UNIT-4

Q. 1. Draw the block diagram of DS-SS transmitter and explain its operation.
[10 Marks] [UPTU 2011-12, 2007-08, 2015-16]
Ans. Direct sequence spread spectrum with coherent BPSK The binary data
sequence is given to NRZ. level encoder. This encoder converts bk into bipolar NRZ
waveform.
Binary
sequence b(t) m(t) Binary x(t)
NRZ
PSK
d(t) encoder
modulator
c(t)

PN code
generator
Fig. 1 : DS-SS Transmitter.

The pseudo noise sequence generator generates and encodes this sequence in bipolar
NRZ signal. The multiplier multiplies the two signals b(t) and c(t). The output of the
multiplier is direct sequence spread signal m(t). This signal is given as modulating signal
to BPSK transmitter.
V carrier(t) = 2Ps sin ( 2πfct)
x( t) = m( t) × V carrier
= m( t) × 2Ps sin ( 2πfct)

m(t)

+1

–1
Carrier
+ √2Ps
0
t
– √2Ps

+ √2Ps
0
t
– √2Ps

Fig. 2 : Waveform of DS-BPSK Transmitter.

Digital Communication [42] (Buddha Series) Unit-4

= m( t) × 2Ps sin ( 2πfct)

⇒ m( t) × = ± 1
∴ x( t) = ± 2Ps sin ( 2πfct)
The phase shift of x( t) is 0° corresponding to a positive m( t) and it is 180°
corresponding to a negative m( t).
Q 2. A spread spectrum communication system is characterized by the
following parameters. Duration of each informatory bit, Tb = 4.095 me chip
duration of a PN sequence Tc = 1 us. Calculate the processing gain and jcomring 2
margin if ( E b / No) = 10 and the average probability of error Pe = 0.5 × 10 −5 .
[5 Marks] [UPTU 2007-08, 2009-10]
Sol. T b = 4095
. ms, T c = 1 µs
. × 10 −5
E b / N 0 = 10, Pe = 05
processing gain
T b 4095
. × 10 −3
PG = = = 4095
Tc 1 × 10 −6
Q T b = NT c
NT c
or PG = =N
Tc
N = 4095
Jamming Margin
(Jamming Margin) = ( PG )dB − 10 log 10 ( E b /N 0 )
= 10 log 10 4095 − 10 log 10 10
= 361
. − 10
= 261
. dB
Q. 3. Define chip duration. [2 Marks] [UPTU 2012-13]
Sol. The duration of every bit is known as the chip duration T c .
1
Tc =
Rc
or PN-sequence duration T b = NT c
where R c = chip rate per second.
Q. 4. Explain auto-correlation function of PN-sequences.
[5 Marks] [UPTU Sem. 2008-09]
Sol. The auto correlation function R( τ ) of the PN-sequence C( t) is given by
1 Tb/ 2
R( τ ) =
T b ∫−Tb/ 2
C( t) ⋅ C( t − τ ) dt
Unit-4 [43] (Buddha Series) Digital Communication
R(τ)

–TC TC

–NTC –1/N NTC

1/N

Fig. 3 : Auto correelation of a PN-sequence.

 N +1
1 − NT ( τ ) for|τ| < T c
or R( τ ) =  b
− 1
elsewhere
 N
Q. 5. Draw the block diagram of DS-SS receiver and explain its operation.
[5 Marks] [UPTU 2012-13]
Sol. There are two stages of demodulation.
Coherent BPSK detector
Binary
signal Integrator T V Decision
y(t) LPF ∫0 b d(t) dence
m(t)

Local carrier Local pseudo- Threshold

sin (2πfCt) noise signal c(t)
o/p is 1 if v > 0
o/p is 0 if v < 0
Fig. 4 : Block diagram of DS-BPSK receiver or decoder
= The received signal y( t) is applied to the multiplier which is also supplied with
locally generated coherent carrier.
= The output of the multiplier is then applied low pass filter (integrator). The
bandwidth of this low pass filter is equal to that of m( t).
= The signal is applied to second demodulator which desperados the signal. The local
pseudo noise signal is exact replica of that used in the transmitter. The integrator
integrates the product of detected message signal and pseudo noice signal over one
bit-period ‘T b ’. The decision is taken depending upon the polarity of output V of the
integrator.
Q. 6. What is processing gain and jamming margin?
[5 Marks] [UPTU 2009-10, 2012-13]
Digital Communication [44] (Buddha Series) Unit-4

Sol. Processing Gain (PG) Processing Gain is defined as the ratio of the bandwidth
of spread message signal to the bandwidth of unspreaded data signal.
BW of spreaded signal
Processing Gain =
BW of unspreaded signal
1
BW of unspreaded =
Tb
1
BW of spreaded signal =
Tc
1
T
PG = c
1
Tb
Tb
PG =
Tc
Jamming Margin : (Antijam Characteristic) The ratio of signal energy per bit to
E 
noise spectral density  b 
N0
E0 PT
= s b
N0 N0
If N 0 = JT c
Eb PT
= s b
N0 JT c
E b  Ps   T b 
=   
N 0  J   Tc 
J T  1
or =  b ⋅
Ps  T c  ( E b /N 0 )
Tb
Q = Processing Gain (PG)
Tc
J PG
Therefore =
Ps E 0 /N 0
J
Here, the ratio is called as Jamming margin.
Ps
Q. 7. With the help of block diagram explain. FH-SS transmitter.
[5 Marks] [UPTU 2013-14, 2012-13, 2016-17]
Ans. FH-SS Frequency-Hop-Spread Spectrum
Unit-4 [45] (Buddha Series) Digital Communication
Binary FSK
data M-ary FSK signal FH/MFSK
Mixer signal
Sequence modulator

Frequency hop
Frequency
synthesizer

1 2 t ‘t’ successive bits of PN

(Pseudo-noise)
PN sequence sequence generator
generator
Fig. 5 : Block diagram of transmitter of frequency-Hop spread spectrum.

= The binary data sequence b( t) is applied to the M-ary FSK modulator the output of
which goes to the input of the mixer.
= The other input to the mixer block is obtained from as digital frequency
synthesizer. The mixer consists of a multiplier follow by a band pass filter.
= At the multiplier output we get the two input frequencies their sum and their
difference frequency components.
= The bandpass filter is designed to select only the sum frequency component
rejecting all other components. This sum components of frequency is then
transmitted.
= Successive K-bits of the input binary data sequence will form one symbol. M such
symbols can be transmitted using the M-any FSK system with M = 2 K .
= The M-ary FSK modulator will assign a distinct frequency for each of these M
symbols.
= If the number of successive bits at the output of PM-generator is “n”, then the total
number of frequency hops will be 2 n .
= The total bandividth of the transmitted FH/MFSK signal is equal to the sum of all
frequency hops.
Q. 8. A slow FH/MFSK system has the following parameters. The number is
bits MFSK symbol = 4. The number of MFSK symbols per hop = 5. Calculate the
processing gain of the system in decibels. [5 Marks] [UPTU 2012-13, 2009-10, 2016-17]
Sol. Let f s be the symbol. There are 4 bits per MFSK symbol. Hence, bandwidth of
f
unspreaded signal will be s . Similarly, for 5H/FSK symbols/hop bandvidth of the
4
spreaded signal will be 5ts .
BW of spreaded signal
Processing gain (PG) =
BW of unspreaded signal
5 fs
= = 5 × 4 = 20
f s /4
PG in dB = 10 log 10 PG
Digital Communication [46] (Buddha Series) Unit-4

= 10 log 10 20
= 13 dB
Q. 9. Compare fast FH_SS with slow FH-SS.
[2 Marks] [UPTU Sem. 2010, 11, 2013-14]
Ans.
Parameter Slow Frequency Hopping Fast Frequency Hoping
1. Definition Multiple symbols are Multiple hope are taken to
transmitted in one frequency transmit one symbol
hop
2. Chip rate Symbol rate is equal to chip rate Hop rate is equal to chip rate
3. Rh and Rs Hop rate is lower than symbol Hop rate is higher than symbol
rate rate
4. Carrier frequencies One or more symbols are One symbol is transmitted over
transmitted over the same multiple carriers in different
carrier frequency hops
5. Jammer Interference This signal can be detectey by The signal is difficult to detect
jammer if carrier frequency in since one symbol is transmitted
one hop is known on multiple carrier frequences
Q. 10. Explain the principle of CDMA. [2 Marks] [UPTU 2015-16, 2007-08]
Ans. CDMA

Time Time Time

slot 1 slot 2 slot 3

User User User Frequency band 3

3 1 3
Frequency

User User User Frequency band 2 Guard band

2 3 1

User User User Frequency band 1

2 1 1
Time

Fig. 6

= An alternative to FDMA and TDMA is an another system called as code dunstan

multiple access (CDMA).
= In CDMA more the one user is allowed to share a channel or subchannel with the
help of direct sequence spread spectrum signals.
Unit-4 [47] (Buddha Series) Digital Communication

Q. 11. Write short notes on TDMA and FDMA techniques.

[5 Marks] [UPTU 2013-14, 2011-12]
Ans. TDMA
= It is the method of creating multiple subchannels for multiple access by subdividing
the time duration T f called as the frame duration, into say K non-overlapping
subintervals each of duration T f /K .
= Each user who want to trounced information is assigned a particular slot, within
eder frame. This method is known as time direction multiple across TDMA.

Guard times

Time Time
slot 1 slot 2
Time

Fig. 7 : Guard times includes in TDMA.

= Synchromzation is necessary in TDMA.

FDMA
Frequency

Frequency band 3

Frequency band 2

Frequency band 1
Time

Fig. 8
= The overall channel bandwidth is being shared by the multiple usere. Therefore a
number of users can transmit their information simultaneously.
= The adjacent frequency bands in the FDMA spectrum are likely to interfere with
each other. Therefore it is necessary to include the guard bands between the
adjacent frequency bands. The guard bands are also required because practically it
is impossible to achier the ideal filtering to separate the different users.
No codeword and synchronization is not required.
Q. 12. What is Near For Problem in CDMA? Write short note on Near for
Problem occur in CDMA. [5 Marks] [UPTU 2009-10, 2013-14]
Digital Communication [48] (Buddha Series) Unit-4

Ans. Near-Far Problem

= The Gaussian approximation of MAI has limitations when it is to be used for
predicting system performance particularly in the near-fast environment.
= The near-far environment can be described as follows :
(1) The desired source or transmitter is much farther away from its destination or
receiver than some interfering transmitter.
(2) The spreading codes are root mutually orthogonal.
= If such a thing happens then the strongest signal will capture the demodulation
process.
= The near far problem can be overcome by using the power control at the base
station so as to control the power level of the transmitted signal from every mobile
which is coming under that base station.
= There as one more reason for which the power control in CDMA is important.
= Every multiple access system is supposed to maximize the system capacity. It can
be maximized if the transmitter of each mobile is under control of the serving base
station.
= The transmitter power of each subscriber is controlled tightly to reduce the
problem of interference.
= A combination of open loop and closed loop power control is used for adjusting the
transmitter power of each subscribed.
Q. 13. Explain MUD in brief. [2 Marks] [UPTU 2014-15, 2009-10, 2013-14]
Ans. MUD Multiuser Detection
= Multi-user detection is another technique to counter the near for effect.
= MUD can equalize the received signal power without feedback from the receiver to
transmitter. This is difficult from the closed loop power control technique.
= MUD is a centralized receiver. Its purpose is to jointly receive (detect) all the user
signals of different received signal strengths.
= The MUD is assumed to have an access to all M signal samples. It is also assumed
that the MUD has the knowledge of the user signal strengths, spreading sequence
cross correlation and statist of noise samples.
= The goal of MUD receivers is to determine the unknown user data vector based on
the received signal vector value.
Q. 14. A PN sequence is generated using a feedback shift register of leagth 4.
Find the generated output sequence if the intial contents of the shift register are
1000. If the chip rate is 10 7 chips/sec, calculate the chip and PN sequence
duration and period of output sequence. Draw its scheme arrangement.
[10 Marks] [UPTU 2016-17]
Unit-4 [49] (Buddha Series) Digital Communication

Ans. Modulo-2 adder

Table : PN Sequence Generation
Clock pulse Shift register Outputs E-OR gate PN-Sequence
Number Output
Q3 Q2 Q1 Q0 Q3 ⊕ Q2 Q3
↑ 0 0 0 1 0⊕ 0= 0 0
↑ 0 0 1 0 0⊕1=1 0
↑ 0 1 0 1 0⊕ 0= 0 0
↑ 1 0 1 0 1⊕1= 0 1
↑ 0 1 0 0 0⊕ 0= 0 0
↑ 0 1 0 0 0⊕ 0= 0 0
↑ 1 0 0 0 1⊕ 0=1 1
↑ 0 0 0 1 0⊕ 0= 0 0
↑ 0 0 1 0 0⊕1=1 0
↑ 0 1 0 1 0⊕ 0= 0 0
↑ 1 0 1 0 1⊕1= 0 1
↑ 0 1 0 0 0⊕ 0= 0 0
↑ 1 0 0 0 1⊕ 0=1 1
↑ 0 0 0 1 0⊕ 0= 0 0
↑ 0 0 1 0 0⊕1=1 0
↑ 0 1 0 1 0⊕ 0= 0 0
↑ 1 0 1 0 1⊕1= 0 1

Chip Duration
The chip rate R c = 1 × 10 7 chips/sec.
1 1
Hence chip duration Tc = = = 01
. µsec
R c 1 × 10 7
Length of PN sequence
N = 2m − 1
⇒ 2 4 − 1 = 15 digits
m=4
Duration of PN sequence
T b = NT c
T b = 15 × 01
. µsec
T b = 15
. µsec
Digital Communication [50] (Buddha Series) Unit-4

Q. 15. Compare between FDMA ⋅ TDMA and CDMA technique.

(2 Marks) (UPTU Sem. 2010-11)
Ans.
S. No. FDMA TDMA CDMA
1. Overall bandwidth is Time sharing takes place Sharing of bandwidth and
shared among many time both takes place
stations
2. Due to non-linearity of Due to incorrect Both type of interferences
device inter modulation synchronization there can will be present
products are generated due be an interferences
to interferences between between the adjacent time
adjacent channels slots
3. Synchronization is not Synchronization is Synchronization is not
necessary essential necessary
4. Codeword is not required Codeword is not required Codeword are required
5. Guard bands between Guard times between Guard bands and guard
adjacent channels are adjacent time slots are times both are necessary
necessary necessary

Q. 16. What are the properties of maximum-length sequences.

[2 Marks] [UPTU 2007-08]
Ans. Maximum length sequences have following properties
(1) Balance Property In each period of a maximum-length sequence, the number of
1’s is always one more than the number 0s. This is called as the balance
property.
(2) Run Property This property states that among the “runs” of 1s and 0s in each
period of a maximum length sequence. One half the runs of a each kind are of
length one, one-fourth are of length two, one light are of length three and so on.
(3) Correlation Property This property states that the auto-correlation of a
maximum length sequence is periodic and binary valued.
Q. 17. What are the advantages and disadvantages of FH-SS system.
(2 Marks)
Ans. Advantages
(1) The synchronisation is not greatly dependent on the distance.
(2) The serial search system with FH-SS needs shorter time for acquisition.
(3) The processing gain PG is higher than that of DS-SS system.
Disadvantages
(1) The bandwidth of FH-SS system is too large (in GHz).
(2) Complex and expanses digital frequency synthesizers are required to be used.
Unit-4 [51] (Buddha Series) Digital Communication

Q. 18. Explain the principle of OFDM. [15 Marks] [UPTU 2016-17]

Sol. OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing)
In a number of app;lications, however the transmitters have partial information
regarding the channel characteristics. One of the most important piece of partial channel
information the channel delay spread; that is, for a finite length channel.
L
H (Z) = ∑ h ( k) Z − k
R=0

the channel order L is known as the transmitter while { h ( k)} are still unknown. Given
this particular channel information, the particular transmission technique known as
orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) can be implemented at the
transmitter.
With this application OFDM, the task of receiver equalization is significantly
simplified.

Principle
If ( sk ) is a sequence of data signals ove the FIR channel H ( Z ) of order upto L.
L
∴ Frequency Response ⇒ H ( e i 2 πfT ) = ∑ h ( k) e − j2 πfkT
k=0

where T is the symbol duration and also the sampling period. H ( e i 2 πfT ) is the
frequency response of the channel h ( k) = h ( kT ) it is a periodic function of f with period
1 T . The frequency f can be sampled as :
1
f 0 = 0. =0
NT
1 1
f1 = 1 . =
NT NT
1
f N − 1 = ( N − 1)
NT
( N − 1)
=
NT
The linear convolution relationship between the channel input { S R } and output, we
have
L
Z ( k) = ∑ h ( i ) sk − 1 + w ( k )
k=0

or Z ( n ) = H ( n ) Sn + w ( n )
where n = 1, K N
Digital Communication [52] (Buddha Series) Unit-4

OFDM Equalization
~
SN H(N) H(N)–1 dec ( ). ~
SN

~
WN

~
S2 H(2) H(2)–1 dec ( ). ~
S2

~
W2
~
S1 H(1) H(1)–1 dec ( ). ~
S1

~
W1
Fig. 9

OFDM converts an ISI channel into N parallel AWGN subchannels as depicts in

above figure.
~ ~
Z (n) = H (n) S (n) where n = 1, K N
~ ~
S ( n ) = dec [ H ( N )−1 Z ( n )]
where, n = 1, K N
o