Chapter 7:

Chemical Bonding

Professor Sadia Ameen

Department of Bio-Convergence Sciences, Jeonbuk National
University, Advanced Science Campus, 56212, Republic of Korea

E-mail: sadiaameen@jbnu.ac.kr
 Questions for Consideration
1. How can we classify the types of bonding
of different compounds?
2. What is the nature of the bonding in ionic
compounds?
3. What is the nature of the bonding in
molecular compounds?
4. How do we predict and explain the shapes
of molecular compounds and polyatomic
ions?

8-2
Chapter 7 Topics:

1. Types of Bonds
2. Ionic Bonding
3. Covalent Bonding
4. Shapes of Molecules

8-3
 Introduction

 How and why do atoms come together

(bond) to form compounds?
 Why do different compounds have such
different properties?
 What do molecules look like in three
dimensions?

8-4
 7.1 Types of Bonds
 Chemical bond
 A force that holds Figure 8.2
atoms together in a
molecule or compound
 Two types of chemical
bonds
 Ionic Bonds
 Covalent Bonds

Figure 8.2
8-5
Table 7.1 Properties of Two Carbon Compounds

Figure 8.2
8-6
General Properties of Ionic and Covalent
Substances

8-7
 Ionic and Covalent
 In ionic compounds, ions are
held together by electrostatic
forces – forces between
oppositely charged ions.

 In molecular compounds,
atoms are held together by
covalent bonds in which
electrons are shared.

Figure 8.2 8-8

 Ionic Bonds
 A bond created by
electrostatic attraction
between oppositely charged
ions
 Occurs between a metal and a
nonmetal
 Electrons transferred between
the cation (positively charged
Figure 8.7
ion) and the anion (negatively
charged ion)
 Extremely strong bonds
8-9
 Covalent Bonds
 A bond created by the
sharing of electrons
between atoms
 Occurs between two
nonmetals (resulting in a
neutral overall charge)
 Electrons not transferred
in this case
 Electrons typically shared
Figure 8.2 in pairs
 Weaker bonds than ionic
bonds

8-10
 Homework : Identifying Types of Bonding

 Identify the type of bonding in each of

the following substances:
1. NaF
2. ClO2
3. FeSO4
4. SO2
5. Ca(ClO2)2

8-11
 Homework Solutions: Identifying Types of
Bonding
 Identify the type of bonding in each of the
following substances:
1. NaF – Ionic bonding (metal + nonmetal)
2. ClO2 – Covalent bonding (2 nonmetals)
3. FeSO4 – Ionic bonding between the metal and
nonmetal; covalent bonding between the
nonmetals in the polyatomic ion (SO4)
4. SO2 – Covalent bonding
5. Ca(ClO2)2 - Ionic bonding between the metal and
nonmetal; covalent bonding between the
nonmetals in the polyatomic ion (ClO2)
8-12
 Polar vs. Nonpolar
 Two general types of covalent bonds:
 Polar covalent
 Unequal sharing (or a partial transfer) of
electrons
 Occurs when different elements are
covalently bonded to one another
 Why different elements?
 Because different elements have
different electronegativities
 Nonpolar covalent
 Equal sharing (no transfer) of electrons
 Occurs only when all of the atoms in a
molecule belong to the same element
8-13
 Polar vs. Nonpolar
 Polar covalent bonds are:
 Typically shorter bonds
 Stronger bonds due to their increased ionic
character
 Nonpolar covalent bonds are:
 Typically longer bonds
 Weaker bonds
 Polarity
 Occurs in polar covalent molecules
 Polarity is the degree of transfer of electrons in a
covalently bonded molecule composed of different
element’s atoms.

8-14
Classification of Bonding

Figure 8.3 8-15

 Polar Covalent Bonds
 In polar covalent bonds,
electrons are not shared
equally. This result in
unequal sharing which
can be described as
partial electron transfer.
 In a polar bond there are
partial charges on the
atoms sharing electrons. Figure 8.4

8-16
 Electronegativity
 Ability of an atom to attract bonding electrons
 Proposed by Linus Pauling in the early 1930’s
 A difference in electronegativity between the atoms
in a covalent bond results in:
 A polar covalent bond
 Increased ionic character
 The greater the difference in electronegativity, the
greater the ionic character and the more polar the
bond that joins the atoms.
 Decreased bond length and increased bond strength
 No difference in electronegativity between atoms in
a covalent bond results in a nonpolar covalent bond.

8-17
 Electronegativity
 The electronegativity scale tells us which
elements have a greater pull on electrons
in a covalent bond.
 The more electronegative element
pulls bonding electrons more strongly
and obtains a partial negative charge
(δ−). Figure 8.4

 The less electronegative element loses

electron density in the bond and
therefore obtains a partial positive
charge (δ+).
8-18
Electronegativity Values

Figure 8.5
8-19
 Electronegativity Trends

Figure 8.6
8-20
7 periods and 18 groups in periodic table
 Electronegativity Trends
 The difference in electronegativity between metals and
nonmetals is so large, that the electrons are transferred,
not shared.
 The greater the electronegativity difference, the more
polar the bond.
 Si-F > N-F> O-F >F-F

Figure 8.6
8-21
 Homework: Polar Bonds
 Which of the following molecules have
polar bonds? If a bond is polar, which
atom has a partial negative charge?
1. SO2
2. N2
3. PH3
4. CCl4
5. O3

8-22
 Homework Solutions: Polar Bonds
 Which of the following molecules have polar bonds?
If a bond is polar, which atom has partial negative
charge?
1. SO2 – Polar covalent bonds; O is more electronegative
and has a partial negative charge
2. N2 – Nonpolar covalent bonds
3. PH3 – Polar covalent bonds; P is more electronegative
and has a partial negative charge
4. CCl4 – Polar covalent bonds; Cl is more
electronegative and has a partial negative charge
5. O3 – Nonpolar covalent bonds

8-23
 7.2 Ionic Bonding
 Metals lose electrons, forming a positive charge, to
become cations.
 Nonmetals gain electrons, forming a negative
charge, to become anions.
 Formation of ions and ionic bond relates to an
element’s electron configuration.
 Many main-group elements either lose or gain
electrons to become isoelectronic with a noble gas (i.e.
have the same electron configuration). As ions, they
are known as the common ions.

8-24
 Formation of Ionic Bonds
 To understand ionic bonding, we can think about how ions
and ionic bonds would be formed from neutral atoms of
the elements.
 Consider the formation of NaCl from its elements:

Figure 6.6

 Electrons are transferred from the metal to the nonmetal

to form ions, each with a noble-gas electron configuration.
8-25
 Lewis Dot Symbols
 Lewis Dot symbol
 Electron dot symbol
 Dots placed around an element’s symbol represent
valence electrons
 Pair electrons as needed
 Octet rule
 Tendency of an atom to achieve an electron
configuration having 8 valence electrons
 Same as the electron configuration of a noble
gas
 The 8 electrons exist in 4 pairs

 Ions achieve 8 electrons by losing or gaining

electrons
8-26
 Lewis Symbols
 Lewis Symbols help us to focus on the valence
electrons – those that can participate in bonding.

8-27
 Ionic Compounds
 Ions of like charge repel each other in ionic
compounds, and opposite charged ions attract.
This results in a 3-dimensional regular pattern
called a crystal lattice.

Figure 8.7

8-28
 Structures of Ionic Compounds
 Crystal lattice
 The pattern obtained when an
ion, represented as a charged
sphere, exerts a force equally
in all directions.
 Thus, ions of equal and
opposite charge surround it.
 Cations and anions must
come into contact for a
crystal lattice to form.
Figure 8.10
fluorite, CaF2
8-29
Structures of Ionic Compounds
Sodium Chloride, NaCl, Crystal

Figure 8.8
8-30
Cesium Chloride Crystal

Figure 8.9

8-31
Calcium Fluoride Crystal

Figure 8.10

8-32
 Properties of Ionic Solids
 Why are crystalline ionic solids hard and
brittle?
 Why are they poor conductors of electricity
in the solid state?

Figure 8.11 8-33

 Structures of Ionic Crystals
 Ionic crystal
 Ions are arranged in a regular geometric pattern that
maximizes the attractive forces and minimizes the repulsive
forces.
 Hard and brittle
 Can shatter if struck forcefully
 The charges and sizes of ions largely determine the
characteristic patterns of ionic crystals

Figure 8.11

8-34
 7.3 Covalent Bonding
 When two nonmetals form
a bond, the bond is
covalent. They are both
close to the noble-gas
electron configuration, so
sharing will allow both to
obtain it.
 In a covalent bond, each
shared electron interacts Figure 8.12
simultaneously with two
nuclei.

8-35
Carbon Dioxide – Covalent bonds
 The atoms of CO2 molecules are held together by
strong covalent bonds. No bonds connect the
molecules, so CO2 molecules separate from each
other into the gas state at room temperature.

Figure 8.13 Figure from p. 28

8-36
 The Octet Rule

 Just as in ionic bonding,

covalent bonds are
formed so that each
atom can have the
noble-gas electron
configuration. Noble
gases have 8 valence
electrons, an octet.

Figure 8.14
8-37
 The Octet Rule
 Octet rule
 Tendency of an atom to achieve an electron
configuration having 8 valence electrons
 Same as the electron configuration of a
noble gas
 Covalently bonded atoms achieve 8 valence
electrons by sharing electrons
 The 8 electrons exist in 4 pairs

 H atoms bond with other atoms to obtain a

total of 2 electrons like He.

8-38
 The Halogens

 Do the atoms in each of these molecules

have an octet?

Figure 8.16

8-39
 Multiple Bonds
 How many valence electrons
does an oxygen atom have?
 How many does it need to obtain
an octet?
 O2 has a double bond, two pairs of
shared electrons
 How many valence electrons
does a nitrogen atom have?
 How many does it need to obtain
an octet?
 N2 has a triple bond, three pairs
of shared electrons Figure 8.17
8-40
Homework : Valence Electrons and
Number of Bonds
 How many bonds do each of the following
atoms tend to form?
a) H 1
b) Cl 1
c) O 2
d) N 3
e) C 4

8-41
 Homework : Lewis Structures
 Draw the Lewis structures for each of
the following based on the number of
bonds that each tends to form.
Remember to include the nonbonding
electrons so that all have octets (except
H).
1. C2H6
2. C2H4
3. C2H2
4. HCN

8-42
 Homework Solutions: Lewis

Structures
Draw the Lewis structures for each of the following based on
the number of bonds that each tends to form.
1. Carbon forms 4 bonds and hydrogen forms 1:
C2H6 (4+4C+6 H=14)
2. Carbon forms 4 bonds and hydrogen forms 1:
C2H4 (4+4C+4 H=12)
3. Carbon forms 4 bonds and hydrogen forms 1:
C2H2 (4+4C+2H=10)
4. Hydrogen forms 1 bond, carbon forms 4 bonds,
and nitrogen forms 3 bonds:

N=5, C=4
8-43
Homework : Valence Electrons and
Number of Bonds
 Draw a Lewis structure for each of the following
based on how many bonds each tends to form.
Remember to include the nonbonding electrons
so that all have octets (except H).
1. H2CO (12e-)
2. NF3 (26e-)
3. H2O (8e-)

N=5, F=7, O=6, C=4

8-44
Steps for Writing Lewis Structures
1. Write an atomic skeleton.
2. Sum the valence electrons from each atom to get
the total number of valence electrons.
3. Place two electrons, a single bond, between each
pair of bonded atoms.
4. Add remaining electrons to complete the octet of
each outer atom and then to the central atom if
necessary and if there are electrons available.
5. If necessary to satisfy the octet rule, shift
unshared electrons from non-bonded positions
on atoms with completed octets to positions
between atoms to make double or triple bonds.
8-45
 Homework : Writing Lewis
Structures

 Write a Lewis formula for the

formaldehyde molecule, CH2O.

8-46
 Homework Solution: Writing Lewis
Structures
1. Write an atomic skeleton for CH2O:

2. Sum the valence electrons from each atom

to get the total number of valence electrons.
Carbon is in Group IVA (14), so it has 4 valence
electrons. Each hydrogen contributes 1 valence
electron (H is in Group IA (1)). Oxygen
contributes 6 valence electrons because it is in
Group VIA (16).
Total number of valence electrons = 4 + (1 x 2) + 6
= 12
8-47
 Homework Solution: Writing Lewis
Structures
3. Place a single bond between each pair of bonded
atoms.

4. Add the remaining electrons to complete the octet

of each outer atom, then to the central atom if any
are left (not the case here).

5. All the electrons are used, but carbon does not

have an octet, so shift electrons to make a double
bond.

8-48
 Homework : Writing Lewis
Structures
 Write a Lewis formula for hydrogen
cyanide, HCN.

8-49
 Homework Solution: Writing Lewis Structures
1. Write an atomic skeleton for HCN:

2. Sum the valence electrons from each atom to

get the total number of valence electrons.
Carbon is in Group IVA (14), so it has 4 valence
electrons. Hydrogen contributes 1 valence
electron (H is in Group IA (1)). Nitrogen
contributes 5 valence electrons because it is in
Group VA (15).
Total number of valence electrons = 4 + 1 + 5 = 10

8-50
Homework Solutions: Writing Lewis Structures

3. Place a single bond between each pair of bonded

electrons.

4. Add the remaining electrons to complete the octet

of the outer atoms.

5. Since carbon does not have an octet, shift

electrons to make a double bond, or a triple bond,
until carbon has an octet.

8-51
 Homework : Writing Lewis
Structures
 Write Lewis structures for each of the
following:
 CO2 (12 O+4C=16)

 SO2 (12O+6 S=18)

 NO2− (5N+12O+1=18)

 HNO3 (1H+5N+18O=24)

N=5, C=4, O=6, S=6

8-52
 Resonance
 Sometimes a single Lewis structure does not give
an accurate picture of the bonding.
 For example, there are two Lewis structures that
represent the SO2 molecule.

 The actual molecule is a blend of these two:

 Both S-O bonds are the same length with partial double
bond character
8-53
 Resonance
 Like a single Lewis
structure, each alone
shows some aspect of
the shell.
 Like a set of resonance
structures, the pair of
photos together gives a
better representation
of the shell.

Figure 8.19
8-54
Homework : Resonance Structures

 Write resonance structures for N2O.

The atom arrangement is N N O.

8-55
 Homework Solution: Resonance
Structures
 Write resonance structures for N2O.
1. Write an atomic skeleton for N2O:
N N O
2. Sum the valence electrons from each atom to
get the total number of valence electrons.
Nitrogen is in Group VA (15), so it has 5 valence
electrons. Oxygen contributes 6 valence electrons
because it is in Group VIA (16).
Total number of valence electrons = (5 x 2) + 6 = 16

8-56
 Homework Solution: Resonance
3.
Structures
Next, form a bond between each pair of atoms.

4. Then add electrons to give the outer atoms an octet;

this uses all 16 electrons.

5. Since the central nitrogen doesn’t have an octet, shift

electrons to make a double bond.

The central nitrogen still doesn’t have an octet, so

shift another pair of electrons:
or
 Homework Solution: Resonance
Structures
The two resonance structures are shown
connected by a double-headed arrow:

8-58
Homework : Resonance Structures
 Which of the following have resonance?
 For those that do, how many resonance
structures do they have?
1. NO3− Yes, 3
2. HNO3 Yes, 2
3. CH4 No
4. H2CO No
..
HNO3 forms 3 resonance structure .. O ..
.. ..
but based on formal charges (likely .. O-N-O-H HNO3=24 electrons
to be zero) only two structures are .. .. NO3-=24 electrons
possible 8-59
 Exceptions to the Octet Rule
 Molecules with an odd
number of electrons
 e.g. NO
 Incomplete octets
 e.g. BH3 or BF3
 Expanded octets
 e.g. SF4 or SF6

8-60
 Carbon Compounds

Figure 8.21

 Carbon has:
 Four valence electrons
 The ability to form four bonds
 The ability to bond to itself
 Very strong bonds when bonded to itself

8-61
 Hydrocarbons

Figure 8.20

Figure 8.20
8-62
 Hydrocarbons
 Compounds containing hydrogen and carbon
 Aliphatic hydrocarbons
 A class in which the bonds are all localized single, double,
and triple bonds
 Alkanes
 Hydrocarbons which contain only carbon-carbon single
bonds
 Alkenes
 Hydrocarbons which contain at least one carbon-carbon
double bond
 Alkynes
 Hydrocarbons which contain at least one carbon-carbon
triple bond
8-63
 Hydrocarbons
 Aromatic hydrocarbons
 A class of hydrocarbons which has carbon
atoms arranged in a six-atom ring with
alternating single and double bonds
 Delocalized structures

Figure 8.22

Figure 8.22 8-64

 Functional Groups
 Functional group
 A group that is introduced into Figure 8.23
or substituted in a
hydrocarbon chain
 Gives the hydrocarbon its
characteristic properties
 The group has a heteroatom,
an atom other C and H
 Typically O, S, and N
 Alcohol
 A hydroxyl group (-OH) replaces
a hydrogen atom in the formula
for a hydrocarbon

Figure 8.23

8-65
Functional Groups in Hydrocarbons

8-66
 Homework : Functional Groups
 Identify the functional group in each of the
following molecules:
1. CH3OH alcohol
2. (CH3)2CO ketone
3. CH3CH2CO2H carboxylic acid
4. CH3CH2NH2 amine
5. CH3CH2CHO aldehyde
6. CH3CO2CH2CH ester

8-67
 7.4 Shapes of Molecules
 The shape of a molecule
influences many of its
properties including taste
and smell.
 Sweet substances are
often of a shape similar to
that of glucose. It’s –H
and –OH groups fit into a
taste receptor site on the
tongue.
Figure 8.23
8-68
Odor Receptors

Figure 8.24

8-69
 Predicting Shapes of Molecules

 A simple model used with Lewis structures

allows us to predict shapes of molecules.
 Valence-Shell Electron-Pair Repulsion
Theory (VSEPR theory) is based on the fact
that negative charges repel one another.
 Valence electron pairs (bonding or nonbonding)
repel one another and take up positions that
maximize their distance and angles between
them.

8-70
 VSEPR (CH4)
 The methane molecule (CH4) has four pairs of
electrons around the central atom (all bonding):
H
|
H―C―H
|
H

 Maximizing their distance gives bond angles of

109.5 .

Figure from p. 312

8-71
Parent
Structures

Figure 8.25

8-72
 Parent Structures
 When determining the parent structure and
bond angles for a molecule or polyatomic
ion, each of the following is counted as 1 set
of electrons:
 Nonbonding electron pair
 Single bond
 Double bond Multiple bonds don’t repel and separate
from each other so they are counted only
 Triple bond once even though they contain more than one
pair.

8-73
Table 8.05

8-74
Homework : Parent Structures and
Bond Angles
 Determine the parent structure and bond
angles for each of the following.
1. NH3 Tetrahedral, 109.5
o

2. CO2 Linear, 180

o

3. SO2 Trigonal planar, 120o

4. BH3 Trigonal planar, 120o

5. H2O Tetrahedral, 109.5

o
Figure 8.27

8-75
 Shapes of Molecules and Ions
 The actual shape of a
molecule includes only
the atoms.
 To see the shape from
a parent structure,
make the nonbonding
electrons invisible (but
they are still there).

Figure 8.27

8-76
 Steps for VSEPR Structures
1. Draw a Lewis formula.
2. Count the number of atoms bonded to the
central atom, and count unshared pairs on the
central atom.
3. Add the number of atoms and the number of
unshared electron pairs around the central
atom. The total indicates the parent structure.
4. The molecular shape is derived from the
parent shape by considering only the positions
in the structure occupied by bonded atoms.

8-77
8-78
8-79
Molecular Shapes
 Trigonal planar and
trigonal pyramidal
molecular shapes are
different from one
another.

Figure 8.26

8-80
 Homework : VSEPR Structures
 What is the shape of the nitrite ion
(NO2-)? What is the O-N-O bond
angle?

8-81
 Homework Solution: VSEPR
1.
Structures
Draw a Lewis formula.

2. Count the number of atoms bonded to the central

atom and count unshared pairs on the central atom.
N, which is the central atom in this case, has 2
atoms bonded to it, and 1 unshared pair.
3. If we add the number of atoms and unshared pairs
around the central atom, we get 3. This indicates
that the parent structure is trigonal planar.

8-82
 Homework Solutions: VSEPR
Structures
3. If we add the number of atoms and
unshared pairs around the central atom,
we get the number 3. This indicates that
the parent structure is trigonal planar.
B
o
120
A
B B
8-83
 Homework Solutions: VSEPR
Structures
4. The molecular shape is determined by
considering only the positions of atoms. This
gives a bent shape with a bond angle of about
120o.

N
O 118
120o O
8-84
Describing Shapes of Molecules with
More than One Central Atom
 Glycine: H2NCH2CO2H
 Molecular shapes are important in living
systems.
 Glycine molecules are typically found in
proteins or gelatins.
1. Draw the Lewis Structure.
2. Determine the parent structure, remembering to
consider all sets of electrons, including
nonbonding electrons.
3. Determine the bond angles at each central atom
(N, C, C, and O)
8-85
 Describing Shapes of Molecules with
More than One Central Atom
 Glycine: H2NCH2CO2H
1. Draw the Lewis Structure.
2. Determine the parent structure, remembering to
consider all sets of electrons, including nonbonding
electrons.
3. Determine the bond angles at each central atom
(N, C, C, and O).

Figure 8.29
8-86
Homework : What are the bond
angles?

109.5o
Figure 8.21
8-87
Homework : What are the bond
angles?

Figure 8.22

120o
8-88
 Natural Applications of VSEPR Theory
 Molecular shapes are important in living systems.
 Glycine molecules are typically found in proteins or
gelatins.

Figure 8.29

8-89
 Natural Applications of VSEPR Theory
 Molecular shapes are important in living systems.
 Heme molecule
 Oxygen is carried throughout the body via red blood cells
containing heme molecules.
 Histidine, an amino acid in the heme molecule, just fits into
the space next to the oxygen molecule.

Figure 8.30 8-90

 Molecular Polarity
 Molecules with polar bonds can be polar under
certain conditions.
 A diatomic molecule with a polar bond is polar since
there is only one bond.
 A molecule or polyatomic ion with polar bonds will Figure 8.4

be
 polar if its geometry causes an asymmetric
distribution of partial charge. (e.g. H2O)
 Nonpolar if its geometry is symmetrical enough to
allow cancellation of the polar bonds. (e.g. CO2)
 A polyatomic molecule with nonpolar bonds
cannot be polar. O3 and NBr3 have no polar
bonds.
8-91
Nonpolar Molecules with Polar Bonds
 The molecules SO3 and
CCl4 have polar bonds,
but their symmetrical
shapes with no
Trigonal Planar
nonbonding electrons
on the central atom
cause them to be
nonpolar molecules.

Figure 8.33

Tetrahedral 8-92
 Homework : Polarity of
Molecules
 Predict whether C2H6, NO2, CO2, SO2,
and SO3 are polar or nonpolar molecules.

8-93
 Homework Solutions: Polarity of
Molecules
 Predict whether C2H6, NO2, CO2, SO2,
and SO3 are polar or nonpolar molecules.
 C 2H 6 tetrahedral at each C; nonpolar
 NO2 bent; polar
 CO2 linear; nonpolar
 SO2 bent; polar
 SO3 trigonal planar; nonpolar

8-94
 Homework : Which of the following
are polar molecules?
 NH3 polar
 BH3 nonpolar
 CS2 nonpolar
 H2S polar
 O3 nonpolar
 CH2Cl2 polar

8-95
 All Hydrocarbons are Nonpolar

Figure 8.21

Figure 8.22

8-96
 Polarity and Properties

 Molecular polarity is important in many

properties of molecules. One example is
solubility.
 A rule of thumb for solubility is “like
dissolves like”, which refers to similarity in
polarity.

8-97
 Polarity of Molecules
 Diatomic molecules
 Polarity lies along the plane of the bond
 Polyatomic molecules
 A nonpolar molecule is one that has all nonpolar bonds or
one that has polar bonds that cancel out
 Bonds that cancel out have equal polarities in opposite
directions
 This happens when:

 A central atom has no unshared electrons

 The atoms around the central atom all have the

same electronegativity
 A polar molecule is one that has polar bonds that DO NOT
cancel out
8-98
 “Like” Dissolves “Like”
 Ionic salts and polar
liquids dissolve better
in polar liquids than
in nonpolar liquids.
 Nonpolar liquids
dissolve better in
other nonpolar
liquids than in polar
liquids.
Figure 8.34

8-99
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