Aroma and Color Development During The Production of Specialty Malts: A Review

Received: 25 February 2021 Revised: 17 June 2021 Accepted: 22 June 2021
DOI: 10.1111/1541-4337.12806
COMPREH ENSIVE REVIEWS IN FOOD SCIENCE AND FOOD SAFETY
Aroma and color development during the production of

specialty malts: A review
Raphael Prado Martina Gastl Thomas Becker
Chair of Brewing and Beverage

Technology, Technical University of Abstract
Munich, Freising, Germany Specialty malts comprise a promising field for innovative approaches concern-
Correspondence ing their potential in terms of color, aroma, and taste influence on the compo-
Martina Gastl, Chair of Brewing and Bev- sition of beer and other beverages. Nevertheless, poor reproducibility of aroma
erage Technology, Technical University of
and taste is a recurrent struggle between maltsters, leaving color as a practi-
Munich, Weihenstephaner Steig 20, 85354
Freising, Germany. cal parameter for quality control. However, malts with similar coloration can
Email: martina.gastl@tum.de present distinct aroma profiles, leaving open questions concerning key aroma
compounds, their dynamic responses to malting process variations and to what
extent they may vary in a certain color range. Key aroma volatiles have been
identified in the matrix of barley malt, comprising a variety of products of non-
enzymatic browning reactions (e.g., caramelization, pyrolysis, and Maillard reac-
tions). Here, water plays a crucial role together with the intensity of the tem-
perature regimes. Nevertheless, the final aroma profile of a malt product is the
result of a balance between aroma formation and losses. Therefore, the corre-
lation between color and aroma is of big complexity. That being the case, the
present article questions if key aroma compounds responsible for the peculiar
flavors of specialties have been defined by scientific literature and whether their
production dynamics is unveiled. In this manner, this work proposes an overview
of the aroma compounds present in specialty malt products studied up to the
current date. More specifically, the process production of specialty malts and its
potential impact on the formation of aroma and taste is studied alongside the
key aroma-active compounds, their correlation to color, and trending analytical
techniques for aroma and color assessment.
KEYWORDS
specialty malt, aroma compound, color, malting process, maillard reaction
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AROMA AND COLOR DEVELOPMENT DURING THE PRODUCTION OF SPECIALTY MALTS 4817
1 INTRODUCTION a smaller fraction in combination with the base pilsner

malt aiming to add distinct color and flavor to wort, allow-
Following centuries of tradition and innovation, beer can ing the production of a vast pool of beer styles and other
be defined as a popular alcoholic beverage produced from beverages. Moreover, increase of the palate fullness and
four main ingredients: malt, hops, water, and yeast. Apart mouthfeel attributes are further contributions of specialty
from water, malt is the principal raw material and can be malts to wort and beer, deductively due to their higher
made from various cereals, such as barley, wheat, corn, content of melanoidins and non-fermentable sugars such
rye, sorghum, and many others. Historically, barley has as dextrins (Coghe, Adriaenssens, Leonard, & Delvaux,
been used as the main malt cereal for a number of rea- 2004; Coghe, D’Hollander, Verachtert, & Delvaux, 2005;
sons, ranging from cultural and economic purposes to its Nie, Wang, Zhou, Dou, & Huang, 2010).
biochemical and physiological properties such as an appro- In response to such attributes, the interest on specialty
priate amount of carbohydrates and proteins, and the malts has been an important issue for the malt and bev-
adhesion of husks that later enables wort filtration during erage industries over the past few years in relation to the
lautering (Kunze & Mieth, 2014). Barley is a well-known rapid emergence and expansion of beer styles across the
cereal when considering its production and germination world. Consequently, competition has obliged companies
processes, which are easily managed and capable of offer- to look for alternatives that would widen their options
ing an appropriate number of enzymes required for malt for attending such a demanding market. This has made
and beer production. specialty malts a promising alternative considering their
The process of malting has the ultimate purpose potential to influence the color, flavor, and aroma of final
of transforming the barley kernels’ natural physiology, products, enabling variations from light to dark coloration,
producing and inducing enzymes and breaking down high bitter to sweet flavors, and floral to smoky aroma notes.
molecular weight nutrients (e.g., starch granules and insol- Even though the production of malts usually relies on
uble proteins) into lower molecular weight components the coloration of the kernels as a specifier of the right
that are easily accessed by enzymes and soluble as sub- end point, it is the aroma and flavor profile that pri-
strate for further fermentations (yeast nutrition) (Baxter marily interests maltsters and brewers. Although color
& Hughes, 2001). Therefore, the cereals are submitted to specifications are easily reached, the success rate for
a series of steps that aim a limited germination process, achieving a flavor specification has been estimated to
which is suspended at a convenient time by higher temper- be only 40% (O’Shaughnessy, Chandra, Fryer, Robbins,
atures. Consequently, flavor and color are formed depend- & Wedzicha, 2003). This scenario addresses the malting
ing on the intensity and time of exposure to such temper- industry’s recurrent dilemma concerning the reproducibil-
atures and the humidity condition applied and the modi- ity of batches that raises important questions. Which are
fication level of the nutrients (Back, Gastl, Krottenthaler, the characters responsible for the peculiar aroma and taste
Narziß, & Zarnkow, 2019; Narziß, Back, Gastl, & Zarnkow, of specialty malts? Is it possible to control their production?
2017). In this way, a wide range of different malt products Can the color be correlated with the formation of such
can be manufactured by varying such parameters. compounds? Even though general key aroma compounds
Despite the classical pilsner pale malt, produced by the of malt have been addressed (Dong et al., 2013; Fickert &
three traditional malting steps steeping, germination, and Schieberle, 1998), little is known about their impact on the
kilning, specialty malts differ either by the cereal used or final flavor quality of specialty malts. There is a need for
by the parameters applied during their production. Most further research to point out differences in the aroma pro-
of the kilned specialty barley malts are manufactured after file of specialty malts and investigate the correlations to
extending the modification level during germination and the resulting color, depending on the technological malt-
increasing the final temperatures applied with significant ing procedure.
humidity level, providing plenty of substrate and energy In the light of such deliberations, this review proposes
for the conduction of non-enzymatic browning reactions the current state of the art of research on specialty bar-
(e.g., caramelization, pyrolysis and Maillard reactions). On ley malt aroma compounds with a final goal of establish-
the other hand, roasted specialty barley malts may undergo ing a congruent outlook between previous works and their
various malting technologies, being the roasting drum the results. Hence, to introduce the differences between the
key element for thermal processing. During such circum- traditional pale malt and specialty malts, a brief overview
stances, distinct color and flavors are given to the malt of the malting process is presented parallel to the biochem-
(Kunze & Mieth, 2014; Narziß et al., 2017). Because of their ical changes and aroma development across each step.
intense exposure to higher temperatures, the nutrient con- Current barley malt styles are listed and discussed in rela-
tent and enzyme activity are gradually decreased during tion to their classification and sensory characteristics (fla-
the process. Therefore, specialty malts are instead used as vor and color). As a result, the formation and role of key
4818 AROMA AND COLOR DEVELOPMENT DURING THE PRODUCTION OF SPECIALTY MALTS
aroma compounds are explored, including their impact on

malt products and current analytical methodologies that
are applied. Finally, coloration is discussed, considering its
formation and impact as a production parameter and its
correlation to the development of aroma.
2 INFLUENCE OF THE MALTING

PROCESS ON FLAVOR DEVELOPMENT
Pale and specialty barley malts differ in a range of charac-

teristics and parameters regarding their biochemical com-
position and production steps. Generally, traditional pil-
sner (pale) malt is produced by mild conditions that do not
favor the formation of melanoidins or any other product
of non-enzymatic browning reactions (further discussed in
Subsection 2.2). The purpose of the pilsner-malting process
is solely and exclusively to produce enzymes together with
first steps in the degradation of β-glucan cell walls, starch,
and insoluble proteins. This process needs to address
the biotransformation of the nutrients of the endosperm
toward the synthesis of specific proteins and amino acids.
On the other hand, specialty malts diverge from the tra-
ditional malting process in terms of such aspects as color,
flavor, and acidity. In this case, the focus lies upon forming
various other molecular components rather than enzymes
and amino acids. Most commonly, the processes favor
the production of melanoidins, chromophores, and flavor-
active compounds. Nonetheless, other functional special-
ties may request the formation of specific components, for
example, lactic acid to produce acid malt (Narziß et al.,
2017).
Figure 1 schematizes the production lines of barley malts
in a general overview, drawing attention to the usual dif-
ferences between each specialty product. The traditional
process of malting, outlined in Figure 1, panel a, begins
with the choice of barley with a relative lower protein
content, varying from 8.5% to 11% in European cultivars,
or even in higher quantities in other regions (Kunze &
F I G U R E 1 Diagram of the production of pale malt (a), color
Mieth, 2014). Despite the general concern regarding the
malt (b), roasted malt (c), crystal/caramel malt (d), roasted barley
high amount of proteins and their influence on the for- (e), smoked malt (f), and acidulated malt (g)
mation of hazes in beer, the influence of Maillard reac-
tions and their products is the subject of concern here.
Thus, specialty malts should be produced from barley with sidered. As described by Herb, Filichkin, Fisk, Helgerson,
a slightly higher content of proteins (from 11% to 13% for Hayes, Benson, et al. (2017) and Herb, Filichkin, Fisk, Hel-
European cultivars) (Kunze & Mieth, 2014), offering a bet- gerson, Hayes, Meints, et al. (2017), a working hypothesis
ter quantity of substrate for the formation of melanoidins for the variation in aroma and flavor contribution between
and other Maillard products. Even though the genotype barley varieties lies upon the composition and quantity
(cultivar variety) and phenotype (genotype associated with of precursors of flavor-relevant reactions occurring during
growing conditions) may interfere with other sensory char- the kilning phase. In other words, the different potentials
acteristics (e.g., via protein content), such variables have a of free amino acid content and reducing sugars in barley
much lower impact when the effects of the malting process varieties plays a role in the formation of aroma and flavor
on the formation of aroma and flavor compounds are con- of malt, given that they are substrates for non-enzymatic
browning reactions (Nobis et al., 2019). In a different crucial impact on the formation of fermentable and non-
approach, Dong et al. (2015) analyzed the different aroma fermentable sugars, and thus in providing substrates for
composition between 10 brewing barley varieties, conclud- non-enzymatic browning reactions. Finally, lipases cat-
ing that cultivars from different countries present less sim- alyze the degradation of lipids into glycerol and fatty acids
ilarities compared to those cultivated in the same country. and are influenced by germination parameters. Lipoxyge-
Even though such works evidence the complexity of barley nases (LOXs) are well-known lipases responsible for the
while as a raw material on the formation of sensorial char- production of the typical cucumber-like aroma compound
acteristics, a correlation between the availability of precur- (E,Z)-2,6-nonadienal (cucumber aroma), and other unde-
sors of aroma-relevant non-enzymatic browning reactions sired compounds such as hexanal (green-like aroma) and
and the formation of flavor in malt from the different vari- (E)-2-nonenal (cardboard-like aroma). Proposed pathways
eties has yet to be explored with diligence. of formation for these compounds are schematized in
Figure 2.
To favor a higher modification level, darker malts’
2.1 Steeping and germination germination intensity should be elevated. For example,
Munich malt is usually produced after a germination
Following the production line, the degree of steeping of under 22◦ C–25◦ C, instead of the usual 17◦ C–18◦ C in basic
pale malts should be kept between 42% and 44%, limit- pale malt production (Kunze & Mieth, 2014). Longer
ing the reactions responsible for transforming the kernels lengths of germination also influence the intensity of this
and reducing the losses during germination due to the process. These conditions are responsible for increasing
formation of rootlets. On the contrary, specialty malts the modification level, enhancing the substrate content of
might require a higher steeping degree, achieving up Maillard reactions and therefore the formation of color and
to 47% (Figure 1, panel b). This condition would pro- flavor (Kim, Lee, & Kim, 1998; Mackie & Slaughter, 2000).
vide enough water to enhance the action of germinative As a consequence, some aroma-active compounds
enzymes and therefore, the growth of the kernels along can be already detected at this stage. Dong et al.
with its metabolic bioreactions (Kunze & Mieth, 2014). (2013) reported that a majority of aldehydes continu-
Here, hydrolytic enzymes such as cytolytic enzymes, ously increased in concentration during the germina-
proteases, phosphatases, amylases, and lipases are respon- tion of barley malt. Among them, the highlights were
sible for modifying the biochemistry of the barley seed on those accountable for green and malty aroma notes
until their inactivation by thermal treatment (Back et al., such as 2-methylpropanal (malty, green-like aroma), 3-
2019). Starting with the cytolytic enzymes, these are methylbutanal (malty aroma), 2-methylbutanal (nutty
responsible for the degradation of the cell wall of the aleu- aroma), hexanal (green-like aroma), 2-hexenal (green-like
rone layer and endosperm in order to increase their perme- aroma), and (E)-2-nonenal (cardboard-like aroma). In this
ability. In this manner, cytolytic enzymes have an indirect same study, the authors point out the positive influence
impact on the formation of aroma in malt by facilitating of low amino acid concentration on the formation of 2,3-
the availability of aroma precursors (amino components butanedione (butter aroma). Deductively, shorter germi-
and sugars) stocked in the endosperm. Between them, nation regimes, or less intensive by any other means,
important enzymes are β-glucanases and pentosanases may influence this compound’s formation, which can per-
such as xylanases and arabinosidases. Following, proteases sist even in high-temperature processes such as roast-
promote the hydrolysis of insoluble proteins into peptides ing. Furthermore, it is during the germination that S-
of various molecular weights and free amino acids. Higher methylmethionine (SMM) is synthesized in the embryo
molecular peptides are important for foam consistency, (Figure 3). This compound is a precursor for the formation
while free amino acids have a crucial role on yeast nutri- of dimethyl sulfide (DMS) (sweet-corn aroma), a critical
tion. More importantly, these molecules are composed by off-flavor in beer. Under thermal processing, SMM breaks
amino groups, being thus key elements for the formation down, releasing DMS, which is easily driven off via evapo-
of aroma compounds as precursors of Maillard reactions. ration (Bamforth, 2014).
During germination, phosphatases act in the breakdown Müller, Kleinwaechter, Selmar, and Methner (2014)
of phosphoric compounds, releasing organic acids. In this investigated the influence of elevated temperatures during
occasion, several organic acids are also produced by deam- the germination process and described that temperatures
ination of amino acids or by oxidation of sulfur-containing up to 24◦ C indeed led to more intense and faster germi-
amino acids. Amylases are responsible for the starch nation, culminating in the reduction of free amino nitro-
degradation, releasing saccharides of the most variable gen (FAN) content, but enough to avoid future brewing
polymerization degrees (e.g., dextrins and fermentable issues. These results are of particular interest for the aroma
sugars). They are divided into α- and β-amylase, having and flavor perspective once reduced FAN content would
F I G U R E 2 Proposed mechanisms for the production of malt aroma compounds hexanal and (E)-2-nonenal via lipoxygenase (LOX-1 and
LOX-2) activity according to Guido et al. (2004)
Abbreviations: POX, peroxidase; 9-HPL, 9-hydroperoxide-lyase.
F I G U R E 3 Proposed mechanism for the formation of dimethyl sulfide during the malting process according to Bamforth (2014) and
Cohen, Salmon, Tietel, Hacham, and Amir (2017)
Abbreviations: CGS, cystathionine-γ-synthase; MMT, S-Adenosyl-l-methionine:l-methionine S-methyltransferase.
generate less precursors related to a staling flavor such as 2.2 Kilning

Strecker aldehydes (Maillard products, further discussed
in Subsection 2.2), which are commonly related to poten- Even though steeping and germination aspects are impor-
tial off-flavors of thermal stress and aged beer (Lehnhardt, tant in the formation of substrates and enzymes and
Gastl, & Becker, 2018). thus contribute to the final flavor of the products, it is
F I G U R E 4 Simplified overview of the formation of relevant malt aroma compounds via Maillard reactions. Reactions from (a) to (f) are
further detailed in picture 4
Source: Adapted from Starowicz and Zieliński (2019) and Coghe, Derdelinckx, et al. (2004).
the drying phase (kilning and roasting) that is the cru- happen already in mild temperatures such as 50◦ C (Coghe,
cial step for most specialty malts once it promotes the Derdelinckx, et al., 2004). Figure 2 presents a simplified
formation of most of the volatiles and pigments that diagram of the formation of important Maillard products
are responsible for giving each product its special fla- for specialty malts (e.g., furans, reductones, Strecker alde-
vor and color. These compounds are mainly generated hydes, pyrroles, pyrazines, and melanoidines). Figure 3
via non-enzymatic browning reactions, including pyrol- exemplifies the proposed formation pathways of each rele-
ysis, caramelization, and Maillard reactions. Pyrolysis vant reaction indicated in Figure 2, with a special regard
is the breakdown of sugar molecules, where carbon– to furfural derivatives (caramel aroma), maltol and iso-
carbon bonds are broken due to the elevated temperatures maltol (burnt-like aroma), Stecker aldehydes, 2-acetyl-1-
(>200◦ C), thus limited to roasted products only (Coghe, pyrroline (sweet popcorn aroma), and pyrazines (roasted
Derdelinckx, & Delvaux, 2004). Under lower temperatures aromas).
(>120◦ C), caramelization is responsible for the conversion The kilning process is characterized by two distinct
of sugar molecules especially in the endosperm of caramel phases: withering and curing. The withering phase occurs
malts (while pyrolysis is induced by thermal energy to gen- first and is responsible for the drying of the grains. To allow
erate products with a strong burnt flavor, caramelization the integrity of the enzymes, temperatures are increased in
happens in milder temperatures, being catalyzed by acid a very subtle manner, generally starting from 50◦ C.
and alkaline conditions and generating desired flavor com- In sequence, the curing phase is responsible for giving
pounds) (Coghe, Derdelinckx, et al., 2004; Pengelly, 2001; the characteristic aroma and color of the malts by increas-
Woffenden, Ames, & Chandra, 2001). Finally, Maillard ing temperatures above 85◦ C (Narziß et al., 2017).
reactions are a complex series of reactions involving reduc- For the production of pale malts, the grains should be
ing sugars and amino compounds (Figures 4 and 5). They dried down to approximately 8% of water content dur-
comprise the most important reactions of non-enzymatic ing the withering phase by allowing fresh air inside the
browning reactions in specialty malt aroma formation and kiln. This process gently reduces and stops the activity
F I G U R E 5 Biochemical mechanism of the (a) initial phase of the Maillard reaction, and proposed mechanisms of formation of relevant
specialty malt aroma compounds such as (b) furanes (e.g., furfural derivatives), (c) reductone ethers (e.g., isomaltol, maltol, and furanones),
(d) Strecker aldehydes, (e) pyrrolines (e.g., 2-acetyl-1-pyrroline), and (f) pyrazines
Source: Adapted from Coghe, Derdelinckx, et al. (2004).
of enzymes, preventing further metabolism of molecu- product. Some specialty malts may be finished with even
lar compounds. Then, the curing temperature should not lower water content, hitting the mark of 1% (Kunze &
increase much further than 85◦ C as from that temperature Mieth, 2014; Narziß et al., 2017). Huang et al. (2016)
onward, Maillard reactions might become more intense studied the influences of kilning on the formation of
and consume nutrients for the formation of volatiles, aroma and flavor of pale malt by applying a Box–Behnken
melanoidins, and other products. At the end, the malt factorial design and response surface analysis. When vary-
grains should have a water content below 5% (Kunze & ing the withering time, curing temperature and curing
Mieth, 2014; Narziß et al., 2017). In the case of specialty time on three levels, the authors confirmed that higher
malts, the kilning conditions may differ for each product, kilning intensities decrease the nonenal potential forma-
varying the temperature levels (usually >100◦ C), mois- tion (responsible for stale, cardboard-like off-flavor) but
ture content, and the time of exposure to such conditions increase the concentration of other stale-related aldehy-
(Figure 1, panel b). For example, the production of Munich des (e.g., 2-furaldehyde [furfural] [caramel aroma] and
malt is usually carried out by the recirculation of the air methional [potato-like aroma]), thiobarbituric acid, and
inside the kiln to dry the kernels down to only 20%, per- other sweet aroma-related compounds such as furanones.
mitting the further reaction of higher molecular weight Nevertheless, temperature alone is not a good indica-
compounds. In sequence, curing temperatures usually sur- tor of the formation of every aroma compound (Mackie
pass 100◦ C, inducing the formation of a range of Mail- & Slaughter, 2000). It is essential to draw further atten-
lard products that provide the final flavor of the malt tion to the moisture content during kilning and roasting
steps, bringing into focus the occurrence of non-enzymatic number of components formed in the kernels. Table 1
reactions and the physicochemical conditions required. summarizes the different malt styles in relation to the
Water has a critical role in Maillard reactions as a reac- alternative strategies incorporated during the traditional
tant and as a solvent, facilitating the dynamics between malting process for their production. Despite the color of
reagents and thus interfering on the pathway of formation (high kilned) malt products, a prevalent category of spe-
of volatiles and further flavor-active compounds. Yahya, cialty malts is that of the roasted products, consisting of
Linforth, and Cook (2014) described such dynamics when three subcategories: roasted malt, crystal (caramel) malt,
increasing the moisture content at extreme temperatures. and roasted barley. Here, the categorization depends upon
Water was sprayed in the system twice, which caused an the different roasting substrates: pale malt, green malt,
increase in the formation of 2-cyclopentene-1,4-dione and and raw barley (Coghe, Martens, D’Hollander, Dirinck,
a decrease in the concentration of pyrrole (sweet, nutty & Delvaux, 2004). When submitting pale malt to a roast-
aroma notes). Such results are easily understood when ing cylinder after the kilning phase, elevated temperatures
analyzing the mechanism formation of such volatiles: pyr- ranging around 130◦ C–230◦ C are responsible for roasted
role may be formed by the dehydration of acetaldehyde malt production (Figure 1, panel c). This specialty style
(green apple aroma) and α-acetaldehyde via aldol con- is characterized by its darker coloration, carrying peculiar
densation; and 2-cyclopentene-1,4-dione production is a notes of roasted aromas such as caramel, chocolate, tof-
response to the breakdown of melanoidins in the pres- fee, coffee, and sweet burned. Typical aroma compounds
ence of H2 O and heat. Furthermore, Guido, Boivin, Benis- of roasted malts are hydroxyacetone (burnt-like aroma),
mail, Gonçalves, and Barros (2004) assessed the effects of furfural derivatives (caramel aroma), pyrazines (roasted
moisture content on industrial kilning processes and sug- aroma), and pyrroles (nutty aroma) (Reichel et al., 2021;
gested that it also plays a key role alongside the tem- S. Vandecan, Daems, Schouppe, Saison, & Delvaux, 2011;
perature gradient on the formation of nonenal potential, S. M. Vandecan, Saison, Schouppe, Delvaux, & Delvaux,
which may persist further on mashing steps and account 2010; Yahya et al., 2014). As for crystal malt, two different
for approximately one-quarter of the total nonenal poten- pathways can be followed: the first consists of replacing the
tial in beer. kilning step by the roasting phase, where green malt has
Nobis et al. (2019) studied the malt quality by mon- its first saccharification process within the roasting drum
itoring 3-deoxyglucosone (3-DG) formation during each instead of in the kiln (Figure 1, panel d). The second is con-
of the three principal malting steps. Such compound is sisted of kilning the green malt in a highly intense manner
a product of Maillard reactions and comprises an essen- until achieving a proper friability level. Also called “cara
tial precursor of Strecker reactions that lead to ageing malt” (from caramel malt), crystal malt may vary consider-
off-flavors in beer. In such investigation, barley samples ably depending on the intensity of the roasting conditions
were submitted to different modification levels by alter- applied. In general, the grains are brought to a steeping
ing the steeping degree (42%–45%) germination time (5– degree of 40%–48% (alternatively, high-modification vari-
7 days) and germination temperature (12◦ C–14◦ C). The eties can be steeped to a degree of approximately 38%) and
authors concluded that a higher intensity of the whole followed to a roasting drum where the grain content is
malting process is responsible for an enhanced forma- liquefied and saccharified at 60◦ C–75◦ C within a period
tion of 3-DG. Thus, it means that the kilning temperature of 3 h. Here, a high amount of soluble nitrogen content
and the grains’ modification level (by means of the steep- is formed, decreasing pH levels. The temperature is then
ing and germination steps) have an important influence raised to 120◦ C–180◦ C, allowing the formation of the typi-
on the potential formation of relevant Strecker aldehydes cal caramel-like aromas (e.g., furfural derivatives, Strecker
such as 2-methylbutanal (nutty aroma), 3-methylbutanal aldehydes, and heterocyclic compounds) (Narziß et al.,
(malty aroma), and 2-methylpropanal (malty, green-like 2017).
aroma). As a consequence, such products are available in a wide
range of colors, varying from 2.5 to 300 EBC units, and with
a vast pool of aroma compounds, transiting its characteris-
2.3 Further technological approaches tics from gentle, sweet notes such as honey and cookies to
strong roasted notes such as toffee and chocolate (Beal &
Ultimately, varying the conditions applied during the three Mottram, 1993). Finally, the third product, roasted barley,
classic steps of steeping, germination, and kilning might results from roasting raw barley without any prior process
consist in one of multiple ways for the formation of aroma, such as steeping or germination (Figure 1, panel e). The
flavor, and color when considering the present variety of idea behind it is to avoid a waste of effort once the extreme
specialty malt products in the market. Other processes temperatures had completely denatured the enzymes pro-
such as roasting and smoking can enhance the pool and duced during malting. This product usually carries strong
4824
TA B L E 1 Popular specialty malt product styles and their characteristics according to Narziß et al. (2017) and Prado (2019)
Characteristics
Category Product Method of production Aroma and flavor Color
Color (Kilned) Pale Ale malt Curing at mid temperatures (around 95◦ C). Thick body. 5.0–7.5 EBC
Vienna malt Higher steeping degree (up to 46%). Intense Thick body, smooth. 6.0–10 EBC
germination followed by mid withering and curing
conditions (90◦ C–100◦ C).
Munich malt Higher steeping degree (up to 47%). Intensive Malty, amber. 11–35 EBC
germination of barley followed by kilning under
higher temperatures (>100◦ C).
Melanoidin malt Extended germination process followed by mid Malty, honey, biscuit, dried 40–80 EBC
withering and curing conditions. fruits.Strong and thick body.
Kilned crystal Intensive kilning temperatures under extended time. Sweet notes, caramel, honey, biscuit, 2.5–160 EBC
(caramel) malt roasted.Thick body.
Roasted Roasted crystal Roasting of green malt after germination. Roasting Sweet notes, caramel, honey, biscuit, 20–300 EBC
(caramel) malt temperatures may vary from 120◦ C to 180◦ C. roasted, toffee.Thick body.
Roasted malt Roasting of pilsner malt after kilning phase. Roasting Roasted notes, chocolate toffee, 60–1400 EBC
temperatures may vary from 100◦ C to 220◦ C. coffee.Astringent and bitter taste.
Roasted barley malt Roasting of raw barley after harvesting. Roasting Roasted notes, coffee. Bitter flavor. 1000–1400 EBC
temperatures are usually approximately 200◦ C.
Smoked Smoked malt Smoking of malt with beech wood. Smoked notes, ham, vanilla, honey. 3.0–8.0 EBC
Peated malt Smoking of malt with peat fire. Smoked notes, phenolic, peaty, earthy. 3.0–8.0 EBC
Sour Acidulated malt Further steeping of malt at approximately 50◦ C Tart, lactic. Well-rounded flavor. 2.5–12 EBC
followed by drying at 50◦ C–60◦ C.
Chit Chit malt Premature interruption of germination. Barley flavor. 2.0–3.0 EBC
AROMA AND COLOR DEVELOPMENT DURING THE PRODUCTION OF SPECIALTY MALTS
roasted aroma notes such as black coffee, accompanied by Interestingly, undesired microbiological contamina-
a bitter taste. tions of the malt have also been studied in regard of
Other less popular processes are smoking and acidifica- aroma modulation. For example, Chen et al. (2017) inves-
tion. Smoked malt is a very popular product from the Fran- tigated the impact of Fusarium graminearum contamina-
conia region, in Germany. The traditional smoked malt is tion on the volatile dynamics during the malting process.
produced by submitting kilned malt to a smoking system, The authors identified a range of classic malt aroma com-
where specific substrates are burned to produce an aro- pounds, including aldehydes, alcohols, and aromatic com-
matic smoke, which is confined to the same chamber as pounds, present in sporulated and non-sporulated mycelia
the malt, allowing the volatiles to impregnate on the malt suggesting to be modulated by the multi-metabolism
kernels (Figure 1, panel f). In this case, the aroma com- between the green malt and the fungi. Even though the
pounds responsible for a smoked smell are mostly phe- presence of Fusarium in malt products is highly undesired,
nols, such as guaiacol (smoky aroma notes) and eugenol such study evidences an interesting perspective regarding
(clove aroma). Interestingly, barley malt consists in the the manipulation of aroma compounds via microbiological
greater source of beer phenolic substances (70%–80%) act- tools, perhaps yet to be explored.
ing as potential anti-oxidant constituents in beer (Wan-
nenmacher, Gastl, & Becker, 2018). Consequentially, the
respective beer produced with smoked malt may have its 3 AROMA-ACTIVE COMPOUNDS OF
flavor stability enhanced due to the increment of pheno- SPECIALTY MALTS AND SENSORY
lic substances in the specialty malt. Typically, beech and ANALYSIS
peat are used as raw materials to produce the smoke,
resulting in the traditional smoked and peated malt, Given the sensitivity of the human olfaction, the aroma
respectively. Here, an important note should be driven to composition of malt has a crucial impact on the final fla-
the chosen burned material once its composition reflects vor of the product and its respective beer. As in all other
directly on the volatiles produced during the smoking food matrix, the compounds responsible for the forma-
process, directly influencing the final sensory character- tion of aroma are mostly low molecular weight, highly
istics of the smoked malt. As demonstrated by Deki and volatile chemicals. They usually originate from carbohy-
Yoshimura (1974a), the phenolic profile of peated malt drates and amino compounds via complex chains of enzy-
depends greatly on the composition of the fired peat, which matic and non-enzymatic reactions, resulting in thou-
influences the final quality of the product. Such results sands of aroma-active species (Parker, 2015). Neverthe-
suggest that further developments in the smoking process less, only a few are of relevance to the characteristic malt
may contribute to the formation of new malt products with flavor. Given the thermal process applied during malt-
distinct aroma and flavor properties. For example, mod- ing, most of these compounds, such as Strecker aldehy-
ern smoked products have been developed from apple and des and heterocyclic compounds, are products of the Mail-
cherry wood, giving the malt a slight aroma of smooth lard reactions. The impact of each volatile on the final
sweet and fruity notes. aroma and flavor varies according to its specific thresh-
Finally, the acidification of malt is responsible for pro- old, implying that some compounds are more influen-
ducing sour malt, which is usually employed to increase tial than others and their combination in different con-
the acidity ratio during mashing in beer production, reduc- centrations results in distinguished sensory characteris-
ing the pH of wort. For this, malt is soaked in water at tics. In other words, the particular flavor of malt prod-
medium temperature between 45◦ C and 48◦ C for more ucts is the outcome of the combination of a few impactful
than 24 h to stimulate lactic acid production by the nat- aroma-active compounds and several less influential ones
ural bacteria encountered in the malt itself (Figure 1, (Parker, 2015).
panel g). After the acidification, the grains are carefully Over the past decades, several researchers have been
dried, leading to the desired color of less than 6.0 EBC investigating the aroma compounds present in specialty
units (Narziß et al., 2017). This process requires delicate barley malts (Table 2). As a reflection of the high influence
attention once the malt’s biochemical composition directly of the roasting process on the formation of aroma com-
influences the fermentation kinetics of the bacteria. For pounds, research has usually focused on the aroma pro-
example, fermentation by lactobacilli could lead to the for- files of roasted products such as crystal malt, dark roasted
mation of aroma compounds that are undesired in high malt, and roasted barley (Liang Dong et al., 2013; Fickert
concentrations such as acetaldehyde (green apple aroma), & Schieberle, 1998; Kim et al., 1998; O’Shaughnessy et al.,
2,3-butanedione (butter aroma), acetone (solvent, apple- 2003; S. M. Vandecan et al., 2010; Yahya et al., 2014). In
like aroma), and ethyl acetate (solvent, sweet-like aroma) contrast, color malts have not received the same attention,
(Salmerón, Loeza-Serrano, Pérez-Vega, & Pandiella, 2015). even though they may be as important as the roasted group
4826
TA B L E 2 Aroma-active compounds identified in different specialty malt styles

Concentration (µg⋅gmalt −1 )
Dark Proposed
Odor Color Caramel/ roasted Roasted Peated Acidulated Extraction formation/
Odorant quality malt crystal malt malt barley malt malt method Notes reaction References
2,3,5-Trimethyl- Earth, 0.471 n.q.a 0.508 n.q. HS-SPME; Slight increase during Condensation and Deki & Yoshimura
pyrazine bread, Distilla- caramelization phase further oxidation (1974c), Ficket
roasted, tion between 100◦ C and of aminoketones. and Schieberle
nutty 140◦ C. Strong increase (1998), Vandecan
at 180◦ C (higher et al. (2010),
concentration reached Vandecan et al.
after 60 min). (2011)
2,3-Butanedione Butter n.q. n.q. n.q. HS-SPME; Detected since Product of (Ficket &
distilla- germination. lactobacilli Schieberle, 1998;
tion; HS; fermentation and Dong et al., 2013;
L-PAE oxidation of fatty Salmerón et al.,
acids. 2015; Reichel
et al., 2021)
2-Acetylpyrrole Nutty, 11.615 10.271 1.191 n.q. HS-SPME; Linear increase during (Deki &
bread, distilla- caramelization at Yoshimura,
walnut, tion 100◦ C (higher 1974c; Jackson &
liquorice concentration reached Hudson, 1978;
after 90 min). Vandecan et al.,
Decreases at 140◦ C. 2010; Vandecan
et al., 2011)
2-Ethyl-3,5- Earth, 0.458 0.196 1.546 HS-SPME; Slight increase during Condensation and (Ficket &
dimethylpyrazine bread, distilla- caramelization phase further oxidation Schieberle, 1998;
roasted, tion between 100◦ C and of aminoketones. Vandecan et al.,
nutty 140◦ C. Strong increase 2010; Vandecan
at 180◦ C (higher et al., 2011)
concentration reached
after 60 min).
(Continues)
TA B L E 2 (Continued)
Dark Proposed
2-Furaldehyde Bread, 2.1 9.54 9.76 n.q. Solvent Favored by lower Formed via Maillard (Deki &
(furfural) almond, extrac- temperatures reactions Yoshimura,
sweet tion; (approximately 65◦ C) involving 1974a; Deki &
distilla- and enclosed-dry 3-deoxyosone Yoshimura,
tion; environments. (1,2-enolisation 1974b; Jackson &
dynamic pathway); or via Hudson, 1978;
HS sugar Kim et al., 1998;
(purge caramelization Yahya et al.,
and (pyrolysis of 2014; Reichel
trap); glucose). et al., 2021)
L-PAE
2-Hydroxy-3- Caramel, 1.193 1.91 1.953 HS-SPME; Higher concentration at Under lower (Ficket &
methylcyclopent- maple, distilla- 180◦ C but decreases temperatures is Schieberle, 1998;

2-en-1-one wood, tion with prolonged time. formed via Stecker Wnorowski &
fruit degradation of Yaylayan, 2000;
proline or Belitz et al.,
condensation and 2004; Vandecan
dehydration of et al., 2010;
2-oxopropanol. Vandecan et al.,
Under higher 2011)
temperatures can
be formed via
pyrolysis or
Maillard reactions.
(Continues)
4827
4828
Dark Proposed
2-Methyl- Malt, n.q. n.q. HS-SPME; Already present in (Deki &
propanal wine, distilla- barley. Concentration Yoshimura,
solvent tion increases 1974b; Ficket &
continuously during Schieberle, 1998;
germination and reach Dong et al., 2013)
its maximum during
roasting regimes.
2-Phenylethanol Sweet, n.q. n.q. HS-SPME; Detected during roasting (Deki &
flow- distilla- phase. Yoshimura,
ers, tion 1974a; Ficket &
roses, Schieberle, 1998;
honey Dong et al., 2013)
Maltol Caramel 11.755 76.428–155 28.193– 357 HS-SPME; Linear increase during Formed during (Ficket &
(3-Hydroxy-2- 319 distilla- caramelization at intermediate Schieberle, 1998;
methyl-4(H)- tion 100◦ C (higher stages of Maillard Patton, 1950;
pyran-4-one) concentration reached reactions. Hodge et al.,
after 90 min). Produces via 1972; Jackson &
Decreases at 140◦ C. pyrolysis of malt, Hudson, 1978;
Higher in products cellulose, and Mackie &
heated above 200◦ C starch. Slaughter, 2000;
under lower moisture. Vandecan et al.,
2010; Vandecan
et al., 2011; Yahya
et al., 2014)
3-Methylbutanal Malt, n.q. n.q. n.q. n.q. HS-SPME; Already present in (Deki &
peach, distilla- barley. Concentration Yoshimura,
sour tion; increases 1974b; Ficket &
dynamic continuously during Schieberle, 1998;
HS germination and reach Kim et al., 1998;
(purge its maximum during Dong et al., 2013;
and roasting regimes. Reichel et al.,
trap); 2021)
L-PAE
(Continues)
Dark Proposed
4-Hydroxy-2,5- Sweet, 15.031 3.86–14.321 4.008– 5.09 HS-SPME; Linear increase during Formed during (Ficket &
dimethyl- fruity, 5.8 distilla- caramelization at intermediate Schieberle, 1998;
2(5H)- caramel tion; 100◦ C (higher stages of Maillard Hodge et al.,
furanone solvent concentration reached reactions. 1972; Vandecan
extrac- after 90 min). et al., 2010;
tion Decreases at 140◦ C. Vandecan et al.,
Closely related to 2011; Yahya
moisture content of et al., 2014)
the malt kernels.
4-Hydroxy-5- Caramel, 1.56 2.19 0.475 HS-SPME; Higher concentration Formed during (Ficket &
methyl-3- meat, distilla- detected during intermediate Schieberle, 1998;
(2H)- broth tion caramelization at stages of Maillard Hodge et al.,
furanone 100◦ C, after 80 min. reactions. 1972; Mackie &
Decreases at higher Slaughter, 2000;
temperatures than Vandecan et al.,
120◦ C. Closely related 2010; Vandecan

to moisture content of et al., 2011)
malt kernels.
5-Methyl-2- Almond, 0.78 4.47 6.55 n.q. Solvent (Deki &
furfural caramel, extrac- Yoshimura,
burnt tion; 1974a; Jackson &
sugar distilla- Hudson, 1978;
tion; Kim et al., 1998;
dynamic Yahya et al.,
HS 2014; Reichel
(purge et al., 2021)
and
trap);
L-PAE
(Continues)
4829
4830
Dark Proposed
Acetaldehyde Green n.q. n.q. n.q. n.q. HS-SPME; Already present in Can be synthesized (Deki &
apple, distilla- barley. Concentration by lactobacilli via Yoshimura,
pun- tion; HS; increases fermentation from 1974b; Gonzales
gent, L-PAE continuously during different et al., 1994;
sweet germination but lost substrates such as Ficket &
though time and carbohydrates and Schieberle, 1998;
thermal processing. amino acids. Chaves et al.,
2002; Dong
et al., 2013;
Salmerón et al.,
2015; Reichel
et al., 2021)
Acetic acid Vinegar, 35.7 8.13 55.2 n.q. HS-SPME; Produced under lower Product of anaerobic (Deki &
sour distilla- oxygen supply. respiration in Yoshimura,
tion; green malt. 1974c; Ficket &
solvent Schieberle, 1998;
extrac- Jackson &
tion Hudson, 1978;
Dong et al., 2013;
Yahya et al.,
2014)
Benzalde- Almond, n.q. n.q. n.q. HS-SPME; Already present in (Deki &
hyde burnt distilla- barley. Concentration Yoshimura,
sugar tion; increases 1974a; Kim et al.,
dynamic continuously during 1998; Dong et al.,
HS germination and 2013)
(purge reach its maximum
and trap) during roasting
regimes. Consequent
product of the roasting
processing.
(Continues)
Dark Proposed
Benzeneacetal- Floral, 0.33 0.83 1.92 HS-SPME; Already present in (Ficket &
dehyde honey, distilla- barley. Concentration Schieberle, 1998;
sweet tion; increases Kim et al., 1998;
solvent continuously during Dong et al., 2013;
extrac- germination and Yahya et al.,
tion; reach its maximum 2014)
dynamic during roasting
HS regimes. Produced in
(purge large amounts under
and trap) high temperatures and
lower moisture
content.
Hexanal Green, n.q. n.q. n.q. HS-SPME; Already present in Product of the (Baxter, 1982; Yang
grass, distilla- barley. Concentration oxidation of et al., 1993;
tallow tion; increases unsaturated fatty Ficket &
dynamic continuously during acids by Schieberle, 1998;

HS malting but decreases lipoxygenases and Kim et al., 1998;
(purge during thermal hydro peroxide Dong et al., 2013;
and processing. May isomerases. Reichel et al.,
trap); increase during 2021)
L-PAE roasting of barley.
Methylpyrazine Popcorn, 0.1 7.71 29.2 solvent Favored by dry roasting Condensation of (Fors & Eriksson,
nutty, extrac- processes. Formation amino carbonyl 1986; Kim et al.,
cocoa tion; HS; of pyrazines was compounds 1998; Yahya
dynamic increased with through Strecker et al., 2014)
HS temperatures between degradation at
(purge 130◦ C and 140◦ C. heated conditions.
and trap)
(Continues)
4831
when adding unique aroma and flavor characteristics to
Schieberle, 1998;
Schieberle, 1998;
Vandecan et al.,
Vandecan et al.,
2010; Vandecan
2010; Vandecan
the final beer.
As Table 2 shows, the most popular volatiles stud-
et al., 2011)
et al., 2011)
References
ied under the formation of aroma in malt are generally
(Ficket &
(Ficket &
small compounds such as aldehydes, pyrazines, pyrroles,
furans, ketones, acids, and alcohols. For the sake of com-
parison, the data with quantification units different from
Distillation; Maximum concentration Derived from lipids.

µg/gmalt were only mentioned when present in a spe-
cific specialty malt category. On a general overview, sweet
carotenoids.
Maximum concentration Derived from
formation/
aroma notes are highly correlated to aldehydes (Kim et al.,

Proposed
reaction
1998) and furanones. Pyrazines and pyrroles have a typi-

cal aroma description of nuts, bread, burned and roasted
notes (Coghe, Adriaenssens, et al., 2004; O’Shaughnessy
and increases again at
and increases again at

at 100◦ C after 30 min.
at 100◦ C after 30 min.
et al., 2003; Roland Tressl, Friese, Fendesack, & Koeppler,

Decreases at 120◦ C
Decreases at 120◦ C
1978; S. M. Vandecan et al., 2010). Alcohols and ketones

have a wide range of descriptions, even though the latter
are usually linked to pungent and sulfuric aroma notes
(Liang Dong et al., 2013). Esters and phenols may also
180◦ C.
180◦ C.
Notes
contribute to the aroma and flavor in malt and are fre-

quently described as floral, fruity and spicy, wooden notes,
respectively (Deki & Yoshimura, 1974a, 1974c; Fickert &
Acidulated Extraction
HS-SPME;
distilla-
method
SPME
Schieberle, 1998). Nevertheless, these are general assump-

tion
HS-
tions based on average descriptions; variations are likely to

Abbreviations: HS, headspace; HS-SPME, headspace-solid phase microextraction; L-PAE, low-pressure assisted extraction.
occur.
As already mentioned, volatile concentration defines the
final aroma quality of the product and is subjected to vari-
malt
ation depending not only on the malting process, but also

on the harvested barley’s environmental and genetic back-
Roasted Peated
grounds. In this way, each batch of malt is expected to have

malt
a unique composition. Nevertheless, this does not restrict

general characteristics, allowing researches to address gen-
barley
eral key compounds and their concentration in different

specialty styles. Kim et al. (1998) analyzed the aroma pro-
file of roasted malt and roasted barley extracts, where the
roasted
results indicate that the concentration of pyrazines is sig-

Dark
0.045
malt
1.105
nificantly higher in roasted barley, thus enhancing the

roasted aroma notes in such products. On the other hand,

Non-quantified data or measured in different quantification units.
crystal malt
sweet aroma notes were significantly higher with roasted

Caramel/
malt. These results are reasonably explained by the bio-

chemical composition and malting process of the prod-
1.371
0.11
ucts analyzed. Roasted barley is a non-germinated cereal;

it means that the kernels were not allowed to be modified
by the enzymatic reactions during germination, remaining
Color
malt
0.126
1.805
packed with unmodified high molecular weight nutrients,

including aminocarbonyl compounds. At the high temper-
cooked
honey,
Coconut
apple,
quality
apple
(Continued)
atures applied on the roasting process, pyrolysis would eas-

β-Damascenone Sweet
Odor
ily condensate such molecules into pyrazines via Strecker

degradation (H.-D. Belitz, Grosch, & Schieberle, 2009; R
Tressl, 1979; Weenen et al., 1993). On the other hand, in
γ-Nonalactone
roasted malts, the process of germination allows the for-

TA B L E 2
Odorant
mation of a wide pool of low molecular weight chem-

icals via enzymatic reactions prior to the occurrence of
a
pyrolysis, deductively allowing a higher concentration of was for a different reason. These compounds are products
aldehydes rather than pyrazines. of intermediate stages of the Maillard reactions and are
A second investigation compared the concentrations therefore very susceptible to higher roasting temperatures,
of 15 aroma-active compounds in crystal malt, dark meaning that such compounds would be consumed in
roasted malt, and roasted barley (Yahya et al., 2014). The advanced Maillard reactions in the presence of further
latter two groups, clustered by their production under thermal energy.
“dry” high temperatures (>150◦ C), presented consistent More recently, Parr, Bolat, and Cook (2021) investigated
higher amounts of caramel- and roasted-like aroma the impact of time and temperature on the formation of
compounds such as 2-furaldehyde (furfural), pyrrole, selected aroma compounds in roasted malt. The study dis-
maltol, methylpyrazine, and 5-methyl-2-furfural. These tinguished the malt samples by the roasting substrates of
are classic compounds of pyrolysis, which breaks down pale malt, green malt, and raw barley. Interestingly, the
the structure of starch and allows the formation of authors describe the importance of substrate and moisture
such components (Paine, Pithawalla, & Naworal, 2008; content on flavor development in roasted products. Barley
Patton, 1950; Yaylayan & Keyhani, 2001). In contrast, and pale malt shared similar volatile trends when roasted
crystal malt samples are produced under humid medium under dry and higher temperature conditions (200◦ C–
temperatures, allowing the formation of a wide range of 230◦ C). The contrary was observed for samples applied to
the most variable components such as 2,3-pentanedione subtler roasting regimes (e.g., lower temperatures [100◦ C–
(butter aroma), 2-cyclopenten-1,4-dione, isomaltol (burnt- 135◦ C] and higher humidity), suggesting a better con-
like aroma), 2-furanmethanol (bready-like aroma), dition for the generation and retention of classic Mail-
5-methyl-2-furan-methanol (malty aroma), 2-hydroxy-2- lard products. Furthermore, the authors found that mal-
cyclopenten-1-one (caramel aroma), and 2,3-dihydro-3,5- tol (caramel aroma), phenylacetaldehyde (honey aroma),
dihydroxy-6-methyl-4H-pyran-4-one (biscuit-like aroma). 2-furanmethanol (burnt-like aroma), 5-(Hydroxymethyl)-
The authors also investigated the applicability of the mal- 2-furaldehyde (caramel aroma), and acetic acid (vine-
tol/pyrazine ratio as an index of flavor harmony between gar aroma) had higher concentrations in green malt
sweet and roasted aroma notes, respectively, as proposed roasted products, suggested by a lower rate of losses due
by Walker and Westwood (1992). Even though no sensory to volatilization via higher temperature exposure and a
analysis was correlated, the results confirmed the index’s higher formation via Maillard pathways within the liq-
theoretical applicability given that crystal malt had a 36 uid phase of the system matrix. On the other side, dry
times higher index than dark roasted malt and 125 times conditions promoted a higher formation of caramel- and
higher than roasted barley, as already expected. roasted-like aroma compounds such as pyrazines, pyrroles,
Finally, S. M. Vandecan et al. (2010) compared the pyridines, 2-methylfuran, 2-pentylfuran, methyl-2-furoate,
volatile profiles of color (kilned), crystal and dark roasted and 2-acetyl-5-methylfuran, suggesting its formation via
malt by quantifying 14 compounds present in the prod- Maillard reactions within the solid phase or pyrolysis due
ucts’ matrix. Interestingly, the authors highlight the to the higher temperatures.
importance of the evaporation of compounds during the The volatile composition of a range of barley and malt
final malting steps. β-damascenone (peach aroma) was products was investigated differently by Reichel et al.
detected under a concentration of 1.805 µg⋅gmalt −1 in color (2021). A total of 10 aldehydes and seven ketone sub-
malt, 1.371 µg⋅gmalt −1 in caramel malt, and 1.105 µg⋅gmalt −1 stances were identified and adopted to distinguish raw
in roasted malt; while concentrations of γ-nonalactone barley, pilsner, and a range of roasted malts according to
(coconut aroma) were of 0.127 µg⋅gmalt −1 in color malt, 0.11 their roasting degree (caramel, chocolate, and black malt).
µg⋅gmalt −1 in caramel malt, and 0.025 µg⋅gmalt −1 in roasted Between barley and pilsner malt, the main difference was
malt. The higher concentrations of β-damascenone and observed in the relative concentrations of acetone, which
γ-nonalactone in color and roasted malt are explained by was found to be twice as high in barley. For caramel malt, 2-
the significant loss of such volatiles by evaporation under methylbutanal (nutty aroma) and 3-methylbutanal (malty
intense temperatures. In other words, β-damascenone and aroma) were described as signature aroma compounds,
γ-nonalactone evaporate a great deal in response to the suggesting that their formation is favored by the mild roast-
increase of temperature, leaving higher concentrations ing temperatures associated with higher humidity lev-
in products that had been submitted to lower tempera- els. Such compounds, together with 2-methyloxola-3-one
tures due to losses rather than the degree of formation. and 5-methyl-2-furfural (caramel aroma), were found in
Furthermore, norfuraneol (4-hydroxy-5-methylfuran- caramel and chocolate malt, implying their loss or con-
3(2H)-one) and furaneol (4-hydroxy-2,5-dimethylfuran- sumption in further reactions. Chocolate malt was distin-
3(2H)-one) (caramel aromas) were also found at higher guished by concentrations of acetaldehyde and acetone,
concentrations in color and crystal malt, although this together with propanal (solvent-like aroma), 2-butanone
(acetone aroma), butanal (green-like aroma), and hexanal ber of impurities. It also demands highly sensitive analyt-
(green-like aroma), indicating the relevance of the oxida- ical methods such as a splitless injection mode on the GC
tion of fatty acids. Interestingly, 2,3-butanedione (butter due to the low concentration of volatile material that might
aroma), pentanal (almond aroma) and 2,3-pentanedione be a consequence of such method.
(butter aroma) could be found in the study only in this Diverging from the other strategies, dynamic headspace
specialty style. Given the roasting temperature conditions, extraction and HS-SPME are two techniques that do not
the presence of 2,3-butanedione and pentanal might also require the use of liquid solvents. Instead, the volatiles are
be a consequence of oxidation of fatty acids, whereas 2,3- trapped within a microenvironment such as a vial glass
pentanedione might come from the degradation of pen- and either transferred directly to the chromatographic sys-
toses. 2-Furaldehyde (furfural) (caramel aroma) was found tem (dynamic headspace extraction) or to a carrier fiber
in higher concentrations between chocolate and black prior to injection in the GC-mass spectrometry ( GC-MS;
malt, behaving as a signature of high-intensity roasting HS-SPME). The latter one plausibly offers a higher pre-
regimes but susceptible to volatilization as the roasting cision once the fiber has a crucial role on trapping spe-
temperatures increase. Finally, acetoin (butter aroma) and cific volatile compounds depending on their structure and
hydroxyacetone (sweet-like aroma) were associated with nature. Headspace extraction is by far the most practical
the increase in the degree of roasting because of their technique, preserving the integrity of the volatiles once
higher concentration in black malt. there is no demand for high temperatures neither for sol-
With the advances in science and technology, vents rather than air. Efficacy is another advantage regard-
extraction and analytical techniques of aroma com- ing the reduced exposure time of the extract, which con-
pounds have also been developed, allowing an acute siderably reduces the level of degradation and losses. Nev-
identification and quantification of key compounds. ertheless, these methods are highly dependent on sample
At present, several approaches are available, and some preparation, having their selectivity based on the volatil-
important criteria should be considered such as the nature ity degree of the analytes. In another words, variations
of the extracted content and the applied temperature on the extraction technique (e.g., degree of malt grinding,
during extraction. Temperature is a crucial variable and time and temperature of exposure and humidity degree of
should be avoided at higher levels to maintain the integrity the sample) will cause variations on the results. On one
of volatiles. Regarding the popularity and efficiency of side, this grants a wide freedom for researchers to optimize
each extraction method, distillation, solvent extraction, the aroma extraction based on specific analytes of interest.
dynamic headspace extraction, headspace-solid phase On the other side, a holistic analysis may not be possible
microextraction (HS-SPME), and solvent-assisted flavor and some analytes could demand variations in the sample
evaporation (SAFE) are discussed below. Alternatively, preparation.
a method recently developed adopting liquid chro- Finally, SAFE is a technique that takes advantage of
matography rather than gas chromatography (GC) is high vacuums (≥5 × 10−3 Pa) to separate the volatile mate-
described. rial (Engel, Bahr, & Schieberle, 1999). In this approach,
Distillation is perhaps the oldest of all the methods samples are homogenized in a solvent and distilled in a
applied for specialty malt aroma extraction. Here, malt SAFE apparatus, where the final extract is collected in a
samples are ground down to fine powder and homoge- cold trap and under high vacuum. Here, the selectivity
nized in water. The volatiles are extracted via steam distil- of the method is based on the polarity of the analytes,
lation and then separated, usually using dichloromethane. which should match the polarity of the solvent applied
Further concentration of the organic phase is achieved for satisfactory results. Although this method has so far
by applying a stream of nitrogen. Due to the application not been highly linked to the extraction of specialty malt
of high temperatures (≥110◦ C), the distillation process is aroma compounds, it has been claimed to be one of the
likely to degrade some compounds, resulting in a compo- most accurate techniques capable of providing the original
sition that may instead be considered a potential represen- aroma of samples from their source (Elmore, 2015). Even
tation of the malt aromas produced in the wort rather than though time consuming, specific facilities, and further pro-
in the malt itself. cessing such as acid or basic fractionation are drawbacks
In solvent extraction, malt kernels are ground into that diminish the popularity of the SAFE approach, this
fine powder and diluted with a specific solvent such as technique would perhaps allow the most complete study
diethyl ether or methanol. After homogenization, the liq- of the aroma composition of specialty malts. It allows the
uid fraction is separated and concentrated before identifi- analysis of not only the aroma compounds themselves,
cation and quantification. This technique is practical and but also their individual impact to the overall composi-
straightforward to perform but also subject to a high num- tion of the products by means of aroma extract dilution
analysis (AEDA). Just recently, Rögner, Mall, and Stein- sensory standards. Nevertheless, this practice may allow
haus (2021) applied SAFE for the extraction of aroma com- improvements in quality control and product develop-
pounds of malt, aiming to identify key aromas in light and ment. It has been proved to be a better strategy than the
dark liquid malt extracts for the baking industry. Further- analysis of color when determining suitable specialty prod-
more, the authors compared the concentrations found in ucts (Davies, 2010, 2016). In this regard, alternative sensory
the liquid extracts to those in the respective malt, realizing analysis methods have been studied over the years (ASBC
that the formation of the aroma compounds during the liq- Methods of Analysis, 2016; Cook, Clegg, Yang, & Bolat,
uid extract production is more important than their direct 2018; Murray, Bennett, G.S. Chandra, Davies, & Pickles,
transfer from the malt. 1999; Voigt, Richter, & Krauss-Weyermann, 2013). Whole
After extraction, GC-MS is applied to identify and quan- kernels, fine flour, porridge, and Congress wort are possi-
tify each compound extracted. Quantification can be car- ble approaches for evaluating the aroma and flavor char-
ried out simply by peak area correlation, the addition of acteristics of malt. However, each approach tends to high-
a standard into the extract solution or stable isotope dilu- light certain features and overshadow others, depending
tion assay (SIDA). The latter method comprises the most on their nature. Chewing whole kernels does not allow
effective but also most demanding mean of quantifica- an entirely accurate description, given the influence of
tion. Finally, GC-olfactometry (GCO) can be applied to the husks and endosperm composition. Fine flour may
select relevant aroma compounds from the extract. Here, be limited to aroma rather than flavor assessment given
a fraction of the stream chromatograph is conducted to its mouth-coating nature. In Congress wort, polar com-
a humidified sniffing port where each separated compounds may be highlighted and overshadow the nonpolar
pound’s aroma can be assessed by olfactory sensing. This ones. Murray et al. (1999) developed a malt flavor profiling
is a complex technique that requires trained assessors method based on mixing ground malt with water, as a kind
capable of identifying and describing specific odors in a of “porridge.” This approach seems to be an intermediate
reproducible manner. Finally, AEDA is a technique cou- of the other methods as it provides the contributions of
pled to the GCO approach responsible for evaluating each the endosperm and husk to the sensory characteristics per-
volatile’s impact on the total aroma characteristic of malt. ceived, and allows analysis of overall “mouth-feel” qual-
To this end, the aroma extract is subjected to serial dilu- ities. The method described took into consideration both
tions and each fraction is repeatedly applied to GCO, where the smell and taste of the samples. A quantitative descrip-
the impact of each volatile is proportional to the dilution tive analysis was applied to describe the samples, resulting
factor of when it was last detected. in a list of descriptors that were adapted as the specialty
More recently, Reichel et al. (2021) developed an alter- styles demanded broader or more specific descriptions.
native method for aroma extraction of specialty malts In a second approach, Voigt et al. (2013) have studied
based on a low-pressure-assisted system. The strategy com- the sensory characteristics of overall specialty styles using
prises extracting the volatile material within a closed whole kernels, flour, and wort. Typical flavor descriptors
vessel where the malt sample is submitted to a low- were adopted to develop an analysis standard method and
pressure vacuum together with the derivatization agent commercial products were classified according to it. In
2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine (2,4-DNPH). Here, aldehydes, total, 19 aroma descriptors, grouped as roasted, smoky,
ketones, aldoses, and ketoses are directly derivatized, as fruity/nutty, malty, and caramel aromas, were ranked
the 2,4-DNPH behaves as an acceptor of such volatiles together with sour, sweet, and bitter flavors in a general
extracted under vacuum conditions. Alternatively, once rating scheme from 0 to 5.
2,4-DNPH is a liquid, the extract is analyzed using high When comparing the studies, it becomes clear that
performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) coupled to each sensory method considers the specific characteris-
ultra-violet spectroscopy (HPLC-UV) and/or HPLC cou- tics likely to influence data. Nonetheless, similar descrip-
pled to diode array detector, electrospray ionization and tions between the different approaches have been found.
mass spectrometry/mass spectrometry (HPLC-DAD-ESI- This way, the study of specialty malts’ sensory charac-
MS/MS). Even though no quantitative data were applied, teristics shows itself to be viable and satisfactory. Per-
the presented strategy successfully identified and distin- haps the adaptation of a general vocabulary that covers a
guished essential aroma compounds of different specialty great pool of specialty styles, together with the adoption
styles. The authors claim that the extraction’s high effi- of porridge as a serving method, may result in a simple
ciency has potential applications in studying the dynamics and appropriate scheme. This practice has promising per-
of flavor formation in malt. spectives, allowing a better understanding and improved
Characterizing malt products by their aroma and fla- controllability and quality assurance of specialty malts
vor is not an easy task, not only due to its subjectivity production.
but—more importantly—to the gap that exists in malt
4 FORMATION OF COLOR Analytical approaches for tracing the development of

pigmentation in malt products are usually achieved by
Even though aroma and flavor are the prime goals when measuring either EBC units or Commission Internationale
producing specialty malts, color denotes a crucial ana- de l’Éclairage (CIE) L*a*b* parameters of Congress wort.
lytical parameter for distinguishing different products. The first approach is carried out by comparing the wort’s
The husks’ degree of darkness is a physical property color with standard colored glasses (up to 27 EBC units) or
that reflects the intensity of the thermal process applied, measuring its absorbance at a wavelength of 430 nm. The
where darker kernels indicate a higher level of kilning or second approach allows a detailed evaluation of pigmen-
roasting. Maillard reaction products, including both low tation as it measures the transmission spectrum of wort in
and high molecular weight compounds, are responsible three different wavelengths: red, green, and blue; where L*
for the final malt products’ pigmentation. In accordance indicates the lightness of the sample, ranging from black
to Coghe, Derdelinckx, et al. (2004), the low molecular (0) to white (100), a* indicates the red to green color shade,
weight species, also called chromophores, play a limited and b* indicates the yellow to blue shade.
but significant role in the formation of color and their key S. Vandecan et al. (2011) analyzed the influence of time
precursors have been reported to be 3-deoxyosuloses, 3,4- and temperature on the formation of color during the
dideoxyosulos-3-enes, 3-hydroxy-2-butanone, hydroxyl-2- caramelization phase (roasting drum) by measuring both
propanone, glycolaldehyde, glyoxal, and methylglyoxal EBC units and CIE L*a*b* parameters. The results pre-
(Hofmann, 1999; McWeeny, Knowles, & Hearne, 1974). sented indicate the increase on pigmentation from 100◦ C
As for the high molecular weight Maillard products, to 160◦ C, where the rate of color formation increases
melanoidins are responsible for the greatest impact on pig- according to the intensity of temperature: at 100◦ C the stip-
mentation. These are polymers based on carbohydrates ulated rate was 0.88 EBC units/min with a limit of up to
and nitrogen molecules are formed by the condensa- 85 EBC units; at 120◦ C, 4.8 EBC units/min, in a maximum
tion of reducing sugars with amino acids and proteins. time of 20 min, where no further color was reached after-
Nonetheless, several works have attempted to address their ward. The same rate of 15 EBC units/min up to 20 min
mechanism of formation and other characteristics without was observed at 140◦ C and 160◦ C. Nevertheless, at 180◦ C,
much precision. Due to their complex nature, the purifi- a decrease in the formation of color indicated the emer-
cation of homogeneous melanoidins is still a challenge, gence of high molecular weight melanoidins that may no
limiting their isolation based on molecular weight frac- longer contribute to color intensity (EBC units). It is fur-
tions (Adams, Borrelli, Fogliano, & Kimpe, 2005; Carvalho, ther suggested that such lower color values are possible
Correia, Lopes, & Guido, 2014; Jehle, Lund, Øgendal, & to be a consequence of the filtration or insolubility of
Andersen, 2011). An alternative approach is to simulate such coloring components during the preparation of the
the formation of melanoidins within model systems, where Congress wort. In terms of the CIE L*a*b* parameters,
a reaction is induced between either Maillard intermedi- the authors reported a significant increase of the L* index
ates or reducing sugars and amino acids. This strategy has according to the temperature increase. As for a* and b*
been helpful, considering their similar physicochemical indexes, yellowness (+b) increased up to 120◦ C, whereas
properties to actual melanoidins, but when the molecular red chromophores (+a) were only formed after 120◦ C up
structure is involved, model melanoidins are inappropri- to 140◦ C, allowing an increase in redness on the kernels’
ate given that they drastically differ from wild ones in such surface. In a different approach, Yahya et al. (2014) mea-
aspect (Coghe, Derdelinckx, et al., 2004). sured the external coloration directly from the malt ker-
Although some of the earlier studies on the formation nels. Even though the intentions of such study was not
of color in specialty malts have addressed the brownness based on color formation, but rather on the external color
of the kernels as a good indicator of the aroma and fla- as an index of roasting degree to be correlated with flavor
vor development (Suh & Chun, 1981; Wang & Sacurai, formation, the authors perceived the same trend for the
1968), recent works have reported difficulty in correlat- L* index as S. Vandecan et al. (2011), but further remarks
ing the production of color and the concentration of spe- were reported as the malt products were roasted for more
cific aroma-active volatiles (Mackie & Slaughter, 2000). It extended periods of time: after approximately 60 min, the
appears that this relationship is not as simple as a depen- a* and b* indexes decreased considerably in accordance to
dency on a single variable. Instead, inherent factors such as the intensity of temperature. The authors claim that the a*
evaporation, degradation, precursor availability, and cross- index is a plausible reflection of short-chain melanoidins
reactions are responsible for a transient concentration of or caramelized species, and its reduction in quantity is
volatiles that disturbs the direct correlation between color likely due to their further integration into highly polymer-
and aroma formation (Yahya et al., 2014). ized products according to the course and intensity of the
roasting process.
5 FINAL REMARKS AND In fact, the final concentration of aroma compounds

CONCLUSIONS is a balance between availability, volatilization, degrada-
tion, and consumption by further enzymatic and non-
The interaction of several organic compounds orchestrates enzymatic reactions. Such a balance has a strict depen-
the final flavor of a malt product. Between them, only a dency on the technological approach under these circum-
small fraction is capable of arousing flavor sensations. A stances. For instance, the loss rates in kilned malts may
small fraction of such volatiles is already present in the exceed the importance of formation rates. Good exam-
barley. Some of these will be lost during the malting pro- ples are β-damascenone (peach aroma) and γ-nonalactone
cedure, and others will be generated. Studies have pointed (coconut aroma), which have been detected in higher con-
out that some compounds are already formed during the centrations in kilned products (i.e., 1.805 µg⋅gmalt −1 and
germination. 0.126 µg⋅gmalt −1 , respectively) than in roasted ones (i.e.,
Nevertheless, given the thermal conditions applied by 1.371–1.105 µg⋅gmalt −1 and 0.11–0.045 µg⋅gmalt −1 , respec-
the kilning and roasting steps, most malt aroma com- tively), not as a sign of higher formation rates but because
pounds are products of non-enzymatic browning reac- of less volatilization due to the lower temperatures applied.
tions. Therefore, it is unsurprising that roasted and highly Different approaches, such as roasting and smoking pro-
kilned products are composed of a greater number of cesses, are responsible for highlighting characteristic sig-
aromatic compounds and thus offer particular flavors in nature compounds.
higher intensities. At first glance, this relationship appears Pyrazines, pyridines, and furanes become more abun-
to correlate well to the formation of color as the malt’s pig- dant in roasted products under dry conditions, moving
mentation is proportional to the intensity of applied tem- the flavor toward intense roasted notes. More specifically,
peratures. Color has been widely used as a parameter for pyrazines have been found to increase in concentration
the quality assurance of specialty malt. Nevertheless, its under dry conditions and above 180◦ C, found in concen-
correlation to aroma composition has been proved inaccu- trations of 0.458 µg⋅gmalt −1 in color malt, 0.196 µg⋅gmalt −1 in
rate, as specialty products have been optimized with sim- crystal/caramel malt, and 1.546 µg⋅gmalt −1 in dark roasted
ilar coloration index but different aroma intensities. Fur- malt. Despite its increase under humid conditions (green
ther findings such as fluctuations in the color degree of malt directly submitted to the roasting process), furfural
products under high roasting temperatures corroborate the has been detected under similar trends, increasing above
necessity of understanding the boundaries of color and 200◦ C with final concentrations of 2.1 µg⋅gmalt −1 in crys-
aroma composition correlations. tal/caramel, 9.54 µg⋅gmalt −1 in dark roasted malt and 9.76
Even though genotype and phenotypes (cultivar vari- µg⋅gmalt −1 in roasted barley. As in smoked products, phe-
ety and growth conditions) may play a role in the forma- nols such as guaiacol and eugenol become signatures of
tion of aroma and taste, the malting process’s impact is characteristic smoky notes.
paramount. From the very beginning of the production Even though such compositions are easily qualified and
process, some key compounds (e.g., 3-methylbutanal, 2- quantified under analytical approaches, the interaction
methylbutanal, (E,Z)-2,6-nonadienal, hexanal, 2-hexenal, between the compounds forming the malt is perceived
and (E)-2-nonenal) are already present during the germi- by the human palate. Consequently, the sensory analy-
nation of the grains and are responsible for the green and sis of malt may become a difficult task. Over the years,
grainy aroma notes. Furthermore, it is during such step various approaches for such analysis have been studied,
that SMM is formed, which may impact on the aroma where whole kernels, flour, wort, and porridge have been
quality by its conversion in DMS later on during the kil- explored as methods of serving. Although each might con-
ning phase. Most of these compounds are lost after ther- sider different aspects of the malt, a hybrid alternative such
mal processing (kilning or roasting phase), being replaced as the porridge has allowed satisfactory analysis, given the
by a wide variety of products from caramelization, pyroly- large spectrum of specialty styles. Nevertheless, the adap-
sis, and Maillard reactions (e.g., pyrroles, pyrazines, and tation of the terminology adopted to different styles may
furanes). These are responsible for sweet, roasted, and make things complex in practice. Perhaps a combination of
smoked aroma notes. Here, water content is a crucial a general vocabulary together with such a hybrid approach
variable liable for stimulating or limiting the formation could offer a complete though concise strategy for charac-
of specific volatiles. For example, the nonenal potential terizing specialty products and establishing a viable com-
decreases under higher temperatures by volatilizing its munication channel between maltsters, brewers, and cos-
incumbent molecules under dry conditions. Nevertheless, tumers.
the nonenal potential is likely to be stimulated when asso- In conclusion, the development of flavor and color dur-
ciated with high humidity levels. ing the specialty malt production process has been slowly
unveiled over the past few years. During the thermal
processing of malt, variables such as time, temperature, of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 61(1), 17–22. https://doi.org/
and moisture content seem to exert a crucial influence on 10.1002/jsfa.2740610104
the formation of flavor in specialty malt and they have Belitz, H.-D., Grosch, W., & Schieberle, P. (2009). Food chemistry (4th
ed.). Berlin: Springer.
therefore been under focus in preview studies. However,
Belitz, H. D., Grosch, W., & Schieberle, P. (2004). Food chemistry..
much is still unknown about the boundaries of the aroma
Berlin: Springer.
composition that define the specialty styles, and even less Carvalho, D. O., Correia, E., Lopes, L., & Guido, L. F. (2014). Further
about their dynamic response to simple technological vari- insights into the role of melanoidins on the antioxidant potential of
ations such as thermal processing regimes. Here lies a barley malt. Food Chemistry, 160, 127–133. https://doi.org/10.1016/
long pathway for science to understand sensory variation j.foodchem.2014.03.074
through biochemistry phenomena, which may allow a bet- Chaves, A. C., Fernandez, M., Lerayer, A. L., Mierau, I., Kleerebezem,
ter controllability of the production process of specialty M., & Hugenholtz, J. (2002). Metabolic engineering of acetalde-
hyde production by Streptococcus thermophilus. Applied and Envi-
malts.
ronmental Microbiology, 68(11), 5656–5662. https://doi.org/10.1128/
aem.68.11.5656-5662.2002
AC K N OW L E D G M E N T S Chen, Y., Zhou, Z., Xu, K., Zhang, H., Thornton, M., Sun, L., Wang,
The authors would like to acknowledge Malzfabrik Z., Xu, X., & Dong, L. (2017). Comprehensive evaluation of malt
Rheinpfalz GmbH for supporting this work, and Arndt volatile compounds contaminated by Fusarium graminearum dur-
Nobis and Florian Lehnhardt for enriching it with special ing malting. Journal of the Institute of Brewing, 123(4), 480–487.
knowledge of organic chemistry. https://doi.org/10.1002/jib.453
Coghe, S., Adriaenssens, B., Leonard, S., & Delvaux, F. R. (2004).
Fractionation of colored Maillard reaction products from dark spe-
AU T H O R CO N T R I B U T I O N S
cialty malts. Journal of the American Society of Brewing Chemists,
Raphael Prado—Conceptualization; data curation; inves- 62(2), 79–86. https://doi.org/10.1094/asbcj-62-0079
tigation; writing original draft; writing review edit- Coghe, S., D’Hollander, H., Verachtert, H., & Delvaux, F. (2005).
ing. Martina Gastl—Conceptualization; data curation; Impact of dark specialty malts on extract composition and wort
funding acquisition; project administration; supervision; fermentation. Journal of the Institute of Brewing, 111(1), 51–60.
validation; writing review editing. Thomas Becker— https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2050-0416.2005.tb00648.x
Conceptualization; funding acquisition; project adminis- Coghe, S., Derdelinckx, G., & Delvaux, F. (2004). Effect of non-
enzymatic browning on flavour, colour and antioxidative activ-
tration; resources; supervision; validation.
ity of dark specialty malts—A review. Monatsschrift fur Brauwis-
senschaft, 57(5–6), 25–38.
CONFLICTS OF INTEREST Coghe, S., Martens, E., D’Hollander, H., Dirinck, P., & Delvaux, F.
The authors declare no conflict of interest. (2004). Sensory and instrumental flavour analysis of wort brewed
with dark specialty malts. Journal of the Institute of Brewing, 110(2),
ORCID 94–103. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2050-0416.2004.tb00188.x
Raphael Prado https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9006-3966 Cohen, H., Salmon, A., Tietel, Z., Hacham, Y., & Amir, R.
(2017). The relative contribution of genes operating in the S-
methylmethionine cycle to methionine metabolism in Arabidop-
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Received: 25 February 2021 Revised: 17 June 2021 Accepted: 22 June 2021

COMPREH ENSIVE REVIEWS IN FOOD SCIENCE AND FOOD SAFETY

Aroma and color development during the production of

Raphael Prado Martina Gastl Thomas Becker

Chair of Brewing and Beverage

4816 wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/crf3 Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf. 2021;20:4816–4840.

1 INTRODUCTION a smaller fraction in combination with the base pilsner

aroma compounds are explored, including their impact on

2 INFLUENCE OF THE MALTING

Pale and specialty barley malts differ in a range of charac-

generate less precursors related to a staling flavor such as 2.2 Kilning

TA B L E 2 Aroma-active compounds identified in different specialty malt styles

methylcyclopent- maple, distilla- 180◦ C but decreases temperatures is Schieberle, 1998;

120◦ C. Closely related 2010; Vandecan

dynamic continuously during acids by Schieberle, 1998;

when adding unique aroma and flavor characteristics to

Distillation; Maximum concentration Derived from lipids.

aroma notes are highly correlated to aldehydes (Kim et al.,

1998) and furanones. Pyrazines and pyrroles have a typi-

and increases again at

at 100◦ C after 30 min.

et al., 2003; Roland Tressl, Friese, Fendesack, & Koeppler,

1978; S. M. Vandecan et al., 2010). Alcohols and ketones

contribute to the aroma and flavor in malt and are fre-

Schieberle, 1998). Nevertheless, these are general assump-

tions based on average descriptions; variations are likely to

ation depending not only on the malting process, but also

grounds. In this way, each batch of malt is expected to have

a unique composition. Nevertheless, this does not restrict

eral key compounds and their concentration in different

results indicate that the concentration of pyrazines is sig-

nificantly higher in roasted barley, thus enhancing the

roasted aroma notes in such products. On the other hand,

sweet aroma notes were significantly higher with roasted

malt. These results are reasonably explained by the bio-

ucts analyzed. Roasted barley is a non-germinated cereal;

packed with unmodified high molecular weight nutrients,

atures applied on the roasting process, pyrolysis would eas-

ily condensate such molecules into pyrazines via Strecker

roasted malts, the process of germination allows the for-

mation of a wide pool of low molecular weight chem-

4 FORMATION OF COLOR Analytical approaches for tracing the development of

5 FINAL REMARKS AND In fact, the final concentration of aroma compounds

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