STATS CORRELATIONAL ANALYSIS

IDENTIFICATION

1. A measure of the strength and direction of the linear relationship between two variables.
- Answer: Pearson correlational coefficient

2. A graphical representation showing the relationship between two variables using Cartesian
coordinates.
- Answer: Scatter plot

3. A correlation coefficient that ranges from -1 to +1, indicating the extent of a linear relationship
between two variables.
- Answer: Pearson's R

4. The non-parametric measure of rank correlation, used when the data are ordinal or not
normally distributed.
- Answer: Spearman's rank correlation

5. A scenario where two variables are correlated but there is no direct causal relationship
because they are both influenced by a third variable.
- Answer: Spurious correlation

6. The statistical test used to determine if the observed correlation is significantly different from
zero.
- Answer: t-test for correlation

7. The variable that is being predicted or explained in a correlation analysis.

- Answer: Dependent Variable

8. The variable that is used to predict or explain the other variable in a correlation analysis.
- Answer: Independent variable

9. The phenomenon where two variables appear to be related due to the presence of a third
variable that affects both.
- Answer: Confounding Variable

10. The calculation used to find the average product of the deviations of each pair of
observations from their respective means.
- Answer: Covariance

11. A correlation coefficient that specifically measures the degree of relationship between two
variables based on their ranks.
- Answer: Spearman's rho
12. The part of the correlation coefficient that indicates the direction of the relationship (positive
or negative).
- Answer: Sign

13. A correlation coefficient of zero indicates this type of relationship between two variables.
- Answer: No relationship

14. The square of the correlation coefficient, representing the proportion of variance in one
variable that is predictable from the other variable.
- Answer: Coefficient of determination

15. A visual tool used to identify the presence and direction of a relationship between two
variables.
- Answer: Scatter plot

16. The hypothesis that states there is no relationship between the two variables being studied.
- Answer: Null hypothesis

17. The extent to which the results of a correlational study can be generalized to other settings,
populations, and times.
- Answer: External validity

18. A statistical index of the relationship between two variables that ranges from -1 to +1.
- Answer: Correlation coefficient

19. A factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment.
- Answer: Confounding Variable

20. A summary of the correlation coefficients for multiple pairs of variables.

- Answer: Correlation matrix

Multiple Choice

1. What is the primary purpose of correlational analysis?

◦ A. To establish cause-and-effect relationships

◦ B. To measure the strength and direction of the relationship between two
variables
◦ C. To describe the characteristics of a population
◦ D. To manipulate variables in a controlled environment

2. Which of the following correlation coefficients indicates the strongest relationship?

◦ A. +0.25
 ◦ B. -0.75
◦ C. +0.60
◦ D. -0.30

3. A correlation coefficient of 0 indicates:

◦ A. A perfect positive relationship

◦ B. A perfect negative relationship
◦ C. No relationship
◦ D. A strong relationship

4. Which statistical test is commonly used to determine the significance of a correlation

coefficient?

◦ A. t-test
◦ B. ANOVA
◦ C. Chi-square test
◦ D. Pearson's r

5. If the p-value of a correlation coefficient is 0.03, what does this indicate about the
relationship between the variables?

◦ A. The relationship is not statistically significant

◦ B. The relationship is statistically significant at the 0.05 level
◦ C. The relationship is negative
◦ D. The relationship is strong

6. Which of the following is true about a correlation coefficient of -0.85?

• A. It indicates a weak negative relationship
• B. It indicates a strong negative relationship
• C. It indicates no relationship
• D. It indicates a strong positive relationship

7. In correlational analysis, it is possible to infer causation from a high correlation coefficient.

• A. True
• B. False

8. Spearman’s rank correlation is used for data that are:

• A. Normally distributed
• B. Ordinal or not normally distributed
• C. Interval or ratio
• D. Categorical

9. A correlation matrix is:

• A. A table showing correlation coefficients between sets of variables
• B. A scatter plot showing the relationship between two variables
• C. A histogram of correlation values
• D. A list of variables used in a study

10. The value of a correlation coefficient can range from:

• A. 0 to 1
 • B. -1 to 1
• C. -2 to 2
• D. -∞ to +∞

11. The non-parametric measure of rank correlation is known as:

• A. Pearson's r
• B. Spearman's rho
• C. Kendall's tau
• D. Point-biserial correlation

12. What does a positive correlation coefficient indicate?

• A. As one variable increases, the other variable decreases
• B. There is no relationship between the variables
• C. As one variable increases, the other variable also increases
• D. The variables are unrelated

13. Which of the following could be an example of a spurious correlation?

• A. The relationship between smoking and lung cancer
• B. The relationship between ice cream sales and drowning incidents
• C. The relationship between exercise and physical health
• D. The relationship between education level and income

14. Which of the following tools is commonly used to visualize the relationship between two
variables?
• A. Bar chart
• B. Pie chart
• C. Scatter plot
• D. Line graph

15. The square of the correlation coefficient, which indicates the proportion of the variance in
one variable that is predictable from the other variable, is called:
• A. Correlation ratio
• B. Coefficient of determination
• C. Regression coefficient
• D. Covariance

16. When interpreting a correlation coefficient, the sign (positive or negative) indicates:
• A. The strength of the relationship
• B. The direction of the relationship
• C. The magnitude of the relationship
• D. The significance of the relationship

17. A researcher is studying the relationship between hours of study and exam scores. Which
correlation coefficient would likely indicate a strong positive relationship?
• A. -0.85
• B. +0.10
• C. +0.90
• D. -0.30

18. What is the null hypothesis in a correlation analysis?

• A. There is a positive relationship between the variables
• B. There is a negative relationship between the variables
• C. There is no relationship between the variables
• D. The variables are dependent
19. In a scatter plot, the closer the data points are to a straight line, the:
• A. Weaker the correlation
• B. Stronger the correlation
• C. More likely it is that the correlation is zero
• D. Less significant the correlation

20. If a researcher finds a correlation coefficient of 0.50 between two variables, this indicates:
• A. A weak relationship
• B. A moderate relationship
• C. A strong relationship
• D. No relationship

True/False

1. correlation coefficient of -0.85 indicates a weak negative relationship. (False)

2. In correlational analysis, it is possible to infer causation from a high correlation coefficient.

(False)

3. Spearman’s rank correlation is used for data that are not normally distributed. (True)

4. A correlation matrix is a table showing correlation coefficients between sets of variables.

(True)

5. The value of a correlation coefficient can range from -2 to +2. (False)

6. The primary purpose of correlational analysis is to establish cause-and-effect relationships.

(False)

7. A correlation coefficient of -0.75 indicates a stronger relationship than a correlation

coefficient of +0.60. (True)

8. A correlation coefficient of 0 indicates no relationship between the variables.(True)

9. The statistical test commonly used to determine the significance of a correlation coefficient
is ANOVA. (False)

10. If the p-value of a correlation coefficient is 0.03, the relationship is statistically significant at
the 0.05 level. (True)

11. A correlation coefficient of -0.85 indicates a weak negative relationship. (False)

12. In correlational analysis, it is possible to infer causation from a high correlation coefficient.
(False)

13. Spearman’s rank correlation is used for data that are ordinal or not normally distributed.
(True)
14. A correlation matrix is a table showing correlation coefficients between sets of variables.
(True)

15. The value of a correlation coefficient can range from -2 to +2. (True)

ESSAY

11. Explain the difference between positive and negative correlation. Provide an
example of each.
• Positive Correlation: When two variables move in the same direction. As one increases,
the other also increases. Example: The relationship between height and weight.
• Negative Correlation: When two variables move in opposite directions. As one
increases, the other decreases. Example: The relationship between the amount of time
spent studying and the number of errors on a test.

12. Describe a scenario where a researcher might use Spearman's rank correlation
instead of Pearson's correlation.
• Scenario: A researcher might use Spearman's rank correlation when the data are
ordinal, not normally distributed, or when the relationship between the variables is not
linear. For example, if a researcher is studying the relationship between the rank order of
students' scores in two different subjects.

13. Why is it important to check for outliers before performing correlational analysis?
• Importance: Outliers can significantly affect the correlation coefficient, leading to
misleading conclusions about the strength and direction of the relationship between
variables.

14. What does it mean if two variables have a correlation coefficient of -0.95?
• Interpretation: A correlation coefficient of -0.95 indicates a very strong negative
relationship between the two variables. As one variable increases, the other variable
decreases very consistently.

15. How can the presence of a third variable (confounding variable) affect the
interpretation of a correlation coefficient?
• Effect: A confounding variable can create a spurious correlation, where the observed
relationship between the two primary variables is actually influenced by a third variable,
leading to incorrect conclusions about their direct relationship.