Chance, Indeterminacy, Multiplicity
Branden W. Joseph
My thanks to Danielle Fosler-Lussier,
who graciously commented on a much
earlier version of this article, and to
Rebecca Y. Kim and David W. Patterson
who equally graciously offered com-
ments on the final version. Thanks also
to Susan Roper of The Sterling and
Francine Clark Art Institute library,
who procured the materials necessary
for me to complete this research.
1. The most detailed listing of Cage’s
New School courses is found in Rebecca
Y. Kim, In No Uncertain Musical
Terms: The Cultural Politics of John
Cage’s Indeterminacy, PhD dissertation,
Columbia University, Department of
Music, 2008, table 3.1, pp. 133–35.
A less detailed list, with errors in the
semesters of summer and fall, 1958,
appeared in Bruce Altschuler, “The
Cage Class,” in Cornelia Lauf and Susan
Hapgood, (eds.), FluxAttitudes, Buffalo:
Hallwalls Contemporary Arts Center,
1991, pp. 21–22, note 2.
2. Allan Kaprow, “Happenings in the
New York Scene” (1961), in Jeff Kelley,
(ed.), Essays on the Blurring of Art
and Life, Berkeley, Ca.: University of
California Press, 1993, p. 19.
210
Chance comes in here to give us the unknown.
— John Cage to Pierre Boulez, January 17, 1950
Within the legacy of John Cage, no single concept looms as large
as that of chance. Yet, despite having been invoked regularly by
art historians for almost half a century, Cage’s ideas about chance
have remained surprisingly little explored within the discipline.
Indeed, with rare exception, art historians tend to downplay Cage’s
exploration of chance as a revival of pre-war Dadaism, a quietistic
embrace of irrationality, or the source of an unacknowledged con-
flict between the composer’s endorsement of chance operations
and the highly rigorous means by which he implemented them.
Ironically, it is the very lack of specificity with which the concept of
chance has been approached that allows for its broad, if somewhat
indiscriminate, citation within art historical literature on happen-
ings and Fluxus, since nearly every artist working in these areas
engaged with chance in some manner or another. Whether lauda-
tory or dismissive, such generalizations contrast markedly not only
with the specificity of Cagean chance operations, but also with the
myriad ways in which artists received them, particularly those who
found themselves in Cage’s courses on “Composition” and “Experi-
mental Composition” offered at the New School for Social Research
between the fall of 1956 and the summer of 1960.1
In 1961, Allan Kaprow, former Cage student and the most well-
known practitioner of happenings, would describe “the involve-
ment in chance” as neither the most important nor as the most
widespread of the qualities informing the new genre of artistic
performance, but rather as the “most problematical.”2 Kaprow’s
choice of adjective is apt, given the range within which Cage’s
pupils adopted, adapted, developed, and/or rejected the composer’s
teachings with regard to chance and indeterminacy. Although
 Kaprow, for instance, derived much from his introduction to Cage,
he largely rejected the strictness with which Cage implemented
3. Harold Rosenberg, “The American chance operations in favor of intuition and an understanding of the
Action Painters” (1952), The Tradition
of the New, New York: McGraw-Hill,
Abstract Expressionist legacy akin to its almost existentialist recep-
1959, pp. 23–39. Kaprow’s interest in tion by art critic Harold Rosenberg.3 Aspects of Kaprow’s resistance
Abstract Expressionism is, of course,
manifest in “The Legacy of Jackson
to the Cagean paradigm can be traced as far back as 1958, when he
Pollock” (1958), in Kelley, (ed.), pp. 1–9. explained that “the freest, most spontaneous and (to this writer)
most enjoyable” approach he had yet adopted in the development
4. Allan Kaprow, “One Chapter from
‘The Principles of Modern Art’,” It Is of his happenings was “just begin[ning] to imagine things, writing
No. 4, 1958, p. 52, ellipses in original. down his parts as he goes along until he decides to stop.” Reciting
On Cage’s critique of inspiration, see,
for example, John Cage, “45’ for a (and then rejecting) Cage’s already established critique of any such
Speaker” (1954), Silence, Middletown, intuitive and improvisational procedure, Kaprow continued, “when
Conn.: Wesleyan University Press,
1961, p. 170. one is left to intuition the risk is great that one becomes too depen-
dent on ‘inspiration’ (an extremely unreliable mistress) and so falls
5. Allan Kaprow, Assemblage, Environ-
ments, and Happenings, New York: into the trap of coming up constantly with clichés and habits. But
Harry N. Abrams, 1966, p. 175. Kaprow’s then, sometimes one is lucky….”4 By 1966, Kaprow would come
move away from Cage is discussed in
Jeff Kelley, Childsplay: The Art of Allan to reject Cage’s engagement with chance operations in favor of an
Kaprow, Berkeley, Ca.: University of approach he called “change,” predicated on “the following of
California Press, 2004, pp. 20–46.
intuition and wisdom” and “dependent upon human experience.”5
6. Al Hansen’s attraction to Cage’s
sense of anarchy is mentioned in
Dick Higgins, “Postface,” Jefferson’s
Like Kaprow, fellow New School classmates and future happeners
Birthday/Postface, New York: Something Al Hansen and Dick Higgins would adhere to something of an
Else, 1964, pp. 49, 51. The notion of
anarchy would also be mentioned by
existential vision of authorial risk, taking a Rosenberg-like concep-
Kaprow in notes to “A program tion of action painting into what could be called action music or
of Happenings? Events! & Situations?
Directed by Al Hansen, an eclectic,”
action theater. Hansen, for instance, embraced the anarchic side
(May 2, 1960), repr. in Hermann Braun, of Cage’s project, which he also took in a partially anti-Cagean
(ed.), George Brecht, Notebook V
direction of improvisation within chaotic and collaborative pieces
(March 1960-November 1960), Cologne:
Walther König, 1997, p. 88. On Hansen’s like his Hall Street Happening (1961; which inadvertently involved
Hall Street Happening, see Al Hansen, a performer’s falling through a skylight).6 Higgins credited Cage’s
A Primer on Happenings and Time/
Space Art, New York: Something Else course with providing “a sense of general activity and a taste for my
Press, 1965, pp. 11–20. own direction, to which previously my own skepticism had been
7. Higgins, “Postface,” pp. 50–51; very unkind,” an observation not unlike that made by Cage’s long-
Barbara Rose, An Interview with Robert time artistic colleague, Robert Rauschenberg, who called Cage “the
Rauschenberg, New York: Vintage
Books, 1987, p. 34. only one who gave me permission to continue my own thoughts.”7
Higgins, however, declared himself at odds with much of Cage’s
8. Dick Higgins, “Boredom and Danger”
(1966), A Dialectic of Centuries: Notes perspective. Moving in his own direction, Higgins transformed
towards a Theory of the New Arts, New Cage’s interest in chance – which, in French, as Higgins pointed
York: Printed Editions, 1978, pp. 48–49.
Kaprow not dissimilarly links chance
out, is “hasard” – into the notion of hazard or, more precisely,
to “risk and fear” in “Happenings in danger, which he explored in numerous compositions such
the New York Scene,” p. 19. Higgins’s
Danger Music #17 recalls Tristan
as Danger Music No. 17 (1962), the score for which reads simply,
Tzara’s “Roar,” in Robert Motherwell, “Scream! Scream! Scream! Scream! Scream! Scream!”8
(ed.), The Dada Painters and Poets:
An Anthology, New York: Wittenborn,
Schultz, Inc., 1951, p. 96; Tzara’s “poem” According to Higgins, neither he nor Hansen had much patience for
was included as part of Hansen’s Hall
Street Happening, see Hansen, A Primer,
the more detailed articles about chance operations and indetermi-
pp. 18–19. nacy Cage explicated within the course. “Once or twice,” he noted:

211

9. Dick Higgins, “[On Cage’s Classes]”
(1970), in Richard Kostelanetz, (ed.),
John Cage: An Anthology, New York:
Praeger, 1970, p. 123 (ellipses in origi-
nal). The statements Higgins seems
to be referencing appeared in trans/
formation, Vol. 1, No. 3 (1952).
10. Ibid., pp. 122–24.
11. Altschuler, “The Cage Class,”
pp. 17–23.
12. On Cage’s notion of experimenta-
tion, see, for instance, John Cage,
“Experimental Music: Doctrine” (1955),
Silence, p. 13: “the word ‘experimental’
is apt, providing it is understood not as
descriptive of an act to be later judged
in terms of success and failure, but sim-
ply as of an act the outcome of which is
unknown.” For adaptations of the idea,
see Allan Kaprow, “Experimental Art”
(1966), in Kelley, (ed.), Essays, esp.
pp. 68–69; and Hansen, A Primer, p. 109:
“My goal now is to involve the ideas
of all my favorite people – Artaud and
John Cage and Ray Johnson – in a total
theater project in which things which
weren’t possible before will be done.”
Cage’s idea would later be adopted
by French philosophers Gilles Deleuze
and Félix Guattari in Anti-Oedipus:
Capitalism and Schizophrenia, Mark
Seem, Robert Hurley, and Helen R. Lane
(trans.), Minneapolis: University
of Minnesota Press, 1983, pp. 370–71.
13. Higgins, “Blank Images” (1970),
A Dialectic of Centuries, p. 78. See also
Higgins, “Postface,” p. 35, where he
rightly notes the relation of transpar-
ency to the work of Marcel Duchamp.
On transparency in Cage’s work, see
Branden W. Joseph, “John Cage and
the Architecture of Silence,” October
No. 81, Summer 1997, pp. 80–104.
212
Cage read a theoretical article… the short theoretical statements from trans/
formation 2, and a (then) unpublished article by Christian Wolff on the relations
of time and sound. Some of us, particularly Hansen and myself, couldn’t for the life
of us imagine why Cage was interested in those things. They seemed so abstract,
compared with the very concrete observations that Cage favored in connection
with the pieces played in class, and so terribly old-fashioned in their implications.
Mostly they read like legal contracts.9
Among Higgins’s classmates, evidently only George Brecht, who
had previously written a treatise entitled Chance-Imagery, shared
Cage’s more theoretical leanings:
The usual format of our sessions would be that, before the class began,
Cage and George Brecht would get into a conversation, usually about “spiritual
virtuosity,” instead of the virtuosity of technique, physique, etc. This would
continue as the people arrived, then gradually expand, until the subject matter
became hard to follow.
According to Higgins, Brecht and Cage conversed at length and in
intricate detail about the implications of their aesthetic research.
“Only George Brecht,” Higgins continued,
…seemed to share Cage’s fascination with the various theories of imperson-
ality, anonymity and the life of pieces outside of their perceivers, makers, or anyone
else. For the rest of us, the main thing was the realization of the possibilities,
which made it easier to use smaller scales and a greater gamut of possibilities than
our previous experience would have led us to expect.10
Despite the fact that Cage’s students received and resisted his
teachings in a variety of ways, it is not correct to conclude, as some
have, that Cage’s ideas had little impact or that the import of his
class was primarily that of providing an opportunity for self-direct-
ed exploration.11 Even while necessarily developing in their own
directions, Cage’s students adopted a number of distinctly Cagean
categories and concepts. Both Hansen and Kaprow, for instance,
would later echo Cage’s notion of “experimental actions” as the
pursuit and engagement with the unforeseen.12 And, even while
rejecting Cage’s pursuit of impersonality, Higgins would adopt
and develop an idea of “transparency” very close to that of Cage,
in which the structure of an artwork or performance allowed for
incorporation of external, environmental events: “…the work,”
wrote Higgins, “should acquire its meaning by what you can see
through it and how this looks in relation to the work.”13
While understanding the different ways in which Cage’s teach-
ings were received is important for assessing the composer’s
impact within the visual arts, equally so is comprehending the
 Dick Higgins performing Danger Music No. 17, 1962
14. John Cage, “[The New School],”
in Kostelanetz, (ed.), p. 119.
degree to which his own aesthetic transformed over the course
of the decade. Indeed, according to Cage, it was partially on
account of the fact that his “musical thought was changing” that
he decided to begin teaching at the New School.14 Although it
would not be possible even to begin to address the full range
of Cage’s artistic reception, even on the subject of chance opera-
tions alone, it will nonetheless be worthwhile, as a necessary
first step, to approach with some specificity the development of
Cage’s techniques of employing chance up through the years in
which his New School courses were offered. The results – drawn
in part from musicology and in part from heretofore unexamined
sources and resonances in the philosophy of Henri Bergson
and Gilles Deleuze – will take us far from a simple notion of chance
to a much more complex and sophisticated engagement with
indeterminacy and multiplicity. From there we will return to
the classroom to investigate further what there was to learn at
the New School from John Cage.
213

15. John Cage, “Forerunners of Modern
Music” (1949), Silence, p. 62.
16. John Cage, Letter to Pierre Boulez,
May 22, 1951, in Jean-Jacques Nattiez,
(ed.), The Boulez-Cage Correspondence,
Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 1993, p. 93. The epigraph to this
article also refers to Cage’s soundtrack
to Works of Calder and can be found
in John Cage, Letter to Pierre Boulez,
January 17 [1950], in Nattiez, (ed.), p. 48.
17. Boulez notes the resemblance of
Double Music to cadavre exquis in
Nattiez, (ed.), p. 29; Cage’s visit to the
Bauhaus is noted in Christopher Shultis,
“Cage and Europe,” in David Nicholls,
(ed.), The Cambridge Companion to
John Cage, Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 2002, p. 22. George
Brecht invoked cadavre exquis in regard
to Cage’s “Music for Four Pianos,”
eighty-four independent compositions
(many composed via methods involving
chance, although Brecht does not men-
tion it), which could be played in any
combination by as many as four pianists
at once; George Brecht, Chance-Imagery
(1957), New York: Something Else Press,
1965, p. 11.
18. These works, as Leta Miller notes,
were originally titled “Sonorous
or Exquisite Corpses“: Leta E. Miller,
“Cage’s Collaborations,” in Nicholls,
(ed.), p. 154.
19. Tristan Tzara, “Manifesto on
feeble love and bitter love” (1916–20),
in Motherwell, p. 92.
20. Moira and William Roth, “John
Cage on Marcel Duchamp,” Art
in America Vol. 61, No. 6, November–
December 1973, p. 74; quoted in
Richard Kostelanetz, (ed.), Conversing
with Cage, New York: Limelight
Editions, 1994, p. 219.
214
By the time Cage offered his first New School course, he had been
associated with chance operations for half a decade. Music of
Changes, Cage’s first manifesto presentation of chance, was complet-
ed in 1951 and debuted in at the Cherry Lane Theater in New York
on New Years Day, 1952. Prior to that moment, Cage’s references
to chance were somewhat occasional. In “Forerunners of Modern
Music” of 1949, Cage mentioned the way in which using “radios as
instruments” would deliver the continuity of sound production over
to “accident.”15 Around the same time, Cage incorporated field
recordings from Alexander Calder’s workshop into his soundtrack
for the film Works of Calder (1949–50), explaining to Pierre Boulez
that “No synchronizing was attempted and what the final result is
rather due to a chance that was admired.”16 Previously, in composi-
tions such as Double Music (1941), in which Cage and Lou Harrison
wrote out their parts independently and then combined them,
without alteration, into the final piece, Cage courted a different
type of chance, one arising from the simultaneous performance of
independent work (a procedure that Cage would continue to
pursue throughout many years of collaborations with dancer Merce
Cunningham). Although the inspiration behind Double Music came
from Cage’s interest in the anonymity of collective production,
associated with Gothic sculpture and embraced in the early Bauhaus
(which Cage visited in 1930 or 1931), the method of combining
two entirely separate creative endeavors resembled the Surrealist
parlor game cadavre exquis (exquisite corpse) in which a drawing or
poem is composed by different individuals unaware of each other’s
efforts.17 A few years later, Cage, Harrison, Henry Cowell, and
Virgil Thompson would explicitly take up the Surrealist method in
the twenty Party Pieces they wrote together in the mid-1940s.18
Surprisingly absent from Cage’s earliest research is anything
akin to the technique used by Marcel Duchamp in Erratum Musical
(1913), in which vocal parts to be performed by Duchamp and
his sisters Yvonne and Magdaleine were “composed” by picking
notes at random out of a hat. When sung by all three voices at
once, Duchamp’s libretto, a short dictionary definition of the verb
“to print,” sounded as a chaotic and cacophonous “harmony.”
Duchamp’s method recalls the recipe for Dadaist poetry in Tristan
Tzara’s “Manifesto on feeble love and bitter love,” in which a
newspaper page is cut up and its words drawn at random from a
bag. “The poem,” Tzara noted wryly, “will be like you.”19 Cage
became aware of the musical precedents in Duchamp’s oeuvre only
once he had begun his own investigation of chance operations
– to which Duchamp responded laconically, “I suppose I was fifty
years ahead of my time.”20 Despite a superficial similarity, Cage

21. Kostelanetz, (ed.), Conversing with
Cage p. 219–20. At some point, Cage
came to own one of the more complex
and lesser-known of Duchamp’s chance
compositions, La Mariée mise à nu par
ses célibataires même. Erratum Musi-
cal (1913); provenance given in Anne
D’Harnoncourt and Kynaston McShine,
(eds.), Marcel Duchamp, New York: The
Museum of Modern Art, 1973, p. 264.
22. John Cage, “Composition:
To Describe the Process of Composition
Used in Music of Changes and
Imaginary Landscape No. 4,” Silence,
p. 58.
23. James Pritchett, The Music of John
Cage. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 1993, pp. 78–88; and David W.
Bernstein, “Cage and High Modernism,”
in Nicholls, (ed.), pp. 203–09.
24. See Pritchett, pp. 60–78; and
Bernstein, pp. 193–203. Additional detail
is provided in James Pritchett, “From
Choice to Chance: John Cage’s Concerto
for Prepared Piano,” Perspectives of
New Music, Vol. 26, No. 1, Winter 1988,
pp. 50–81; and James Pritchett, “The
Development of Chance Techniques in
the Music of John Cage, 1950–1956,”
New York University, Department of
Music, 1988. My thanks to Rebecca Kim
for the last two references.
25. John Cage, Letter to Pierre Boulez,
May 22, 1951, in Nattiez, (ed.), p. 93.
26. Ibid.
soon recognized that his compositions had far surpassed those
of Duchamp in the complexity of the processes used.21
The intricacy of Cage’s compositional procedures was evident in
Music of Changes. After having decided upon the work’s overall
temporal structure, Cage divided the composition’s remaining ele-
ments into twenty-six charts: eight for sounds (half of each chart
reserved for silence), eight for amplitudes or dynamics, eight for
durations, one for tempi, and one for superposition (“how many
events are happening at once during a given structural space”).22
Each chart was configured in eight columns and eight rows (those
containing silences or no change in value [e.g., in tempo] gener-
ally not represented) so as to conform to the sixty-four-cell chart of
hexagrams in the I Ching, the Chinese “Book of Changes,” a copy
of which Christian Wolff had given him in late 1950 or early 1951.
Following the I Ching’s method of divining hexagrams by tossing
three coins six times, Cage could locate the corresponding places
on each grid and thereby define the necessary elements for each
and every acoustical event within the final composition. As docu-
mented by the invaluable work of James Pritchett and David
Bernstein, the compositional procedure of Music of Changes was
both time-consuming and labor-intensive, every sound being the
product of consulting multiple charts.23
Neither Cage’s use of charts nor his employment of the I Ching
began with Music of Changes. Both had been pioneered in the Con-
certo for Prepared Piano and Chamber Orchestra (1950–51).24 In it,
Cage staged an opposition between the piano, which began the
first movement intuitively and improvisationally composed, and
the orchestra. In contrast with the first movement’s piano part,
freely composed in the manner of Cage’s prepared piano works of
the 1940s, the orchestra part derived from a fourteen-column by
sixteen-row chart on which all sonorities were specifically notated.
Each of the sixteen rows was weighted toward a particular instru-
ment: row 1, flute; row 2, oboe; row 3, clarinet, and so on, down
though the various types of percussion: metal, wood, friction, and
a miscellaneous section that Cage described as “characterized by
mechanical means, e.g., the radio.”25 The fourteen columns in each
row contained different sounds or sound aggregates, each weighted
according to the instrument dominating the row. Unlike Music
of Changes, each sound within the concerto, no matter how simple
or complex, was invariant and predefined. As Cage explained to
Boulez: “Each sound is minutely described in the chart: e.g. a
particular tone, sul pont on the 2nd string of the first vn. [violin]
with a particular flute tone and, for example a wood block.”26
215

27. Cage wrote to Boulez, “I then made
moves on this chart of a ‘thematic na-
ture’ but, as you may easily see, with an
‘athematic’ result. This entire first move-
ment uses only 2 moves, e.g. down 2,
over 3, up 4, etc,” in ibid. According to
Bernstein, most moves were two-part,
one on the vertical axis and one on the
horizontal axis. Bernstein, p. 195.
28. As noted by Pritchett, however,
Cage subjectively modified such aspects
as phrasing and rhythm. Pritchett, p. 63.
216
For the orchestral part of the first movement, Cage derived the
sequence in which the sounds would occur by making vertical and
horizontal moves on the chart: beginning with the sound represent-
ed in one of the cells, subsequent sounds were selected by follow-
ing a simple sequence such as moving down two cells and then
over three.27 In composing the concerto’s second movement, Cage
retained the chart for the orchestra and added a second chart of
equally detailed sonorities for the prepared piano. In this case,
however, Cage determined the sequence of the sounds by a different,
although equally impersonal, method that involved tracing a series
of concentric circles and squares on graph paper. For the third and
final movement, Cage employed a single chart in which he com-
bined sounds to be made by the piano, sounds to be made by the
orchestra, and a number of new sound aggregates to be made by
both piano and orchestra together, thus representing their ultimate
unification within a single, impersonal compositional procedure.28
As when composing the orchestra’s part of the first movement,
Cage selected the sounds by means of simple two-part vertical and
horizontal moves on the chart. It was here that Cage first employed
the I Ching. Although the chart of piano and orchestra sounds for
the third movement consisted of the same sixteen rows and four-
teen columns he had used earlier, Cage produced two additional
John Cage classes at the New School for Social Research, 1958
(left to right: John Cage, George Brecht, Al Kouzel, Jackson Mac Low, John Cage,
Al Hansen, center, and Allan Kaprow, back wall)
29. As Pritchett notes, “The sounds
of the concerto are both independent
(in the way they occur in time) and
simultaneous (in the way they exist in
the chart).” (Pritchett, p. 75). Important-
ly, Cage introduced means of retiring
and replacing sounds within the chart
technique of Concerto for Prepared Piano
and Chamber Orchestra. Nevertheless,
at any given moment, the charts were
static and complete. See Cage’s com-
ments to Boulez in Nattiez, (ed.), p. 94.
30. The Concerto profoundly altered
Cage’s notion of musical continuity;
nonetheless, he employed several
means by which to produce transposi-
tions, symmetry, and other correspon-
dences. See Bernstein, pp. 195–96
and 202–3.
charts, in the eight-by-eight configuration of the I Ching, which
contained arrays of simple moves interspersed with empty cells
representing silences. Cage then tossed coins to obtain the
hexagrams by which to read these additional charts in order to
determine the moves to be made on the one containing sounds.
Since the charts Cage used in composing Concerto for Prepared Piano
and Chamber Orchestra included already complete and precisely
notated sound complexes, composition essentially consisted in
using chance operations to determine the sequencing of the sounds.
Thus, to a certain extent, the Concerto is a linear equivalent of the
charts that, at any given moment, represent the totality of available
sounds.29 In this respect, Cage’s procedure had not advanced all
that far beyond Duchamp’s or Tzara’s random drawing of materials
out of a hat or bag.30 In Music of Changes, by contrast, Cage’s separa-
tion of the sound’s various components into multiple charts – one
containing sonorities, one containing durations, and one containing
dynamics – allowed him to surpass the limitations of compositional
preconception not merely in the sequencing of the sounds, but in
their very identity. More than simply arranged according to the laws
of chance, each defining parameter of every acoustical event within
Music of Changes was determined by chance operations.
217

31. The exception being the first
movement’s piano part, which was
composed without charts.
32. Pritchett, pp. 82–83.
218
Such an apparently small shift from one to multiple charts intro-
duced two important changes in Cage’s aesthetic. The first concerns
the understanding of the pool of sounds from which his composi-
tion would draw. In place of a closed set of predetermined sounds,
Cage would conceive of sound as a limitless and differentiated
“sound-space” or “field.” The second change concerns the manner
in which sounds are understood to move from this sound-space
into the composition and, from there, into the areas of performance
and audition. Both transformations will ultimately prove impor-
tant for understanding the full implications of Cage’s engagement
with chance.
The first transformation in Cage’s compositional practice hinges
on the fact that, whereas the Concerto was largely equivalent to a
diachronic realization of its charts, which represented (at any given
moment) the totality of the work’s materials in synchronic fash-
ion,31 Music of Changes derived from the coming into existence of
sounds that did not pre-exist, as such, within the charts at all. In
Music of Changes, the chance-driven manipulation of different com-
ponents of each sound – the transformation of the components
of the sound chart by the durations and dynamics of the others –
altered the sounds originally given into ones the composer could
not foresee. As Pritchett has demonstrated, the original, “natural”
readings of the elements Cage placed within the sound charts were
mutated in unexpected ways by the chance determination of dura-
tions and dynamics.32 Thus, although the ultimate state of each
sound could be precisely determined and notated within the score,
the totality of acoustic possibilities drawn upon in Music of Changes
was no longer preconceived. Composition thus entered the realm
of “experimentation” and became an activity without foreseen or
predetermined result.
Music of Changes, however, represented only a preliminary step in
transforming Cage’s conception of the pool of potential sounds.
The sound charts with which he began contained sound complexes
that were intentionally created, and chance-determined manipu-
lations of duration and dynamics only pushed them a relatively
short distance into the unknown. In order to begin with materials
that were not preconceived, Cage developed the “point-drawing”
technique initiated in the score for Music for Carillon I (1952),
developed in magisterial fashion in works such as Concert for Piano
and Orchestra (1957–58), and serving as the basis of scores using
transparencies such as Fontana Mix (1958), Variations I (1958),
and Variations II (1961). In point-drawing scores, Cage simply and

33. In Music for Carillon I, Cage used a
stencil made from crumpled paper
to determine the placement of the dots.
In scores using transparencies, he
used randomly arrayed dots printed
on paper or moveable transparencies.
34. Cage, “45’ for a Speaker,” p. 157.
On the point-drawing technique,
see Pritchett, pp. 92ff.
35. John Cage, “Experimental Music”
(1957), Silence, p. 9.
36. The term “field situation” appears
in John Cage, “Diary: How to Improve
the World (You Will Only Make Matters
Worse) 1967,” A Year from Monday.
Middletown, Conn.: Wesleyan University
Press, 1967, p. 157.
37. Cage, “Experimental Music,” p. 9.
38. Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari,
A Thousand Plateaus: Capitalism and
Schizophrenia, Brian Massumi, (trans.),
Minneapolis: University of Minnesota
Press, 1987, p. 371.
immediately notated dots on a sheet of paper by, for instance,
marking a number of imperfections found on the sheet within a
given amount of time.33 These points could then be translated into
sounds by establishing different means of mapping by which their
frequency, amplitude, timbre, duration, and “morphology” (attack
and decay characteristics) could be determined independently
of the composer’s preconceptions. No longer beginning in the mind
of the composer, the composition now drew its materials from the
entirety of an acoustical “field.” “The reason I am presently work-
ing with imperfections in paper is this,” Cage noted in 1954. “I am
thus able to designate certain aspects of sound as though they were
in a field, which of course they are.”34
Cage’s conception of sound as existing within a field was precipi-
tated by his interest in technology. In Cage’s estimation, the capa-
bilities of, for instance, magnetic tape allowed for the possibility
not only of reproducing any sound but, through various means of
manipulation, producing every possible sound. Sound thereby
became conceivable as a continuous expanse without gap, division,
or lacuna. As Cage explained in “Experimental Music”:
Musical habits include scales, modes, theories of counterpoint and harmo-
ny, and the study of the timbres, singly and in combination of a limited number of
sound-producing mechanisms. In mathematical terms these all concern discrete
steps. They resemble walking – in the case of pitches, on steppingstones twelve in
number. This cautious stepping is not characteristic of the possibilities of mag-
netic tape, which is revealing to us that musical action or existence can occur at any
point or along any line or curve or what have you in total sound-space; that we are,
in fact, technically equipped to transform our contemporary awareness of nature’s
manner of operation into art.35
Although continuous and unlimited, the “total sound-space”
implied in Cage’s “field situation” was, importantly, not homoge-
neous.36 Any movement or transformation in coordinates equaled
a transformation in acoustic identity. Once again describing the
effects of magnetic tape, Cage stated:
The situation made available by these means is essentially a total sound-
space, the limits of which are ear-determined only, the position of a particular
sound in this space being the result of five determinants: frequency or pitch,
amplitude or loudness, overtone structure or timbre, duration, and morphology
(how the sound begins, goes on, and dies away). By the alteration of any one of
these determinants, the position of the sound in sound-space changes.37
Continuous, but also heterogeneous, Cage’s total sound-space is
what Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari would call a “smooth space”;
all points are reachable, but none are identical.38 “I believe, of
219

39. John Cage, “Where Are We Going?
And What Are We Doing?” (1961),
Silence, pp. 204–5.
40. Cage, Letter to Pierre Boulez,
December 18, 1950, in Nattiez, (ed.),
p. 78; and Cage, Letter to Pierre Boulez,
summer 1951, in Nattiez, (ed.), p. 110.
Pritchett transcribes the word “quali-
ties,” apparently erroneously, as
“quantities” (Pritchett, pp. 96 and 137).
41. See Branden W. Joseph, Random
Order: Robert Rauschenberg and
the Neo-Avant-Garde, Cambridge,
Mass.: MIT Press, 2003, p. 47–56.
Cage uses the term “multiplicity”
as early as 1948, although in a seem-
ingly different con-text; John Cage,
“A Composer’s Confessions” (1948),
in Richard Kostelanetz, (ed.), John
Cage: Writer, New York: Limelight
Editions, 1993, p. 41.
42. Henri Bergson, Creative Evolution,
Arthur Mitchell, (trans.), New York:
Henry Holt & Co., 1911, p. 273.
43. Cage, “45’ for a Speaker,” p. 191.
220
course, that what we’re doing is exploring a field,” Cage would
proclaim in 1961, “that the field is limitless and without qualitative
differentiation but with multiplicity of differences.”39
Cage’s use of the term “multiplicity” in describing the heteroge-
neous and unlimited space of all sound would not seem to
have been purely occasional. It had come up earlier within the
context of his correspondence with Boulez about Music of Changes.
Whereas Cage had contended that his earlier use of the chart tech-
nique had brought him “closer to a ‘chance’ or if you like to an
un-aesthetic choice,” the full development of the multiple chart
procedure within Music of Changes opened onto a different para-
digm: “when I send you the Changes I shall also send you the
charts I used,” he wrote to Boulez in the summer of 1951. “As I see
it, the problem is to understand thoroughly all the qualities that
act to produce multiplicity.”40
The term “multiplicity” would have been particularly significant
for Cage at the time, for the year 1951 most likely marked his ini-
tial reception of vitalist French philosopher of multiplicity, Henri
Bergson. Although the majority of Cage literature rightly focuses
on the importance of his reception of Indian and East Asian phi-
losophies, as related through such figures as Ananda K. Coomaras-
wamy and Daisetz T. Suzuki, the relatively little researched link
between Cage and Bergson opens up new aspects of the compos-
er’s thinking. As I have argued elsewhere, Cage’s mature under-
standing of silence as formulated in that year can be related to (if
it did not, in fact, derive from) Bergson’s critique of nonbeing as
expressed in Creative Evolution.41 According to Bergson, what an
individual conceived as the absence of an object was, in actuality,
merely the finding of another object that he or she did not seek.42
Similarly, after an experience within an anechoic chamber – in
which Cage heard, not silence, but the noises made by his circula-
tory and nervous systems – Cage would come to define silence,
not as the complete absence of sounds, but rather as the absence
only of intentional sounds and the presence of other sounds not
sought, i.e., unintended. From such a perspective, as Cage would
put it, “There is no such thing as silence.”43
Where Cage quoted Bergson most explicitly, however, was on the
notion of disorder. As he stated, for instance, in a lecture delivered
at Dartmouth College in 1955, “Magnetic tape reveals to ears… that
things are in this life in a state of togetherness that is a real cause
for joy, that their disorder, if so it appears to us, is simply (as Bergson
44. John Cage, [“Dartmouth Spring
’55“], folder 10, box 12, John Cage
Papers, Collection 1000-72, Special
Collections and Archives, Olin Library,
Wesleyan University, Middletown,
Conn.; cited in Kim, p. 221. Kim
also mentions Earle Brown’s citation
of Bergson, p. 97.
45. Bergson, pp. 232–33.
46. Ibid., p. 230. Around 1954, Cage
began to echo Bergson’s notion of dura-
tion as, not an abstract or mechanical
expanse of time, but a subjectively lived
temporality in relation to the world
around: “Time… is what we and sounds
happen in. Whether early or late: in it.
It is not a question of counting.” (Cage,
“45’ for a Speaker,” p. 151).
47. Bergson, pp. 38–40. On the different
types of multiplicity, see Gilles Deleuze,
Bergsonism, Hugh Tomlinson and
Barbara Habberjam, (trans.), New York:
Zone Books, 1988 p. 37–41.
48. Bergson, p. 234.
49. John Cage, “Letter to Paul Henry
Lang” (1956), in Kostelanetz, (ed.),
John Cage: An Anthology, p. 118. Cage
explicitly opposes the “natural” and
“anthropomorphic” points of view in
Cage, “On Film” (1956), in Kostelanetz,
(ed.), John Cage, p. 115. For Bergson’s
critique of dialectics, see, for example,
Bergson, p. 238. Cage is, as a thinker,
like Bergson in Deleuze’s description
of him: not one who ascribes to “a prop-
erly human wisdom and equilibrium,”
but one who attempts to “open us up to
the inhuman and the superhuman (dura-
tions which are inferior or superior to
our own), to go beyond the human con-
dition.” (Deleuze, Bergsonism, p. 28.)
has said) an order we had not been looking for.”44 Bergson’s
critique of disorder was also found in Creative Evolution and
proceeded in the same manner as his critique of nonbeing. As
alluded to in Cage’s paraphrase, Bergson considered disorder to
be a pseudo-idea that arose on account of the disappointment
of an individual who, searching for one kind of order, finds
another. “When I enter a room and pronounce it to be ‘in disorder,’
what do I mean?” queried Bergson:
The position of each object is explained by the automatic movements of
the person who has slept in the room, or by the efficient causes, whatever they may
be, that have caused each article of furniture, clothing, etc., to be where it is: the
order, in the second sense of the word, is perfect. But it is order of the first kind
that I am expecting, the order that a methodical person consciously puts into his
life, the willed order and not the automatic: so I call the absence of this order
“disorder.” At bottom, all there is that is real, perceived and even conceived, in
this absence of one of the two kinds of order, is the presence of the other. But the
second is indifferent to me, I am interested only in the first, and I express the pres-
ence of the second as a function of the first, instead of expressing it, so to speak,
as a function of itself, by saying it is disorder.45
If one type of order was that expressed in scientific, geometric,
mechanistic, and/or mathematical laws (an order predicated
on suppressing lived duration), the second was a “vital” one that
existed within duration’s continual flow and was “essentially
creation.”46 To each type of order corresponded a certain type of
multiplicity. One form was proper to discontinuous, numerical
multiplicities, the other to continuous, virtual multiplicities, those
integrally related to the creative transformations of lived dura-
tion.47 According to Bergson (in a connection that would not have
gone unnoted by Cage) the idea of chance as a form of disorder
was prompted by the confusion of an individual who failed to
grasp the difference between these two types of order. “…in real-
ity,” wrote Bergson, “chance merely objectifies the state of mind
of one who, expecting one of the two kinds of order, finds himself
confronted with the other. Chance and disorder are therefore
necessarily conceived as relative.”48
Like Bergson, Cage sought to think in a non-“anthropomorphic”
manner, to grasp the “life” that, as he explained to Paul Henry
Lang, “goes on very well without me” – an order of existence that
surpasses the limitations of the human mind and the procedures
of dialectical thinking that Cage saw as derived from it.49 It was for
this reason that he mobilized the idea of multiplicity (as a complex
interaction that was in line with the actual, ontological existence
of sound) against an idea of relationships as generally understood
221

50. John Cage, “Composition as Process
II: Indeterminacy” (1958), Silence, p. 38.
51. Bergson, pp. 45–47.
52. Cage, “Where Are We Going? And
What Are We Doing?,” pp. 199, 204,
and 206. The idea of transcending the
intellect is fundamental for Bergson;
see, for example, Bergson, pp. 163–64.
222
and grasped by the human mind. Relationships were seen as
inherently limited, essentially dualistic, and therefore reductive in
comparison with the multiplicity Cage was attempting to access.
Drawing upon Suzuki, Cage explained:
From a non-dualistic point of view, each thing and each being is seen at the
center, and these centers are in a state of interpenetration and non-obstruction.
From a dualistic point of view, on the other hand, each thing and each being is not
seen: relationships are seen and interferences are seen. To avoid undesired inter-
ferences and to make one’s intentions clear, a dualistic point of view requires a
careful integration of the opposites.50
In this, we can begin to see that Cage’s repeated insistence on the
unknowability of life, nature, or existence opened onto more than
simply mysticism. With an understanding of ontology (includ-
ing, but not limited to, “sound-space”) as an infinite expanse of
interconnections in a state of continuous mobility and temporally
accumulating growth (as it was also conceived by Bergson), totality
was no longer properly cognizable as such.51 Yet, Cage’s descrip-
tions of existence as a “limitless” field filled with an ungraspable
“multiplicity of differences” did not mean that nothing could be
understood, only that existence in its totality could not be. Sound
being no longer a limited and pre-visible totality as in the charts of
the Concerto, individual sounds were to be drawn from a complex,
unpredictable, and unlimited totality. And as opposed to Music of
Changes, which drew its initial components from a set of pre-given
notated sonorities, the field of all sound was properly unknowable
for it existed only within a virtual state. This was the “change in
our heads” Cage would mention in relation to conceiving of exis-
tence as a “field phenomena.” “And about this field,” Cage con-
tended, “nothing can be said. And yet one goes on talking, in order
to make this clear” – “our business has changed from judgment
to awareness.”52
If the first important change to arise from the multiple-chart tech-
nique utilized in Music of Changes concerned Cage’s understanding
of the limitless field within which all sounds existed, the second
impacted his conception of the manner in which those sounds
traveled from this pool of all potential sound – from the continuous
multiplicity that is the total sound-space – to the level of the
composition itself. Previously, in Concerto for Prepared Piano and
Chamber Orchestra the relationship of the sounds in the composi-
tion to their prior existence in the compositional charts was one of
identity. In both states the sound itself was effectively unchanged.
In Music of Changes, by contrast, the use of multiple charts began to
 indicate a relationship between the composition’s sounds and the
material from which they were drawn that was not one of identity,
but one of difference.

The distinction that Cage will come to make is fundamental, and

in order to describe it we will have to be precise. It is from Deleuze
– whose own study of Bergson began at exactly the same historical
moment as Cage’s – that we will be able to derive the needed analyt-
53. Deleuze’s first article on Bergson, ical tools.53 First, we will have to introduce a terminological distinc-
“Bergson’s Conception of Difference”
was initially presented as a lecture
tion, for, as pointed out by Deleuze, there is in Bergson’s thought
in 1954. Gilles Deleuze, “Bergson’s an important difference between possibilities and virtualities.54
Conception of Difference,” in John
Mullarkey, (ed.), The New Bergson,
Like disorder and non-being, the idea of the possible is for Bergson
Manchester: Manchester University a false idea, a projection from reality backward into a supposedly
Press, 1999, pp. 42–65; lecture date
given in Michael Hardt, Gilles Deleuze:
prior state. Possibilities are considered to be knowable, pre-exist-
An Apprenticeship in Philosophy, ing their realization already endowed with their proper form. There
Minneapolis: University of Minnesota
is, then, no difference between a possible action and a real action
Press, 1993, p. 2.
apart from the fact that a real action has come to pass and a merely
54. Deleuze, Bergsonism, pp. 42–43, possible action has not, or has not yet.
96–98.

Virtualities, by contrast, are of a different order altogether: they

do not pre-exist their coming into being in an already constituted
form. The virtual exists in a state of potentiality and is, as such,
properly unknowable. Whereas possibilities relate to static, pre-
formed, closed systems (being, in fact, backward projections from
an existent reality), virtualities are part of ongoing systems, “vital”
and “creative” systems that are infinitely evolving and temporally
accumulating. The virtual, therefore, cannot be fully conceived
until it is created.

In order to describe the manner in which Bergsonian virtuali-

ties come into being, Deleuze provides a second terminological
distinction: whereas possibilities are realized, virtualities are
actualized. Here the distinction is equally fundamental. The
relationship of possibilities to their realization is characterized
by identity and limitation. A possibility that is realized is the
same as it was in its prior state of possibility; it is identical to its
previous state, only it now seemingly has reality added to it.
In relation to the totality of possibilities available at any given
time the one that is realized is derived according to a process
of limitation, having been selected from out of all the others that
are not, or are not yet, realized. Such is the relationship of the
notes in Duchamp’s Erratum Musical to the hatful from which
they were drawn or of the notes in Cage’s Concerto for Prepared
Piano to the charts in which they were found. The role of chance
is limited to that of selecting from amongst the set of possible

223

55. Ibid., p. 97.
56. Ibid., p. 103.
57. See, for instance, Bergson, pp. 179,
181, 196–97, and 257–58. For a typical
example of the English translation, see:
“But the body which is to perform
[exercera] this action, the body which
marks out upon matter the design of
its eventual actions [ses actions
virtuelles] even before they are actual
[avant d’accomplir des actions réelles]…”
Bergson, p. 12; original French terms
within square brackets, Henri Bergson,
L’Évolution créatrice. Paris: Presses
Universitaires de France, 1998, p. 12.
224
elements available at any one given time that one element that is,
at a particular moment, to be realized.
Actualization, by contrast, takes place specifically with regard to
continuous multiplicities of the kind proper to Cage’s conception of
sound. Actualization is the manner in which one part or aspect
of such a continuous multiplicity comes into existence. In that a part
(e.g., a sound) derives from the multiplicity as a whole, the multi-
plicity can be said to divide, but such a division, Deleuze explains,
is neither a simple partition nor merely a subtraction of part from
whole, but rather a procedure of differentiation in kind. The
resulting entity is not recognizable as either a discrete section or a
particular aspect of the original multiplicity (which is, in any case,
durationally changing), but is an actualization that is, with relation
to its previous state, new. Deleuze explains:
For, in order to be actualized, the virtual cannot proceed by elimination
or limitation, but must create its own lines of actualization in positive acts. The
reason for this is simple: While the real is in the image and likeness of the possible
that it realizes, the action, on the other hand[,] does not resemble the virtuality
that it embodies. It is difference that is primary in the process of actualization
– the difference between the virtual from which we begin and the actuals at which
we arrive, and also the difference between the complementary lines according to
which actualization takes place. In short, the characteristic of virtuality is to exist in
such a way that it is actualized by being differentiated and is forced to differentiate
itself, to create its lines of differentiation in order to be actualized.55
Actualization is thus the manner in which a positive form of differ-
entiation operates, one in which difference is not based on nega-
tion but on creation and is therefore a positive force.56 It relates to
a form of difference understood to be central and internal, a form
in which the virtual multiplicity in its movement of actualization
differs first and foremost from itself.
Although all of the distinctions enumerated above – between possi-
bilities and virtualities, realization and actualization, and discrete
and continuous multiplicities – can be found in Creative Evolu-
tion, they are nowhere as clearly defined in Bergson’s prose as in
Deleuze’s analysis of it, a situation obscured further by the English
translation.57 For this reason, perhaps, Cage uses the terms “pos-
sible” and “potential” (the translator’s preferred English term for
“virtuel”) almost interchangeably. Nevertheless, it is clear from the
context of Cage’s statements that Cagean possibilities and poten-
tialities are by and large equivalent to Bergsonian virtualities as
more strictly defined by Deleuze and as they line up on the side of
actualization, continuous multiplicity, and the unforeseen nature

58. John Cage, “Composition as Process
I: Changes” (1958), Silence, p. 28.
59. Ibid., p. 31.
60. Morton Feldman, Pierre Boulez,
John Cage, and Christian Wolff,
“4 Musicians at Work,” trans/formation,
Vol. 1, No. 3, 1952, p. 172; repr. as
“Statements by Morton Feldman,
John Cage and Christian Wolff,” in
Nattiez, (ed.), p. 107; and as Cage,
“Composition: To Describe the Process
of Composition Used in Music of
Changes and Imaginary Landscape
No. 4,” Silence, p. 59.
61. Cage, “45’ for a Speaker,” p. 159.
of experimental actions. As Cage wrote about his score, Variations I
(1958), “In this situation, the universe within which the action is
to take place is not preconceived. Furthermore, as we know, sounds
are events in a field of possibilities, not only at the discrete points
conventions have favored.”58
By 1958, Cage consistently described his compositional proces-
ses in terms of actualization. As he noted, for instance, in
“Composition as Process I: Changes,” “With tape and music-
synthesizers, action with the overtone structure of sounds can
be less a matter of taste and more thoroughly an action in a
field of possibilities.”59 More significantly, Cage’s compositional
practice followed the general lines of actualization. This was
evident as early as 1952, in Cage’s discussion of the superposi-
tion chart in Music of Changes, where a sound was considered to
exist in a virtual state (was, in Cage’s terms, “possibly audible”),
and was only “actually audible” within certain conditions deter-
mined by coin tosses according with the I Ching. As he described
the process in the journal trans/formation (the article he later
read to his New School class):
Each one of the events (1 to 8) is worked from the beginning to the end of the
composition. For instance, the 8th one is present from beginning to end but may
sound only during a structural space that has been defined by a toss (for Superposi-
tions) of 57 to 64 [in the I-Ching]. It is then not only present but possibly audible.
It becomes actually audible if a sound is tossed (rather than a silence) and if the
duration tossed is of a length that does not carry the sound beyond the structural
space open to it.60
The multiple chart technique of Music of Changes, wherein individ-
ual musical events arise out of the combination of different charts
and are not fully contained within any one of them, also begins to
hint at the process of actualization.
Actualization, however, was more clearly implemented in the point-
drawing scores wherein sound was engaged or related to as a field.
As Cage describes the process in “45’ for a Speaker”:
To determine the number of imperfections in a given space, coins are tossed.
That number of spots is then potentially active. Subsequent tosses determine
which are actually active. Tables are arranged referring to tempi, the number of
superimpositions, that is to say number of things that can go on at once, sounds
& silences, durations, loudnesses, accents.61
Shortly afterward, Cage associates his point-drawing technique
both with the notion of chance and with the more particularly
Bergsonian notions of life, duration, and virtuality (“potentiality”):
225

62. Ibid., p. 181.
63. Ibid., p. 161. Although unaware of
Cage’s relation to Bergson, Pritchett’s
description of Notation Y from the piano
part of Concert for Piano and Orchestra
well illustrates the process of actualiza-
tion through differentiation. (Pritchett,
p. 119.)
64. Cage, “Composition as Process II:
Indeterminacy,” p. 36.
65. See Adorno’s criticism, although
directed against advanced serialist tech-
nique, of the moment “when the sub-
ject, whose freedom is the precondition
of all advanced art, is driven out; when
a violent and external totality, hardly
different from political totalitarianism,
acquires the reins of power“; Theodor
W. Adorno, “The Aging of the New
Music” (1955), in Richard Leppert, (ed.),
Essays on Music, Berkeley, Ca.: Univer-
sity of Califorina Press, 2002, p. 196.
Adorno later credited Cage’s music with
acting as “a protest against the dogged
complicity of music with the domination
of nature“; Theodor W. Adorno, “Vers
une musique informelle,” Quasi una
fantasia, London: Verso, 1994, p. 315.
226
I am talking & contemporary music is changing. Like life it changes. If it were
not changing it would be dead. That is why chance enters for me so largely into
my means which are skillful. It is at the point of potentiality… I am working now to
work without charts, without any support in total space.62
For Cage, sound ontologically is a virtual multiplicity, and in this
state it is unified, it is one (a total sound-space), although hetero-
geneous and unbounded. Composition consists in devising ways
of translating the spot on the paper (a potential or virtual sound)
into an actual sound by determining – through the use of chance
operations and/or varying degrees of indeterminacy – all com-
ponents necessary to provide the identity of the sonic event. It is
through the application of these procedures that the point comes
into being as a sound. In this way, the continuous multiplicity
that is the totality of all sound is divided, but the sounds thereby
produced are not previously located or foreseen. “Spots are spots,”
as Cage put it, “and skill’s needed to turn them to the point of
practicality.”63
With Music of Changes, Cage had succeeded in enacting a process
of actualization (to however limited a degree) only with regard to
the level of composition. If, for the composer, the situation was one
of having access to an unprecedented realm of sound (if not yet
entirely a total sound-space), the performer was still faced with a
more or less conventionally notated score (however complex or in-
novative). As Cage described the situation:
That the Music of Changes was composed by means of chance operations
identifies the composer with no matter what eventuality. But that its notation is in
all respects determinate does not permit the performer any such identification:
his work is specifically laid out before him. He is therefore not able to perform
from his own center but must identify himself insofar as possible with the center
of the work as written.64
From this perspective, Music of Changes falls squarely within the
most compromising terms of Theodor Adorno’s critique of advanc-
ed music. By effectively subtracting him or herself from the compo-
sition, the composer delivers performers over to a fixed and entirely
objective contingency that lords over them, effectively placing them
in a position of submission before it as before a social situation
equally objectively and impersonally controlled.65 Levying this very
charge against himself, in an exemplary moment of self-criticism,
Cage explained:
The Music of Changes is an object more inhuman than human, since chance
operations brought it into being. The fact that these things that constitute it,

66. Cage, “Composition as Process II:
Indeterminacy,” p. 36.
67. See Adorno’s criticism that “Cage,
and doubtless many of his disciples,
content themselves with abstract
negation in seances with overtones
of [Rudolf] Steiner, eurythmics and
healthy-living sects.” (Adorno, “Vers
une musique informelle,” p. 315.)
68. Cage, “Experimental Music,” p. 11.
though only sounds, have come together to control a human being, the performer,
gives the work the alarming aspect of a Frankenstein monster. This situation is
of course characteristic of Western music, the masterpieces of which are its most
frightening examples, which when concerned with humane communication only
move over from Frankenstein monster to Dictator.66
For the audience, too, there was little difference between Music of
Changes and any intentionally composed work. Although Cage’s
compositional process eliminated any a priori message, it did not
interrupt the communicative process seen to operate between
composer or performer and audience. On account of the fixity of
its score, the Music of Changes could not escape a posteriori projec-
tions and analyses: it was just as open to the recovery or imputa-
tion of meanings as tarot cards or cups of tea leaves.67
Although, in Music of Changes, Cage concentrated exclusively on
composition, he succeeded on that level in gaining insights that led
to the realization of his “failure” within the realms of performance
and audience reception. Seeking to move beyond the determinate
score of Music of Changes, Cage pursued indeterminacy, developing
the means by which a single point or note could be read in a variety
– eventually an unlimited variety – of ways. Hence, the majority of
Cage’s point-drawing scores (and, later, those using transparencies)
take the form of compositional puzzles for which the “answers”
– that is, the actual notes to be played – are variable or even unlim-
ited in scope and, at the outset, unknown to either composer or
performer. In this sense, the score comes into existence as a result
of the performer’s “actualization”; prior to that moment it exists
only in a state of virtuality. As Cage explained in the lecture,
“Experimental Music,” “The total field of possibilities [read ‘virtua-
lities’] may be roughly divided and the actual sounds within these
divisions may be indicated as to number but left to the performer
or to the splicer to choose.”68
Only with this final step of introducing indeterminacy into his
scores, it could be argued, did Cage succeed in the task he set
for himself “to understand thoroughly all the qualities that act
to produce multiplicity.” For in order for a composition to be
a multiplicity it is not enough that it derives from an unlimited
space of all sound or that it engages with chance operations.
For a composition to be a multiplicity, it must not be reproduced
or realized but actualized; it must proceed to performance not
by means of identity, representation, or resemblance – from out
of a limited and pre-established set of materials – but via an act
of creation. A composition acts to produce a multiplicity because,
227

69. For Cage, such a critique of repre-
sentation was explicitly political and in
line with his developing anarchism. See,
for instance, Cage’s invocation of the
police in “History of Experimental Music
in the United States” (1959), Silence,
p. 72.
70. In order to make the variability
of indeterminate works clear, Cage
and David Tudor would often perform
multiple versions (actualizations) of
the same score within a single concert.
71. Dieter Daniels, (ed.), George Brecht,
Notebook III (April 1959–August 1959),
Cologne: Walther König, 1991, p. 125.
72. Cage, “45’ for a Speaker,” p. 174;
and “Experimental Music,” p. 10.
Brandon LaBelle has described the man-
ner in which Cage’s music reconfigures
listening particularly nicely: “By seeking
to strip away the representational
nature of sound… sound is potentially
dislodged to float along a chain of refer-
ence, as a ‘signifying’ agent within a
musical event, outside the narratives
of musical argument. This signifying of
sound over its signification (and ulti-
mate decipherability) makes possible
a shift in listening by which individual
imagination is mobilized, for listening
reaches not for correct meaning but for
its potential.” Brandon LaBelle, Back-
ground Noise: Perspectives on Sound
Art, New York: Continuum, 2006, p. 17.
73. “Given a number of actually active
points, they are an aggregate, a constel-
lation, they can move about among
themselves and it becomes necessary
to classify the kinds of aggregates,
say constant and again intermittent.”
Cage, “45’ for a Speaker,” p. 163.
228
and only if, it exists as a virtuality with relation to the stage of
performance that succeeds it. In this, the performer partially loses
his or her subservient position as the composer’s representative
to take on a greater share in the role of individual creator, and
the performance loses its role as a representation of the score to
become a process of actualized differentiation.69
The same is true of the relationship between performance and
audience reception. In the first place, performance becomes inde-
terminate of audition on account of its potential unrepeatability.
The same piece at different times and performed by different
performers (each of whom has, presumably, actualized the score
for him or herself) gives rise quite literally to distinct acoustical
experiences, and this indeterminacy is augmented by Cage’s
explicitly allowing for the possibility of multiple compositions of
his being performed simultaneously.70 In addition, the “transpar-
ency” of Cage’s compositions, their openness to the inclusion of
ambient and unintended noises, further differentiates each perfor-
mance according to the acoustical circumstances encountered in
the particular time and place of presentation. (This, Brecht noted
quite specifically: “Ambient sound penetrates the intended, is
‘included’ in the music. It is relevant to the situation in which the
music arises/relevant to the music, which is ever situational.”)71
Moreover, the music’s being free of any traditionally expressive or
communicative message, the audience’s act of interpretation
(as the hermeneutic uncovering of meaning) gives way to what Cage
called “sensitivic responsiveness” or “response ability”: a form
of reception that arises from, but is not determined by, the perfor-
mance, a reception that is as constitutively dependent on each
audience member as on the composer or performer.72
For the audience of one of Cage’s pieces, the performance is a virtu-
ality, it is a virtual multiplicity, and the same is true of the composi-
tion with relation to the performance and of sound or ontology with
relation to the composition. The passage or movement from one
activity to the other is one of actualization, a process of differentia-
tion from one layer to the next that is a process of individuation.
Acoustical aggregates are actualized in the process of composing to
form small, virtual systems by which the composition functions as
a multiplicity.73 These, in turn, are actualized into specific acousti-
cal events in performance, forming in their interaction with other
sounds (both performed and ambient) a multiplicity with relation
to the audience. Finally, the audience – by means of the interaction
of sounds with the individual’s unique emotional and cognitive
responses – actualizes an experience that is individual.

74. Cage, “Experimental Music,” p. 12.
75. Ibíd.
76. Bergson, pp. 258–59. Bergson is
discussing life as a virtual, continuous
multiplicity.
Cage advocated promoting such an individualized reception by
dispersing performers and/or loudspeakers around and about the
audience (an avenue first explored in Cage’s happening-like Theater
Event #1 [1952] at Black Mountain College). Such acoustical distri-
bution fragmented the performed sound, rendering what is heard
by each audience member different from the experience of others
located at different positions throughout the hall. In this way, the
unique proximity of each listener to the various points of sound
production physically renders performance indeterminate of any
one, unique, collective experience of hearing. Cage explained:
Rehearsals have shown that this new music, whether for tape or for instru-
ments, is more clearly heard when the several loud-speakers or performers
are separated in space rather than grouped closely together. For this music is not
concerned with harmoniousness as generally understood, where the quality of
harmony results from a blending of several elements. Here we are concerned with
the coexistence of dissimilars, and the central points where fusion occurs are
many: the ears of the listeners wherever they are.74
In this context, immediately following the above quote, Cage once
again referenced Bergson’s discussion of disorder: “This dishar-
mony, to paraphrase Bergson’s statement about disorder, is simply
a harmony to which many are unaccustomed.”75
Cage’s process of moving via differentiation through the pro-
cesses of composition, performance, and audition figures as an
almost analytical model of Bergson’s ontological vision and is one
of the ways that Cage’s music could be seen to imitate nature in its
“manner of operation.” From the level of the universe as a whole
to that of human society to that of the smallest of microorganisms,
nature was described by Bergson as in a state of ongoing fluctua-
tion between the two poles of individuation and association:
So, among the dissociated individuals, one life goes on moving: everywhere
the tendency to individualize is opposed and at the same time completed by an
antagonistic and complementary tendency to associate, as if the manifold unity of
life, drawn in the direction of multiplicity, made so much the more effort to with-
draw itself on to itself. A part is no sooner detached than it tends to reunite itself,
if not to all the rest, at least to what is nearest to it. Hence, throughout the whole
realm of life, a balancing between individuation and association.76
In Cage’s work, the same dual process is at work, as, for instance,
individual notes are actualized from the virtual totality that is all
sound to then find themselves associated with others to form a
virtual multiplicity with regard to performance, and then again
from the process of performance to the situation of hearing. Such
a dual movement of individuation and association (what Cage
229

77. Ibid., p. 261. On “unimpededness
and interpenetration,” see, for instance,
Cage, “Composition as Process III: Com-
munication” (1958), Silence, pp. 46–47.
78. Cage, “Experimental Music,” p. 12.
79. Dieter Daniels, (ed.), George Brecht,
Notebook I (June 1958–September
1958), Cologne: Walther König, 1991,
p. 3 (dated June 24, 1958).
230
would call, following Suzuki, “unimpededness and interpenetra-
tion”) was seen by Bergson as essential. “The evolution of life
in the double direction of individuality and association has there-
fore nothing accidental about it,” he declared, “it is due to the
very nature of life.”77
We are now in a better position to understand what is meant by
Cage when he famously defined the purpose of writing music as
“an affirmation of life – not an attempt to bring order out of chaos
nor to suggest improvements in creation, but simply a way of wak-
ing up to the very life we’re living, which is so excellent once one
gets one’s mind and one’s desires out of its way and lets it act of its
own accord.”78 The answer has nothing to do with the presentism
of which Cage has often been accused, the quietistic endorsement of
a purely mimetic relationship between the composition and the
actually existing state of society. Rather, the relationship of the work
of art to the ontological state of being – the relationship, in other
words, of art to life as put forward by Cage – is one of indeterminacy
in this sense: sounds (and, as we shall see shortly, other aspects of
existence as well) come into existence through a process of differen-
tiation as they pass from a state of virtuality to one of actualization.
We have found ourselves, it would seem, in rather unfamiliar art
historical territory, quite a ways from any simple notions of chance
or vague relations between “art” and “life.” Yet, if we turn back to
what Cage taught in his New School composition courses, we find
specific ideas drawn from his most advanced aesthetic researches
of the time. These are most clearly located in the work of George
Brecht, both because of the unique access Brecht’s course note-
books afford to Cage’s teaching and because, as Dick Higgins indi-
cated, Brecht seemed to follow the intricacies of Cage’s aesthetic
much more closely than his other classmates.
According to Brecht’s notes, the first idea Cage communicated to
his 1958 summer class was that of the five “dimensions” of sound
and their “trend toward Continuity.” As Cage had explained in
“Experimental Music” a year earlier, frequency, duration, ampli-
tude, timbre, and morphology had all effectively become fields
rather than discrete elements: thus, a “frequency field,” as Brecht
noted, rather than “definite tones”; a “duration field,” in place of
notations of “1/8th, 1/16th, 1/32, etc.”; an “overtone field,” instead of
traditional “orchestration”; and so on.79 Importantly, Cage’s under-
standing of sounds as existing within a field had long extended to
the idea that they interacted not only with all other sounds but with

80. Cage, “Experimental Music:
Doctrine,” p. 14.
81. Ibid.
82. Cage, “45’ for a Speaker,” p. 149.
83. Ibid., p. 189. Cage’s invocation of
“theater” was doubtlessly related to
his reception of Antonin Artaud, whose
work he studied in 1951–52. See Cage’s
comments in his letter to Boulez, May
22, 1951, in Nattiez, (ed.), p. 96.
84. The Audio Visual Group is men-
tioned in Joseph Jacobs, “Crashing New
York à la John Cage,” in Joan Marter,
(ed.), Off Limits: Rutgers University
and the Avant-Garde, 1957–1963, New
Brunswick, N. J.: Rutgers University
Press, 1999, p. 73. On the notion
of Cagean “theater,” see Branden W.
Joseph, “The Tower and the Line:
Toward a Genealogy of Minimalism,”
Grey Room No. 27, spring 2007, pp.
58–81, and (a reworking of some of the
same material) Beyond the Dream
Syndicate: Tony Conrad and the Arts
after Cage, New York: Zone Books,
2008, esp. pp. 81–84.
85. Diane De Bonneval, “New
School’s ‘Happenings’ Proves to be
‘Hellzapoppin’ – Beatnik Style,”
New York World-Telegram and Sun,
May 3, 1960, in Hermann Braun,
(ed.), George Brecht, Notebook V
(March 1960–November 1960),
Cologne: Walther König, 1997, p. 89.
all facets of existence. As Cage explained in “Experimental Music:
Doctrine” in 1955:
Urgent, unique, uninformed about history and theory, beyond the imagina-
tion, central to a sphere without surface, its [a sound’s] becoming is unimpeded,
energetically broadcast. There is no escape from its action. It does not exist as one
of a series of discrete steps, but as transmission in all directions from the field’s
center. It is inextricably synchronous with all other, sounds, non-sounds, which
latter, received by other sets than the ear, operate in the same manner.80
From such a perspective, Cage’s idea of the “field” extended into
the multisensory, multimedia, and multidisciplinary realm he
termed “theater”:
Relevant action is theatrical (music [imaginary separation of hearing from
the other senses] does not exist), inclusive and intentionally purposeless. Theater
is continually becoming that it is becoming; each human being is at the best
point for reception. Relevant response (getting up in the morning and discovering
oneself musician) (action, art) can be made with any number (including none
[none and number, like silence and music, are unreal]) of sounds.81
One year earlier, in “45’ for a Speaker,” Cage had specifically invok-
ed the relation of sound and vision, writing:
Music is an oversimplification of the situation we actually are in. An ear alone
is not a being; music is one part of theater. “Focus” is what aspects one’s noticing.
Theater is all the various things going on at the same time. I have noticed that music
is liveliest for me when listening for instance doesn’t distract me from seeing.82
Anticipating the partial conjunction of his own discipline with
that of most of his New School students, Cage noted further,
“it is theater and music disappears entirely into the realm of art
where it knows it belongs.”83
Although by no means deriving exclusively from Cage’s example,
the genres of happenings and Fluxus drew greatly upon Cage’s
extension of composition to include the visual as well as the au-
dible, objects and environments as well as sounds. Kaprow’s first
happenings, Brecht’s early experiments with light, and Hansen,
Higgins, and Larry Poons’s founding of the Audio Visual Group
can all be understood as developments of Cagean “theater.”84 In
1960, even as Kaprow had become the happening’s official spokes-
person, the genre was received as indelibly linked to Cage’s New
School classroom and its practitioners identified as his students.85
Even as late as 1961, a year after Cage had stopped teaching, Brecht
could still be found working through Cage’s theatrical paradigm.
In the draft of an article proposed for the nascent publication,
Fluxus, Brecht wrote:
231

86. Hermann Braun, (ed.), George
Brecht, Notebook VII (June 1961–
September 1962), Cologne: Walther
König, 2005, p. 115. Much in this
passage was struck through by Brecht.
87. Daniels, (ed.), George Brecht, Note-
book I, p. 24. Cage’s Music for Carillon
No. 5 (1967) would later use the grain of
a piece of plywood to determine pitches.
My thanks to David Patterson for this
connection.
88. Daniels, (ed.), George Brecht,
Notebook III, p. 57 (citation dated June
22, 1959). Although Brecht gives
no indication of ever having consulted
Bergson’s writings directly, he could still
declare to Cage over six months later
that “The order-disorder distinctions
is of great interest to me right now“;
Hermann Braun, (ed.), George Brecht,
Notebook IV (September 1959–March
1960), Cologne: Walther König, 1997,
p. 168 (dated January 27, 1960).
89. Daniels, (ed.), George Brecht,
Notebook II, p. 33 (dated October 24,
1958).
232
Composers, performers and auditors of music permit sound-experiences by
arranging situations having sound as an aspect. But there are other than sound-
situations. But the theater is well lit. Situations can be of interest in any dimension.
Now consider music admitting ambient sound, for example, that of John Cage,
Christian Wolff. Why shut my eyes? And if my eyes are open, why a “sound-situation?”
Why mention sound at all. There are things to see. I have to cough; the seat creaks;
and I can feel the vibration. Since there is no distraction, why choose sound as the
common aspect?86
Working within the context of Cage’s class, Brecht engaged not
only with general ideas, but with specific compositional procedures.
Hence one finds Brecht, in what seems one of his first “homework”
assignments, proposing an extension of Cage’s point-drawing
scores:
(1) A piece of wood, about 1 foot square, is painted white, and while still wet
is placed outdoors (e.g. in the woods). After it is dry, each speck represents a sound.
(2) An “interpretive matrix” (ruled areas, lines, etc. on acetate, over a frame)
is placed over this piece of wood, to allow transformation into sound.87
Here, Brecht can be seen extending Cage’s point-drawing tech-
nique in a more painterly and object-oriented direction, while liter-
alizing Cage’s relationship to nature.
Brecht’s notes indicate that Cage invoked Bergson’s discussion
of disorder on the first day of the summer 1959 class.88 Bergsonian
ideas of virtuality and actualization seem already to have been
introduced into the course the year before, likely though Cage’s
discussions of his own work and the article from trans/formation.
Although appearing in several places, such concerns seem to have
become a particular focus for Brecht toward the end of October
in the context of his thinking through the conditions of “an aural-
visual event.”89 As part of Brecht’s effort to expand Cagean prin-
ciples into a more explicitly audio-visual register, he lists optical
analogues for Cage’s five-part analysis of the components of a
sound. The frequency of acoustical phenomena proves analogous
to the wavelength of light, while timbre becomes “spectral distri-
bution.” The attributes of amplitude, duration, and morphology
Brecht judged equally applicable to both auditory and visual events
and hence left unchanged. Once having defined his materials’
characteristics, Brecht states the general “Problem”: “To construct
situations in which it is made possible for light and sound events
of any desired characteristics (frequency/wave-length, amplitude/
brightness, duration, timbre/spectral distribution, morphology) to
occur at any points in space and time.” It is in subsequently con-
templating “the nature of the unity of space and time which occurs in

90. Ibid., pp. 35–36 (dated October 26,
1958).
91. Ibid., p. 36.
92. Ibid., p. 41 (dated November 4,1958).
such situations” that Brecht will have recourse to the framework
of actualization:
If each micro-event (lighting of a light, sounding of a sound-source) is
capable of occurring in only one point of space (e.g. by the static placement of
a speaker, or light bulb), then this space “discreteness” is analogous to a time
discreteness, wherein micro-events would only be capable of occurring at certain
points in time. Of course, a “program” actually does constrain events to occur at
certain points in time.
We must, perhaps, differentiate “potentiality” and “actuality.” Universe
of possibilities. Embodiment. The above paragraph shows confusion of these two
[upward arrow] ideas.90
Almost immediately, on the basis of this insight, Brecht reformu-
lates his thinking about audio-visual events concisely and accord-
ing to the notion of actualization from an unlimited universe of
virtualities (though, like Cage, he uses the term “possible”): “The
event (micro), made actual, is one chosen from a universe of all
possible {lights/sounds} from all possible space points.”91
The transformation that arises within Brecht’s thinking at this
point is two-fold and follows the same contours as Cage’s had
undergone when developing his chance operations in the direction
of actualization: the first concerns the definition of the pool
from which events might derive; the second, the manner in which
such events move from that pool into the domains of performance
and perception.
Like Cage, Brecht would soon come to conceive of events as being
drawn, not from discrete sets of terms, but from an infinitely
extensive universe of virtualities. Seeking to describe the “General
Nature of a Performance,” Brecht would write in November, 1958,
“The overall event (performance) is a selection of space-time events
having specific qualities, drawn from a universe in which all possi-
ble space-time events, having all possible qualities, were available.”
Although, like Cage, Brecht again utilizes the term “possible,” the
unlimited totality to which he refers indicates that “virtual” would
apply. Accordingly, and immediately afterward, Brecht invokes the
notion of actualization:
In practice, the universe of possibilities is as follows:
All points in space within a specific room (say 1” module) are available for “activa-
tion,” by sounds or lights of any given qualities.92
Brecht’s reconception of what may be called the “ontology of the
event” represents a fundamental transformation in his think-
ing about chance. Formerly, in Chance-Imagery, he had conceived
233

93. Brecht, p. 2.
94. Daniels, (ed.), George Brecht,
Notebook II, pp. 64–66.
95. Daniels, (ed.), George Brecht,
Notebook III, p. 118 (dated July 21,
1959). On Cage’s engagement with
European multiple serialists, see
Amy C. Beal, New Music, New Allies:
American Experimental Music in West
Germany from the Zero Hour to
Reunification, Berkeley, Ca.: University
of California Press, 2006, pp. 78–130;
and Kim, pp. 128–207. Kim’s splendid
discussion provides a detailed reading
of what Cage derived from his New
School students, particularly Brecht,
at this time.
96. Daniels, (ed.), George Brecht, Note-
book II, p. 43 (dated November 6, 1958).
97. Ibid., p. 95 (dated June 14, 1959)
and notes to pp. 15 and 19.
236
chance not as actualizing a virtuality, but as the realization of a
limited and predetermined set of possibilities (in the strict,
Bergsonian sense of the term). This, Brecht explained precisely:
It is sometimes possible to specify only the universe of possible character-
istics which a chance event may have. For example, a toss of a normal die will be
expected to give a number from one to six. Any particular face will be expected
to turn up in about one-sixth of a great many throws. But the outcome of any one
toss remains unknown until the throw has been made. It is often useful to keep
in mind this “universe of possible results,” even when that universe is hypotheti-
cal, for this clarifies for us the nature of our chance event as a selection from a
limited universe.93
The transformation in Brecht’s thinking (the “change in his
head,” as Cage might say) that takes place with the reconceptual-
ization of chance in the direction of actualization would be
important for Brecht’s aesthetic development. Almost immedi-
ately, he likened the conception of an unlimited, virtual totality to
sources in traditional Asian philosophy (an affinity he and Cage
also shared) and to contemporary scientific conceptions of
relativity and quantum mechanics, ideas he thought to develop
in an article variously titled: “Relativity in the Work of John Cage,”
“Space, Time, and Causality in the Work of John Cage,” “The
Structure of a New Aesthetic,” or “John Cage and the Modern
World-View: Space, Time and Causality.”94 Drawing from (and, in
part, contributing to) Cage’s developing polemic against
European serialism and certain works by Karlheinz Stockhausen
and Boulez, Brecht underscored the distinction between their
“closed systems” and the “open systems” that Cage pursued.95
In seeking to implement these transformations, Brecht proposed
a switchboard for lights and sounds that operated with a series of
controls and that reacted differently to high and low frequencies
(in essence, a series of band-pass filters):
One sound (hi or lo freq.) can go to any speaker (whether or not it sounds on that
spkr.), or to any light (whether or not it can/has sufficient energy to/light that light).
Also, a flux of hi/med/lo sounds on tape going to a hi-freq. spkr., will sound
only a hi-freq. etc.96
Brecht worked on this proposal for some time, eventually sketching
a sort of control box for indeterminacy, which he ultimately aban-
doned on account of its complexity (“No desire to become an elec-
trician“).97 To a not insignificant degree, however, Brecht’s box was
to automate Cage’s process of actualization as found, for instance,
in the superimposition charts of Music of Changes. Every light or
speaker attached to Brecht’s switchboard was in a state of virtual

98. Brecht well understood the relation-
ship of difference, or non-resemblance,
between score and performance that
occurred in a situation of actualization:
“…the score, or program, has no
necessary correspondence to the light-
sound event.” (Ibid. p. 24 [dated October
14, 1958]).
99. Daniels, (ed.), George Brecht,
Notebook III, p. 115. Brecht notes the
tripartite situation of composer,
performance, and perception in Daniels,
(ed.), George Brecht, Notebook II,
p. 23 (dated October 10, 1958).
Brecht notes the “Implications of the
spatial arrangement of sound-sources”
in Daniels, (ed.), George Brecht,
Notebook II , p. 9 (dated October 4,
1958).
100. Ibid., pp. 126–27.
101. Ibid., p. 123.
or potential activity, in the sense that it could be activated or lit,
at any moment. Any particular light or speaker would be actually
active, however, could light or emit a sound, only upon receipt
of appropriate frequency stimuli. In other cases, energy would be
passing through (would be, from the perceiver’s point of view)
virtually there, but would not be actually perceivable.98
The second important transformation to Brecht’s aesthetic out-
look to take place after his exposure to Cagean aesthetics involves
the role of the individual subject – composer, performer, or
listener (perceiver) – within the actualization process. Early on in
Cage’s class, Brecht noted the tripartite division between compos-
er, performer, and listener, importantly understanding that each
stage in the process of composition, performance, and perception
could be the locus of “sound-structuring,” as when, in the case
of listening, the spatialization of acoustical stimuli rendered the
individual the structuring center of the multiplicity of acoustical
events.99 Brecht would think though the various relations between
composer, performer, and listener in great detail, eventually ex-
tending his focus to five different tiers with the addition of “nota-
tion” and “sound” and graphing the results in an elegant penta-
grammic chart.100 Brecht’s considerations encompass all possible
relations – from the most determined (“playing magnetic tape”) to
the most indeterminate. However, within his discussions of inde-
terminate and/or environmental music, the process of actualiza-
tion, as it operated from one stage to another, is evident. As Brecht
wrote, for example, in draft notes for yet another proposed article
(on “Situational Music”):
In performing this new music (with much compositional indeterminacy) the
performer confirms his own nature, in exactly the way the composer, in composi-
tion, confirmed his. The “virtu” of virtuosity must now mean behavior out of one[’]s
life-experience; it cannot be delimited toward physical skill. The listener respond-
ing to this sound out of his own experience, adds a new element to the system:
composer/notation/performer/sound/listener, and, for himself, defines the sound
as music. For the virtuoso listener all sound may be music.101
Here, we recognize the subject of virtuosity that so impressed (and
baffled) Higgins from Brecht’s pre-class conversations with Cage.
The “virtuoso listener” is one who is able to actualize the virtual
multiplicity that is the field of all sounds – performed and environ-
mental, sound and so-called silence – within which they find them-
selves situated.
By this time, Brecht was no longer solely within Cage’s orbit
(though he would continue to grapple with the composer’s work
237

102. Ibid., p. 128. It is my speculation
that Brecht moves toward this observa-
tion under the influence of Cardew.
Brecht references Cornelius Cardew’s
essay “re-pulling listener’s teeth” in
Daniels, (ed.), George Brecht, Notebook
III, p. 114. Cardew’s article, as made
clear by Brecht’s reference on p. 117, is
Cornelius Cardew, “The Unity of Musical
Space,” New Departures No. 1, sum-
mer 1959, pp. 53–56. Some years later,
Brecht would participate with Cardew
in events around the Scratch Orchestra
in London.
103. Julia E. Robinson, From Abstrac-
tion to Model: In the Event of George
Brecht and the Conceptual Turn in Art of
the 1960s, PhD dissertation, Princeton
University, Department of Art History
and Archaeology, 2008.
104. Daniels, (ed.), George Brecht,
Notebook II , p. 107 (dated January 21,
1958).
238
and example for years). In addition to his prior interest in
Dada and the work of Jackson Pollock, he had encountered the
work of the British experimental composer Cornelius Cardew,
which pushed him to understand perception as constituted by
the individual’s internal, visceral “environment” as much as
by their physical surrounds (“…is the food in our stomachs
a part of the ‘ambient situation?’”).102 And, as Julia Robinson has
demonstrated elsewhere in detail, Brecht’s thinking had been
profoundly transformed by exposure, in another New School
course, to German philosopher, Ernst Cassirer’s ideas about
symbolic form.103 With works such as Time Table Music (1959)
– which entailed no composition, as such, but considered all
occurrences within a given time period (chosen at random from
a commuter schedule) as part of the event – Brecht situated
himself closer, perhaps, to the position of the virtuoso listener
than to that of the multiplicitous composer that Cage largely
still occupied (4’33” notwithstanding). Yet, it is not enough to
contend that Brecht simply went his own way, or merely derived
inspiration or encouragement from Cage. Rather (like his West
Coast counterpart, La Monte Young), Brecht only came into
his own by working through the implications of Cage’s aesthetic
in its most advanced form. Only then was Brecht prepared
to transform his artistic focus from the “structure of nature”
– which, in part by following Cage, Brecht had come to see as
infinitely changing and, hence,properly unknowable – to the
individual’s “structure of experience,” the point at which
the totality of events would be actualized.104