation loss durin ‘mately 2-hour period) _ Loss from cartridges during loading, testing, and firing. Liquid in cartridges at time of firing (oxygen-carbon ratio, 1.88) Liquid in cartridges at time of removal from soaking boxes. Liquid recovered for thermos bottles (for vacuum pumps) . Liquid remaining in soaking boxes (wasted) Total. LIFE OF L. 0. X. CARTRIDGES The most important requirement of an L. O. X. cartridge is that it shall detonate with good strength a considerable time after it has been dipped. In many blasting operations it is also essential that very little asphyxial carbon monoxide be produced. Evaporation of oxygen begins immediately after the cartridge has been removed from the dipping container and continues until the cartridge is fired. In the literature on L. O. X. the life of the cartridge is generall taken to mean the time, in minutes, that elapses between remov:LIFE OF L. 0, X. CARTRIDGES i from the dipping container and the moment at which just enough oxygen remains for combustion to CO., H,O, and oxides of any other elements present. The cartridge will explode, however, for’ a con- siderable time thereafter, but with the formation of increasing quan- tities of CO, and H,O. ’ Kuryla and Clevenger (8) distinguish be- tween available life (that time of evaporation at which, theoreti- cally, just enough oxygen remains for combustion of the carbon to CO) and explosive life. Figure 5 shows diagrammatically the relation between oxygen content and explosive strength of a 1¥, by 8 inch lampblack cartridge containing 0.23 gram of combustible per cubie centimeter of cartridge. For comparison, the diggram is modeled after one in the paper by Kuryla and Clevenger, but the relative values of explosive strengtl as determined experimentally have been substituted for the curve Lampblack cartridge, 1}x 8 inches, density 0.23 Excess oxygen—} -gining of (CO formation Expose sit Cartridge ceases! to be explosive. i [Region of complet 2 Efcombustion to CO; wee 3 &| fer CECT e3| when: 83) zion off RE incomplete combustion, | TSS os increasing, amount of CO formed| 10 minutes: 15 minutes: Ficuae 5—Relation between explosive strenzth, oxygen content, and time of evaporation, lampblack cartridge given by them. Here, the available life before CO begins to form is 10 minutes and the explosive life, 25 minutes, The explosive strength is at the maximum when the cartridge is removed from the dipping container and decreases slowly and fairly regularly for 20 minutes, after which it falls off rapidly. Beyond the 20-minute period the explosive strength does not decrease in proportion to the loss of oxygen. Ifa higher packing density (for example, 0.38 gram per cubic centimeter) is used the cartridge after the first minute con- tains insuficient oxygen for complete combustion to CO, yet it ma be fired after evaporating 25 minutes with at least as much stren| as the lighter cartridge and after evaporating 10 minutes with 15 per cent as much strength. These data, for which considerable experimental evidence is given later, indicate that where the presence of CO is not detrimental, greater explosive effect may be obtained by an increase in the packing density, so that at the time of firing the oxygen content is considerably less than that required for complete combustion to CO:. ‘The time consumed in evaporation of a given L. O. X. cartridge to the point at which just enough oxygen is present for complete com- 80081°—32——212 LIQUID-OXYGEN EXPLOSIVES bustion depends on (a) the amount of oxygen initially absorbed, (2) the amount of oxygen required for complete combustion, and (c) the rate of evaporation of oxygen from the cartridge. ‘The first factor depends on the volume of eartridge occupied by combustible particles into which oxygen can not penetrate, or V—— 1.18, where V is the volume of the cartridge, W its weight, and p the true density of the cartridge material. ‘The second factor depends on the weight of the cartridge and its oxygen factor, that is, the amount of oxygen required for complete combustion of unit weight of combustible, The third depends on the character of the combustible absorbent material, the diameter of the cartridge, and the environment (tem- perature of surroundings and whether evaporation takes place in still or moving air or the cartridge is confined in a borehole). Ex- hr pressed mathematically, life (in minutes) = , where f, is ratio of weight of oxygen to weight of cartridge when completely satu- rated, f: is oxygen ratio necessary for complete combustion, and ¢ is the decrease in oxygen ratio per minute due to evaporation; f, can be shown to equal 2—4X 1.18, where d is apparent density of cartridge, is true density of the absorbent, and 1.13 is density of liquid oxygen. ror a cartridge of pure carbon, such as acetylene black, /;=2.673 for wood pulp, 1.34; naphthalene, 3.00; and so on. The disadvanta; of using a cartridge mixture containing an inert incombustible al sorbent, such as kieselguhr, is immediately apparent because, for a given amount of combustible per unit volume, the space for absorp- tion of oxygen is less than when no inert diluent is employed. FACTORS AFFECTING RATE OF EVAPORATION COMBUSTIBLE ABSORBENT MATERIAL The most important property of the combustible material affecting the rate of evaporation is its particle size, If the particles of a combustible, such as lampblack, are of colloidal fineness the surface exposed per unit volume is so large that very little of the absorbed Tiquid is out of range of the surface forces, Hence, no liquid is lost by dripping from the saturated cartridge, and as evaporation takes place the liquid in the inner cartridge is not drawn by capillarity to the outer part. With a combustible composed of larger particles, such as wood pulp, much of the liguid is held very loosely in droplets in the relatively large interstices between the particles. Part of the liquid drips from the cartridge immediately after it is removed from the dipping container, and as evaporation takes place a large propor- tion of the remainder is drawn by capillarity to the outer part of the cartridges hence evaporation takes place at a faster rate than in a cartridge of lampblack. Wood-pulp cartridges are colder to the touch than lampblack cartridges; if an absorbent paper wrapper is used it will be wet with liquid oxygen for some time after being dipped, whereas the wrapper of the lampblack cartridge dries at once, ‘able 2 gives analyses of combustible materials used in L. O. X. Table 8 gives evaporation data for a number of combustible materials packed in 114 by 8 inch cartridges which were allowed to evaporateFACTORS AFFECTING RATE OF EVAPORATION 13 in still air. The paper used for the cartridge wrapper consisted of two thicknesses of hard-fiber cotton-rag paper 0.007 inch thick. Each wrapper weighed 5 grams and required 5.4 grams of oxygen for com- plete combustion. For convenience in comparison, the amount of oxygen necessary for complete combustion of the lampblack car- tridges has been taken as 2.4 grams per cubic centimeter of cartrid; ‘The amount actually ranges from 2.2 to 2.6 grams, depending on composition of the lampblack. The factor for coal dust has been taken as 2.39, for wood pulp 1.34, and for fuel oil 3.4, correction being made for the oxygen requirements of the wrapper in determin- ing the oxygen value Hg the cartridge. TasLe 2.—Analyses of combustible materials os Vale bred Heat of "aun #0, | te | car- | Ash,| H, N, com | Sram Material ‘per’ | t+ bon, | “per | per \C, Der JO, Peri, Per| S| for com- | | Bae | ak) Bk | SRE a (EEA cent | cat gram | ycction, es STlm e/g) oo] Ea) Bi) o fa $e) e/a) 3 | 3)Ba] aE vr] Beal al UB ot) fe ay ad] 8) 1] cd] he] o) © eg ‘TABLE 3.—Rate of evaporation of oxygen from lanpblacks and other absorbents Td Geeprtn pr, attr Fi fb a Tl |]"]" ||| vio ine eee Sa ‘of ear= | triage | oxy- boar ‘ridge, | “after. | on fra pong tio eee loot ‘Oxygen in cartridge after evaporation, grams com. ‘as: ton14 LIQUID-OXYGEN EXPLOSIVES Figure 6 shows evaporation curves for three typical blacks: Lamp- black B, a fluffy material difficult to pack; Jampblack /, a material easily packed; and gas black S, which had been compressed at the = factory and packedeas- ily. As may be seen from the curves, the rate of evaporation of oxygen fromlampblack B is increasingly less than that of lampblack £. This decrease is typical of lampblacks that tend to contract in volume as the oxy- gen evaporates. The cold oxygen gas in the vacant space between wrapperand lampblack acts as an insulati: layer and causes dimi- nution in the rate of evaporation. __Lamp- 5 16 7 blacks of this character ‘TIME OF EVAPORATION, MINUTES. are fluffy and difficult Figunn 6.—Rate of evaporation of oxygen, 1% by inch to pack; when packed they contain large pockets of occluded air. When the cartridges are soaked in liquid oxygen, the air is driven out; and, as the quid evaporates, surface forces cause the contraction in volume. If such a cartridge is redipped the rate of evaporation is higher than before; whereas with easily packed lampblacks, such as Z’, oxygen evap- orates at the same rate as after the first soak- ing. No relation is ap- parent between chemi- cal analysis of the blacks and their behav- ior on packing, nor can any difference be ob- served under themicro- scope. In spite of the more favorable evapo- ration rate of lamp- blacks of type B, the ° 5 0 authors. beleve that TIME OF EVAPORATION, MINUTES lampblacks that pack vm 7—Rate of evaporation of orreen, 1% by 8 inch easily to give a firm cartridge, such as #, are better suited for use in L. O. X. because they detonate ‘at a uniform rate, whereas those of type B tend to give erratic rates of detonation. Gas blacks, such as S, are also suitable. ‘WEIGHT OF OXYGEN IN CARTRIDGE. GRAMS 0 per ent cat 50 percent keel WEIGHT OF OXYGEN IN CARTRIDGE, GRAMS 1FACTORS AFFECTING RATE OF EVAPORATION 15 Kieselguhr shows about the same efficiency as lampblacks of type 2. (See fig. 7.) When mixed with oil it absorbs less oxygen initially and the rate of evaporation in percentage of the oxygen absorbed is higher. The same condition exists when coal dust is mixed with Kieselguhr. Wood pulp absorbs less oxygen initially than a lamp- black cartridge of similar density because of the low true density of wood pulp, and the percentage rate of evaporation is higher. DIAMETER OF CARTRIDGE The initial rate of evaporation of oxygen from a cartridge is roughly proportional to the surface exposed, on, neglecting the sur face of the ends, is proportional to 2r7/, where 7 is the length of the cartridge. The weight of material in the cartridge, however, is 45; Sa HE OXYGEN PER GRAM OF CARTRIDGE, GRAMS ‘ cs o 0 2 30 ‘TIME OF EVAPORATION, MINUTES Fiovmn 8—uffect of diameter of cartridge on rate of evaporation, Jamp- 0 equal to zr‘ld, where d is the apparent density or weight of cartridge per unit volume, The time, in minutes, that elapses between con- (Wh-H), E where W is weight of dry cartridge; f, and f,, weight ratios of oxygen to cartridge in saturated cartridge and at time ¢, respectively; and is average rate of evaporation during time ¢, expressed in grams per minute. For cartridges of different diameter but identical density and length f.—/; is identical, and the time or life to the given con- ditions of saturation and any other oxygen-carbon ratio is ditions is proportional to) or to “=r. With large cartridges where the surface of the ends becomes of influence the ratio pF may be used as proportional to life, where 7 is constant. Actually, however, although the initial rate of evaporation is roughly propor- tional to the diameter of the cartridge the rate of evaporation over the life of the cartridge increases less rapidly with increase in size of cartridge than would be indicated by the simple relationship, evapora- tion or, due to the fact that, as the cartridge diameter increases, the oxygen in the inner portions is insulated by an increasing layer of combustible material and cold oxygen vapor and conduction from the outside is increasingly impeded. Table 4 and Figures 8, 9, and16 LIQUID-OXYGEN EXPLOSIVES 10 give evaporation data obtained with three Jampblacks packed in cartridges from 1 to 4 inches in diameter. The data show that the life, to the point of complete combustion, of a 2-inch cartridge is 2 By ° 2 2 OXYGEN PER GRAM.OF CARTRIDGE, GRAMS 2 0 0 25 ‘TIME OF EVAPORATION, MINUTES Flours 9.—Hifect of diameter of cartridge on rate of evaporation, lamp- rales q a & a s E é 5 2 z g & 2 & z g 8 g g 8 Ra "] ar eB [Complete combustion: oe 0 70 80 EE a ) 60 ‘TIME OF EVAPORATION, MINUTES Ficune 10.—Effect of diameter of cartridge on rate of evaporation, lampblack about twice that of a 14-inch cartridge; whereas the life of a 4-inch ° cartridge is 2.5 to 8 times that of a 2-Inch cartridge. The cartridges of a given lampblack varied slightly in density, but the results indi- cate what might be expected in practice, as large cartridges generally pack to somewhat lower density.7 FACTORS AFFECTING RATE OF EVAPORATION ‘Peortes woRAxo yor 48 OUI, soqouy “reyoury. ‘TxMIQduey 2 yomqdurey @ yoga Buoy sayouy g sabprszsva ‘uorpuodvaa fo ay pun abprsziv0 fo s9uDrp usomjaq uoNDpPY—y WTAVT,18 LIQUID-OXYGEN EXPLOSIVES ENVIRONMENT Evaporation in the borchole is somewhat less rapid than in open air, as shown in Figure 11. These data were obtained in a borehole, 114 inches in diameter and 8 fect long, in concrete and are averages obtained from five cartridges in the ‘hole. The life to the exact combustion point is increased about 20 per cent over that in still air as a result of the insu- lating effect of the cold oxygen gas surrounding the cartridges, Evaporation is more rapid in moving air than in still air. CARTRIDGE PAPER Cartridge paper —- 0. X. should absorb 0: padily, have good med ee ical strength after soaking, and be a good heat insu- lator. A grade of hard- fiber cotton-rag paper 0.007 inch thick has been used in the present. work and was suggested to the writers by G. B. Holderer. Nonab- sorbent papers, such as thin wrapping paper, have been used successfully by several commercial organi- zations. They have the ad- vantage of cheapness; car- tridges with such wrappers, however, require considera- ply more time for satura- tion, as the liquid must soak in through the_bot- tom of the cartridge. With respect to rate of evapora- 5 i7— tion the absorbent papers ‘TIME OF EVAPORATION, MINUTES are somewhat more efficient. bomhote Sand Male, Barciole; Seana; & Various types of insulating wrappers have been pro- posed but have the common disadvantage of taking up considerable space and decreasing the strength per unit volume of cartridge. The authors believe that an absorbent paper wrapper of the type used in the present work should prove most suitable for general purposes. Table 5 shows Pais OtLcvacoration get ioeyaen trom eutcidess ofp lampolacky i packed in different wrappers. 2 » ‘Lampblack D, density 0.224- (Complete combustion, OXYGEN PER GRAM OF CARTRIDGE, GRAMS ‘Lampblack af, density 0,254 black A, density 0.835:FACTORS AFFECTING RATE OF EVAPORATION 19 ‘Tanta 5.—Evaporation of lampbiack cartridges with different wrappers Weight of orygen in cartridge, grams | weight | Weight, of | of Wrapper car. | wrap- ‘ridge, | per, grams | grams ws} 10} ua} s6] ot} as] at} 8.0 a8 ‘neh thiek, 2 thicknesses. an} ao] aa} ss] os] az | at] Hard-Aber ‘cotton-rag papet 0.007 ‘neh thick, 3 thicknesses. we] us} ur} oa} om] os} az] 7.0 Newsprint poper,athicmngsaat<"] aM{ as) at] 868) ao] 8) ‘aper’0.006 ine thick, ‘hleknes mi} ws} msi ml os] al al 20 Paper toweling, 2 thickssss i2| Mo} u2| a] 5] |e] BO Dynamite wrapper, not parafi ias| im} 05} To] 6] ao] 3] ‘Dynamite wrapper, paraifined. i] to} “| my ae] ak] a] Bo EFFECT OF ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE ON EVAPORATION RATE On first thought it might seem that L. O. X. cartridges would lose oxygen more rapidly at high altitudes than at sea level; actually, the rate of evaporation is somewhat less at high altitudes. The effect of pressure on rate of evaporation is shown in the following laboratory tests, in which saturated cartridges were suspended in a 15-liter steel bomb and the weight loss was determined after an evaporation period of 10 minutes at pressures of 60, 737, and 737-8,530 mm. of mercury, absolute. Evaporation rates were ‘also run in a concrete block which just fitted the bomb and contained a borehole 14 inches in diameter.” The elevated pressures were obtained by allowing the pressure to build up from the evaporation of the cartridge. Results are given in Table 6. ‘Tate 6.—Hifect of pressure on rate of evaporation Cartridges: Gas black H, 134 by 6 inches. Weight, dry, 87 grams; saturated, 214 grams, Room temperature: 10° C. Barometer: 787 mm, of mercury. Oxygen lost by evap- oration in 10 ‘min- ites, grams Absolute pressure, mm. of mereury 737, 737-8,590 737-6,322 |. Tests show that when the cartridge is suspended in the bomb the rate of evaporation increases as the pressure increases because it is determined by the rate at which heat is conducted to the cartridge, and this action is mainly a function of the heat capacity per unit volume of the atmosphere around the cartridge. Obvioully, this heat capacity increases with increase of pressure.20 LIQUID-OXYGEN EXPLOSIVES The effect of pressure is less evident when the cartridge is in a tight-fitting borehole because under these conditions heat is con- ducted to the cartridge from the borehole walls, a process not dependent on pressure. These results were confirmed by tests at high altitudes in Lead- ville, Colo, (11,000 feet), and Cerro de Pasco, Peru (14,000 feet). EXPLOSIVE PROPERTIES OF L. 0. X. THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS The effect produced by an explosive in a borehole depends upon the energy and volume of gas developed by unit weight of explosive, the loading density, and the rate at which the explosive reaction takes place. By the use of certain physical constants the theoretical temperature developed by an explosive, the energy density, and the maximum pressure produced—neglecting radiation and conduction— can be calculated. The method of calculation as applied to or nary explosives requires some modification when used for L. O. X. ‘he energy liberated per unit volume of borehole is, in part, @ function of the density of the explosive. The density of L. O. X. depends on the apparent density of the combustible as packed and on the amount of oxygen present at the time of firing. The maxi- mum density to which a cartridge may be packed and still retain enough pore space for the oxygen required depends on the space occupied by the combustible into which oxygen can not, penetrate. The maximum packing density allowable is therefore a function of (1) the true density of the combustible; (2) the amount of oxygen required to burn a unit weight of combustible; and (3) the time interval, during which oxygen evaporates, that elapses between removal from dipping container and firing. A rational basis for comparison of L. O. X. seems to be afforded by assuming cartridges packed to a density that will allow a definite excess of oxygen over the amount required for combustion. Then the samo amount of oxygen will evaporate in each instance while tho cartridges are being loaded ; and, assuming the same rate of evapora- tion, the L. O. X. cartridges can be compared on a basis of equal life before being fired. CALCULATING THEORETICAL EFFICIENCY As an example of the method of calculating theoretical efficiency of various L. O. X. combustible materials, a cartridge consisting of pure carbon in a finely divided state, packed to such density that just enough oxygen for complete combustion to CO, will be absorbed When the cartridge is completely saturated, will be considered, “Deto- nation will be assumed to take place immediately after the cartridge is removed from the dipping container. The specific gravity of liquid oxygen is 1.18, and 2.67 grams of oxygen is required to burn 1 gram of carbon to CO,. If the true density of carbon is taken as 2.0 then 1 gram of carbon will be asso- ciated with 2.67 grams of oxygen and will occupy a volume of