ASSIGNMENT 2 FRONT SHEET

Qualification Pearson BTEC Level 5 Higher National Diploma in Computing

Unit number and title Unit 18: Discrete Maths

Submission date 10/4/2024 Date Received 1st submission

Re-submission Date Date Received 2nd submission

Student names & codes Final scores Signatures

1.Nguyen Huu Lam & BH00572 lam

Group number: 2. Luu Quang Trieu & BH00678 trieu

3. Nguyen Nam Truong & BH00704 truong

4. Cu Dang Truong Giang & BH00686 Giang

Class IT0603 Assessor name Mr. Dinh Van Dong

Student declaration
I certify that the assignment submission is entirely my own work and I fully understand the consequences of plagiarism. I understand that making a false declaration is
a form of malpractice.
Grading grid

P5 P6 P7 P8 M3 M4 D3 D4
Student 1 Nguyễn Hữu Lâm

Description of activity undertaken

Participate in content implementation:

Truth table and corresponding Boolean equation from an applicable scenario(P6)
Simplify the following Boolean expressions.(M3)
Describe the distinguishing characteristics of different binary operations that are performed on the
same set.(P7)
Validate whether a given set with a binary operation is indeed a group.(M4)
Team support and Slides design.

Assessment & grading criteria

P5,P6,P7,P8,M3,M4

How the activity meets the requirements of the criteria

Good

Student
Lam Date: 10/4/2024
signature:

Assessor
Date:
signature:

Assessor
Mr. Dinh Van Dong
name:

OBSERVATION RECORD
Student 2 Nguyễn Nam Trường

Description of activity undertaken

Participate in content implementation:

Diagram a binary problem in the application of Boolean algebra.(P5)

Determine the order of a group and the order of a subgroup in given examples

Team support and Slides design.

Assessment & grading criteria

P5,P6,P7,P8,M3,M4

How the activity meets the requirements of the criteria

Good

Student
Truong Date: 10/04/2024
signature:

Assessor
Date:
signature:

Assessor
Mr. Dinh Van Dong
name:
Student 3 Lưu Quang Triệu

Description of activity undertaken

Participate in content implementation:

Truth table and corresponding Boolean equation from an applicable scenario(P6)
Describe the distinguishing characteristics of different binary operations that are performed on the
same set.(P7)
Slides design.

Assessment & grading criteria

P5,P6,P7,P8,M3,M4

How the activity meets the requirements of the criteria

Good

Student
Trieu Date: 10/4/2024
signature:

Assessor
Date:
signature:

Assessor
Mr. Dinh Van Dong
name:
Student 4 Cù Đăng Trường Giang

Description of activity undertaken

Participate in content implementation:

Diagram a binary problem in the application of Boolean algebra.(P5)

Determine the order of a group and the order of a subgroup in given examples.(P8)

Assessment & grading criteria

P5,P6,P7,P8,M3,M4

How the activity meets the requirements of the criteria

Good

Student
Giang Date: 10/4/2024
signature:

Assessor
Date:
signature:

Assessor
Mr. Dinh Van Dong
name:
Table of Contents
I. Introduction .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 12
II. Diagram a binary problem in the application of Boolean algebra.(P5) ..................................................................................................................... 14
1. An overview of Boolean algebra .................................................................................................................................................................................... 14
2. Representing numbers in binary ................................................................................................................................................................................... 17
3. Logic Gate ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 19
III. Truth table and corresponding Boolean equation from an applicable scenario(P6) ................................................................................................ 25
1. Some concepts about Truth Tables and Boolean equations ........................................................................................................................................ 25
1.1. Truth Table ............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 25
1.2. Boolean equation .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 26
2. Apply Truth Table and Boolean equation to specific scenarios. ................................................................................................................................ 27
2.1. Develop the truth table and derive the corresponding Boolean equation for each of the following scenarios .............................................. 27
2.2. Generate a truth table for the provided Boolean expression: 𝒙𝒚𝒛 + 𝒙𝒚𝒛 + 𝒙𝒚𝒛 + 𝒙𝒚𝒛 .................................................................................. 32
IV. Simplify the following Boolean expressions.(M3) ........................................................................................................................................................ 37
1. Basic concept ................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 37
2. Apply to specific scenarios. ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 38
2.1. 𝒙(𝒙 + 𝒚) + 𝒚(𝒚 + 𝒛) + 𝒛(𝒛 + 𝒙). ........................................................................................................................................................................... 38
2.2. (𝒙 + 𝒚)(𝒚 + 𝒛) + (𝒙 + 𝒚)(𝒛 + 𝒙). .......................................................................................................................................................................... 38
2.3. (𝒙 + 𝒚)(𝒙𝒛 + 𝒙𝒛) + 𝒛𝒙 + 𝒙. ................................................................................................................................................................................... 39
2.4. 𝒙(𝒙 + 𝒚) + (𝒙 + 𝒚)(𝒙 + 𝒚)..................................................................................................................................................................................... 39
V. Describe the distinguishing characteristics of different binary operations that are performed on the same set. (P7) .......................................... 40
1. Explain the attributes of various binary operations executed within a common set ................................................................................................ 40
 2. Check whether the operations applied to pertinent sets qualify as binary operations. ............................................................................................ 41
2.1. Subtraction on set of natural numbers. − : N × N → N ( x, y) x − y. .......................................................................................................... 42
2.2. Subtraction on set of natural numbers ^: ℤ × ℤ → ℤ (𝒙, 𝒚) ↦ 𝒙𝒚.................................................................................................................. 42
VI. Determine the order of a group and the order of a subgroup in given examples ..................................................................................................... 43
1. The concept of the order of a group .............................................................................................................................................................................. 43
2. Construct the operation tables for group with orders 1, 2, 3, and 4, utilizing the elements a,b,c and e as the identity element in a suitable
manner ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 46
2.1. Order 1 (Elements: e )............................................................................................................................................................................................ 46
2.2. Order 2 (Elements: e and a) .................................................................................................................................................................................. 46
2.3. Order 3 (Elements: e , a and b) ............................................................................................................................................................................. 47
2.4. Order 4 (Elements: e , a ,b and c) ......................................................................................................................................................................... 48
3. State the Lagrange’s theorem of group theory. Using this theorem to discuss whether a group with order 4 can be a subgroup of a group G
with order 9 or not. .................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 49
VII. Validate whether a given set with a binary operation is indeed a group. .................................................................................................................. 50
1. Check whether the set 𝑺 = ℝ − −𝟏is a group under the binary operation ∗ defined as 𝒂 ∗ 𝒃 = 𝒂 + 𝒃 + 𝒂𝒃 for any 𝒂, 𝒃 ∈ 𝑺. .... 50
2. Express the connection between the order of a group and the quantity of binary operations that can be defined on that set. Apply to answer
the question "What is the total number of binary operations that can be defined on a set containing 3 elements?" .................................................... 51
2.1. Express the connection between the order of a group and the quantity of binary operations that can be defined on
that set ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 51

2.2. The total number of binary operations that can be determined on a set of 3 elements. ........................................................ 52
IX. References ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 54
Table of Figures
Figure 1 : Communications and computer networks. ................................................................................................................................................................... 15
Figure 2 :Circuit optimization......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 16
Figure 3 : Binary digits. ................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 18
Figure 4 : The Pillar of Logic in Engineering ................................................................................................................................................................................... 20
Figure 5 :XOR gate.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 21
Figure 6 : A diagram of the AND logic gate. ................................................................................................................................................................................... 21
Figure 7 :NOT gate. ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 22
Figure 8 : Nand Gate ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 22
Figure 9 : The NOR (NOT OR) gate ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 23
Figure 10 : The XNOR gate ............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 23
Figure 11 : The OR gate. ................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 24
Figure 12 : Part II Ac1 ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 27

I. Introduction
In this report, we will learn about an important topic in the field of Mathematics, which is Discrete Algebra. Discrete Algebra is a
field that studies discrete mathematical structures, often applied to problems involving logic, combinatorics, and graph theory.

In this report, we will explore the basic concepts and applications of Discrete Algebra in practice. We will learn about Boolean
Algebra, an important part of Discrete Algebra, and how it is used to solve logic problems. We will also look at the concepts of
combinatorics, graphing, and other mathematical tools applied in this field.

In addition, we will learn about the transferable skills and abilities developed through the study of Discrete Algebra. Skills such as
logical thinking, problem analysis and the ability to apply mathematical principles will be improved through practice and solving
real-life problems.
Finally, through this report, we hope to have an overview of Discrete Algebra and an awareness of its importance in solving real-
world mathematical and logical problems.
II. Diagram a binary problem in the application of Boolean algebra.(P5)
1. An overview of Boolean algebra
Boolean algebra plays an important role in solving right-binary problems in many different real-life fields, including the field of
Information Technology (IT). In IT, Boolean Algebra is widely used to simplify complex logic operations and design circuit digital
effects.
The creation and development of digital circuit techniques, such as microprocessors and memory chips, is a practical application of
Boolean algebra in the field of information technology. Digital methods utilize binary value analysis (0 and 1) to represent inputs and
outputs in logic analysis. Boolean algebra is used with logical operators like AND, OR, and NOT to simplify and optimize the design
of these circuits.
Take into consideration, for instance, the challenge of creating a circuit that manages the central processing unit (CPU) of a computer.
Depending on the input signal it receives, the CPU carries out additional actions. Boolean algebra can be utilized to specify conditional
logic for different CPU instructions, imposing restrictions on the types of mathematical reasoning and learning that are permitted.
Instruction set complexes can increase circuit design efficiency by utilizing Boolean operators and simplification techniques.
Software development is one more area in which Boolean algebra is used in IT. Boolean logic and huge Boolean numbers are used
by language implementations like C, C++, and Java to construct loops, command conditions, and other structural controls. Complex
algorithms can be implemented, and data manipulation is made possible by this structure. Software programs provide boolean
operators like AND, OR, and NOT, which are used to assess logical circumstances.

In the context of software development, let's look at a binary problem to demonstrate how Boolean algebra is used in IT. Let's say
we have an application that, in order to access system security, asks the user for their username and password. Both the user name
and password accuracy must be evaluated by the application.
We may create a logical expression to determine whether the password and user name are correct using Boolean algebra. The
correctness of the password can be represented as a y variable and the correctness of the username as an x variable. The problem's
logical statement can be shown as x and y. The user is given access to the protected system if the expression evaluates to true,
indicating that the password and user name are both accurate.
In this example, Boolean algebra is used to assess the accuracy of usernames and passwords and build conditional logic. We can
combine several situations and make decisions based on the outcomes by utilizing operator logic, such as AND.
All things considered, Boolean algebra is an effective tool for resolving right-binary IT issues. Due to its ability to streamline intricate
logic processes and facilitate effective decision-making using inputs from binary analysis, it is essential for both software
development and the design of digital circuitry.
Some application areas include:
Communications and computer networks:
Boolean algebra is used to model and design computer network systems, including IP addresses, routing tables, and other network
protocols.
It is also used to build and manage logic circuits in microprocessors and other electronic components of computer systems.

Source :

Figure 1 : Communications and computer networks.

Circuit optimization:
Boolean algebra is used to optimize circuits in the design of ICs and electronic systems.
Logic operations are applied to define efficient binary circuit structures, minimize the number of logic gates, and optimize time and
space.
Source :

Figure 2 :Circuit optimization.

Some other applications include:

Control and automation system:
Boolean algebra is used to model and design control and automation systems, including binary control systems and logic systems.
Encryption and security system:
 Boolean algebra is used to design and analyze encryption and security algorithms, including symmetric and asymmetric encryption,
digital signatures, and authentication.
Database:
Boolean algebra is used to design and optimize logical queries in databases. It helps define logical clauses and create complex search
expressions.
Information technology and artificial intelligence:
Boolean algebra plays an important role in information theory and artificial intelligence. It is used to model and solve binary problems,
including natural language processing, machine learning, and expert systems.
2. Representing numbers in binary
Binary Number System:
According to digital electronics and mathematics, a binary number is defined as a number that is expressed in the binary system or
base 2 numeral system. It describes numeric values by two separate symbols; 1 (one) and 0 (zero). The base-2 system is the positional
notation with 2 as a radix.
The binary system is applied internally by almost all latest computers and computer-based devices because of its direct
implementation in electronic circuits using logic gates. Every digit is referred to as a bit. (BYJUS, n.d) (7)
Binary digits (Bits):
Binary digits, commonly known as "bits," constitute the elemental units of information within the binary numeral system, a
foundational concept underpinning modern digital technology. In this numerical system, bits serve as the fundamental building blocks
through which data is represented, processed, and stored within digital systems.
Unlike the decimal numeral system, which operates on a base-10 framework with ten distinct digits (0 through 9), the binary system
adheres to a base-2 structure, accommodating only two possible digits: 0 and 1. Each binary digit, or bit, symbolizes the presence or
absence of a particular state or condition. Specifically, a bit with a value of 0 indicates the absence of a signal or a "low" state, while
a bit with a value of 1 signifies the presence of a signal or a "high" state. (BYJUS, n.d) (7)
 Source :

Figure 3 : Binary digits.

Conversion from Decimal to Binary:

To convert a decimal number to binary, repeatedly divide the decimal number by 2 and note the remainders from bottom to top.
Example: Start with the decimal number 53
the decimal number 5353 and repeatedly divide by 2:
53÷2=26 (remainder 1)
26÷2=13 (remainder 0)
13÷2=6 (remainder 1)
6÷2=3 (remainder 0)
3÷2=1 (remainder 1)
1÷2=0 (remainder 1)
Record the remainders from bottom to top: 110101.
 Therefore, the binary representation of the decimal number 5353 is 110101.

Binary number in computer architecture :

Binary numbers have several crucial applications in computers:
Data Representation: Binary numbers are used to represent all types of data within a computer system, including numbers, text
characters, images, audio, and video. For example, text characters are encoded using ASCII or Unicode standards, where each
character is represented by a unique binary code.
Arithmetic Operations: Computers perform arithmetic operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division using
binary numbers. Specialized circuits called arithmetic logic units (ALUs) manipulate binary numbers to perform these calculations.
Memory Storage: Binary numbers are employed to store data in computer memory. In random access memory (RAM) and read-only
memory (ROM), each bit is stored as an electrical charge (0 or 1), representing the binary value. Similarly, in storage devices like
hard drives and solid-state drives, binary digits are stored magnetically or electronically.
Machine Language: Binary numbers serve as the foundation of machine language, the low-level programming language understood
directly by computer hardware. Instructions in machine language are represented as binary codes, guiding the processor to execute
specific tasks.
Digital Communication: In digital communication systems, binary numbers are used to encode and transmit data over communication
channels. Techniques like amplitude shift keying (ASK), frequency shift keying (FSK), and phase shift keying (PSK) modulate binary
signals for transmission through various media such as cables, fiber optics, and wireless networks. (BYJUS, n.d) (7)

3. Logic Gate
A logic gate is a device that acts as a building block for digital circuits. They perform basic logical functions that are fundamental to
digital circuits. Most electronic devices we use today will have some form of logic gates in them. For example, logic gates can be
used in digital electronics such as smartphones and tablets or in memory devices.
In a circuit, logic gates work based on a combination of digital signals coming from its inputs. Most logic gates have two inputs and
one output, and they are based on Boolean algebra. At any given moment, every terminal is in one of the two binary conditions: true
or false. False represents 0, and true represents.
 Source :

Figure 4 : The Pillar of Logic in Engineering

Depending on the type of logic gate being used and the combination of inputs, the binary output will differ. A logic gate can be
thought of like a light switch, where in one position the output is off (0), and in another, it is on (1). Logic gates are commonly used
in integrated circuits (IC). (TechTarget 2020) (4).
Basic logic gates :
There are seven basic logic gates: AND, OR, XOR, NOT, NAND, NOR and XNOR.

The AND gate (Boolean expression C = A · B where C is the output)

if 0 is false and 1 is true, the gate acts in the same way as the logical "and" operator. The following illustration and table show the
circuit symbol and logic combinations for an AND gate. (In the symbol, the input terminals are on the left, and the output terminal is
on the right.) The output is "true" when both inputs are "true." Otherwise, the output is "false." In other words, the output is 1 only
when both inputs are 1 (TechTarget 2020) (4).
 Source :

Figure 6 : A diagram of the AND logic gate.

The XOR (exclusive-OR) gate:
Source :

Figure 5 :XOR gate.

Acts in the same way as the logical "either/or." The output is true if either, but not both, of the inputs are true. The output is false if
both inputs are "false" or if both inputs are true. Similarly, the output is 1 if the inputs are different but 0 if the inputs are the same.
The NOT gate (Boolean expression B = A where B is the output.):
Source :

Figure 7 :NOT gate.

A logical inverter, sometimes called a NOT gate to differentiate it from other types of electronic inverter devices, has only one input.
A NOT gate reverses the logic state. If the input is 1, then the output is 0. If the input is 0, then the output is 1.

The NAND (Negated AND) (Boolean expression C = ¯(A ×B) ):

Source :

Figure 8 : Nand Gate

Gate operates as an AND gate followed by a NOT gate. It acts in the manner of the logical operation "and" followed by negation.
The output is false if both inputs are true. Otherwise, the output is true. Another way to visualize it is that a NAND gate inverts the
output of an AND gate. The NAND gate symbol is an AND gate with the circle of a NOT gate at the output.
The NOR (NOT OR) gate (Boolean Expression: C = 𝑨 × 𝑩) :
Source :

Figure 9 : The NOR (NOT OR) gate

Is a combination OR gate followed by an inverter. Its output is true if both inputs are false. Otherwise, the output is false.
The XNOR (exclusive-NOR) gate (Boolean Expression: C=A⊕B) :
Is a combination of an XOR gate followed by an inverter. Its output is true if the inputs are the same and false if the inputs are
different.
Source :

Figure 10 : The XNOR gate

The OR gate (Boolean expression C = A + B where C is the output) :
Gets its name from behaving like the logical inclusive "or." The output is true if one or both of the inputs are true. If both inputs are
false, then the output is false. In other words, for the output to be 1, at least one input must be 1.
Source :

Figure 11 : The OR gate.

III. Truth table and corresponding Boolean equation from an applicable scenario(P6)
1. Some concepts about Truth Tables and Boolean equations
1.1. Truth Table
Truth table is an important tool in discrete mathematics and logic for representing and analyzing logical propositions. It is a table
containing all possible input values for the variables in a logical expression and corresponding to each input value, it indicates the
output value of that logical expression. (WhatIs.com ,n.d.) (1)
Truth tables are used to describe basic logic operations, such as AND, OR, NOT, XOR, and more complex logic operations. Each
variable in the logical expression will have its own column in the truth table, and the variable's possible values are listed along that
column. The last columns of the truth table will represent the corresponding output value for each input value.

For example, consider a simple logical expression with two variables A and B and the AND operation. The truth table for this
expression will have two columns for A and B, and one column for the output value of the AND operation between A and B. There
are four possible values of A and B (0 or 1), so The truth table will have 4 rows. Each line represents a set of input values and indicates
the corresponding output value.

A B A∧B

0 0 0

0 1 0

1 0 0

1 1 1
 Truth tables allow us to better analyze and understand logical operations, logic rules, and relationships between input and output
values of logical expressions. It provides an explicit and systematic way to check the correctness of logical expressions and determine
output values for all possible cases.

Truth table is also an important tool in building and checking the correctness of logic systems and electronic circuits. It allows us to
analyze and evaluate logic functions, relationships between signals and system output values.
1.2. Boolean equation
A Boolean equation is a mathematical expression used in the fields of discrete mathematics and logic to describe logical relationships
between logical variables. Boolean equations can be used to simulate and analyze logic systems, design digital circuits, and perform
logic operations. (Wikipedia ,2020)(2)

A Boolean equation is usually represented as a logical expression, using basic logical operations such as AND, OR, NOT, XOR, etc.
Boolean variables (usually denoted A, B, C, etc.) can have a value of true (denoted as 1) or false (denoted as 0).

For example, a simple Boolean equation could be:

F = A AND B OR NOT C

In this equation, A, B, and C are Boolean variables. The AND, OR and NOT operations are used to combine and represent logical
relationships between variables. The value of F depends on the values of A, B and C.

Boolean equations can be represented as truth tables, as discussed earlier. The truth table for a Boolean equation lists all possible
cases for the input values and shows the corresponding output value of the equation.

Boolean equations are an important part of the field of logic and have wide applications in digital circuit design, logic programming,
control systems and many other fields related to information processing and logical decisions.
 2. Apply Truth Table and Boolean equation to specific scenarios.
To demonstrate what was said earlier, my team will solve a specific scenario using truth tables and Booleans equation:

Figure 12 : Part II Ac1

2.1. Develop the truth table and derive the corresponding Boolean equation for each of the following scenarios

Question a: "In a secure facility, if the access card is swiped OR the correct PIN is entered AND the security system is NOT
in maintenance mode, then the door should unlock."
The solution of this exercise aims to create a Boolean equation and a truth table. So we need to identify the situations in the clause
and assign them letters:
A: the access card is swiped
B: enter the correct PIN code
C: security system is NOT in maintenance mode
D: the door must be unlocked
So with the other data in the clause, we can say that:
Causal clause: With A or B having the correct value (i.e. swiping the card OR entering the correct PIN) and C having the correct
value (i.e. the security system not maintaining) occurring at the same time.
Clause result: D will return true (ie the window will be opened)

Thereby we can represent it as a Boolean equation as follows:

D = (A ∨ B) ∧ C Or D = (A ∧ C) ∨ ( B ∧ C )

Next, we will represent it using the truth table. As stated before, there are A, B and C involved in the causal clause so there will be 3
root objects in the truth table and there will be 23 = 8 case for truth table. It will be initialized as follows :

A B C A∨B (A ∨ B) ∧ C
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0
0 1 0 1 0
0 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 1 0
1 0 1 1 1
1 1 0 1 0
1 1 1 1 1
In which, the values of A, B, C are possible cases (true or false when compared to the original convention clause). A ∨ B and (A ∨
B) ∧ C are calculated. Based on the values of A,B,C and using the "And" and "OR" calculation method rules such as:
Or :1 + 1 = 1, 1 + 0 = 1, 0 + 1 = 1, 0 + 0 = 0.
And:1 × 1 = 1, 1 × 0 = 0, 0 × 1 = 0, 0 × 0 = 0

Through the truth table as above, we see that D = (A ∨ B) ∧ C (Open door) returns 3 results 1 (true) is:
A=0,B=1,C=1 =>D=1 : You do not use the access card and enter the correct PIN while the security system is not undergoing
maintenance, the door will be opened.
A=1,B=0,C=1 =>D=1 : You use the access card and do not enter the PIN code while the security system is not undergoing
maintenance, the door will be opened.
A=1,B=1,C=1 =>D=1 : You use the access card and enter the correct PIN while the security system is not undergoing maintenance,
the door will be opened.

Question b :“For a computer to successfully log in, either a valid username and password combination must be entered OR
a security token must be provided, but not both.”
Similar to the above exercise, the solution to this exercise is to create a Boolean equation and a truth table. So we need to identify the
situations in the clause and assign letters to them:
A: Valid username
B: Password is entered
C: Security token provided
D: Log in successfully

Causal clause: A and B have the value True (Valid login name and password provided) or C has value True (Security token provided)
occurs.
Clause result: D will return true (Successful login)
Normally we can create a Boolean equation like :(A ∧ B) ∨ C but the problem is asking "not both". To solve it we can solve it by
using Xor operation or dividing into 2 fields (A ∧ B) ∧ C or C ∧ (A ∧ B)
Solve in terms of Xor:
Thereby we can represent it as a Boolean equation as follows : D = (A ∧ B) ⊕ C
Through the equation we will have the truth table as follows:

A B C A∧B (A ∧ B) ⊕ C
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 1
0 1 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 1
1 1 0 1 1
1 1 1 1 0

The way to create and calculate is almost the same as before, the key is in the Xor operation. The Xor operation only accepts the
satisfaction of one condition. Thus (A ∧ B) ⊕ C will only return 1 (true) when only in (A ∧ B) or C occurs.
Thus, there are 4 satisfied cases:
A=B=0,C=1 : No login name or password, Security token provided.
A=0,B=C=1 : No username, Password and Security token provided.
B=0,A=C=1 : Has username, No Password and Security token provided.
A=B=1,C=0 : Full login name and password, Security token not provided

Solved by dividing the case:

Thereby we can represent it as a Boolean equation as follows : D = ((A ∧ B) ∧ C) ∨ (C ∧ (A ∧ B))
The policy is to divide it into two cases: one is to provide a valid login name and password and no Security token is not provided,
two is not to provide a valid login name and password and a Security token is provided.
Through the equation we will have the truth table as follows:

A B C (A ∧ B) ∧ C C ∧ (A ∧ B) D
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 1 1
0 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 1 1
1 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1 0 1
1 1 1 0 0 0
Thus, there are 4 satisfied cases:
A=B=0,C=1 :Security token is provided and login name and password are not provided.
A=0,B=C=1 : Security token is provided and login name and password are not provided.
B=0,A=C=1 : Security token is provided and login name and password are not provided.
A=B=1,C=0 : Full login name and password, Security token not provided
Through the two parts, we can see that dividing the login name and password into A and B will be more detailed. But to be neater
and easier to understand, we can combine it and we see that there will only be 2 satisfactory cases left. :
1: Not satisfied with the login name, password and Security token provided
2: Username and password are satisfied and Security token is not provided
2.2. Generate a truth table for the provided Boolean expression: 𝒙𝒚𝒛 + 𝒙𝒚𝒛 + 𝒙𝒚𝒛 + 𝒙𝒚𝒛
Considering that the above boolean equation is correct and satisfies the necessary requirements to create a truth table, what we need
to do is initialize the truth table.

Initialize truth table with 23 = 8 cases.

Next we calculate the pairs xyz, xyz and xyz. We see that it is an "and" operation between the elements x, y, z, 𝒙 , 𝒚 and 𝒛.
Next we will calculate the combinations using the rules of the "And" and "OR" calculation methods such as:
Or: 1 + 1 = 1, 1 + 0 = 1, 0 + 1 = 1, 0 + 0 = 0.
And: 1 × 1 = 1, 1 × 0 = 0, 0 × 1 = 0, 0 × 0 = 0
Combination Xyz:
x y z xyz
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 0
1 1 1 1

We will apply the and operation to this combination, that is x ∨ y ∨ z . We see that for the "and" operation the value xyz =1 returns
if and only if at the same time x=y=z=1 then with the cases else xyz =0 .
Combination 𝑿𝒚𝒛 :
x y z xyz 𝒙𝒚𝒛
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0
0 1 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 0
1 0 0 0 1
1 0 1 0 0
1 1 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 0

As said before, because the combination is the result of the "and" operation between x, y, z, 𝒙 , 𝒚 and 𝒛. Therefore, any element
= 0, the combination will return the value 0. This means that all elements must have value is 1.
Here 𝒙𝒚𝒛 = 1 when x=𝒚=𝒛=1
If 𝒚=𝒛=1 then y=z=0
 xyz=1 if and only if x=1,y=z=0
Combination 𝒙𝒚𝒛:

x y z xyz 𝒙𝒚𝒛 𝒙𝒚𝒛

0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 1
0 1 1 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 1 0
1 0 1 0 0 0
1 1 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 0 0

Same as above:
Here 𝒙𝒚𝒛 = 1 when 𝒙 = y =𝒛 = 1
If 𝒙 = 𝒛 =1 then x = z = 0
𝒙𝒚𝒛 = 1 if and only if x = z = 0 ,y = 1
Combination 𝒙𝒚𝒛:

x y z xyz 𝒙𝒚𝒛 𝒙𝒚𝒛 𝒙𝒚𝒛

0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 1
0 1 0 0 0 1 0
0 1 1 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 1 0 0
1 0 1 0 0 0 0
1 1 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 0 0 0

Same as above:
Here 𝒙𝒚𝒛 = 1 when 𝒙 = 𝒚 = z = 1
If 𝒙 = 𝒚 =1 then x = y = 0
𝒙𝒚𝒛 = 1 if and only if x = y = 0 ,y = 1
 Result : 𝒙𝒚𝒛 + 𝒙𝒚𝒛 + 𝒙𝒚𝒛 + 𝒙𝒚𝒛

Here we will apply the Or operation to calculate the result for z.

Or: 1 + 1 = 1, 1 + 0 = 1, 0 + 1 = 1, 0 + 0 = 0.
So if there is any combination with value equal to 1, then Result = 1.
Finally we get a truth table like below.

x y z xyz 𝒙𝒚𝒛 𝒙𝒚𝒛 𝒙𝒚𝒛 Result

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1
0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1
0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1
IV. Simplify the following Boolean expressions.(M3)
1. Basic concept
To solve Boolean Algebra exercises effectively, we need the following knowledge:

The basic concepts:

Boolean variable: is a variable that can take on two values, 0 or 1.
Boolean function: is a function defined on a set of Boolean variables and returns the value 0 or 1.
Boolean operations: includes AND, OR, NOT and XOR operations.

Laws and properties of Boolean Algebra:

Commutative law:
x∧y=y∧x
x∨y=y∨x
Association law:
(x ∧ y) ∧ z = x ∧ (y ∧ z)
(x ∨ y) ∨ z = x ∨ (y ∨ z)
Distribution law:
x ∧ (y ∨ z) = (x ∧ y) ∨ (x ∧ z)
x ∨ (y ∧ z) = (x ∨ y) ∧ (x ∨ z)
De Morgan's Law:
¬(x ∧ y) = ¬x ∨ ¬y
¬(x ∨ y) = ¬x ∧ ¬y
Unit properties:
x∧1=x
x∨0=x
Non-redundant properties:
x∧0=0
x∨1=1
Repeating properties:
x∧x=x
 x∨x=x
2. Apply to specific scenarios.
2.1. 𝒙(𝒙 + 𝒚) + 𝒚(𝒚 + 𝒛) + 𝒛(𝒛 + 𝒙).
Use distributive law:
x(x+y) = 𝒙𝒙 + 𝒙𝒚
y(y+z) = 𝒚𝒚 + 𝒚𝒛
z(z+x) = 𝒛𝒛 + 𝒛𝒙
Simplify expressions:
𝒙(𝒙 + 𝒚) + 𝒚(𝒚 + 𝒛) + 𝒛(𝒛 + 𝒙)
= 𝒙𝒙 + 𝒙𝒚 + 𝒚𝒚 + 𝒚𝒛 + 𝒛𝒛 + 𝒛𝒙
= 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 + 𝒛𝟐 + 𝒙𝒚 + 𝒚𝒛 + 𝒛𝒙

The Boolean expression after being simplified is: 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 + 𝒛𝟐 + 𝒙𝒚 + 𝒚𝒛 + 𝒛𝒙

2.2. (𝒙 + 𝒚)(𝒚 + 𝒛) + (𝒙 + 𝒚)(𝒛 + 𝒙).

Use distributive law:
(𝒙 + 𝒚)(𝒚 + 𝒛) = 𝒙𝒚 + 𝒙𝒛 + 𝒚𝒚 + 𝒚𝒛
(𝒙 + 𝒚)(𝒛 + 𝒙) = 𝒙𝒛 + 𝒙𝒙 + 𝒚𝒛 + 𝒚𝒙
Simplify expressions:
Starting with:
(𝒙 + 𝒚)(𝒚 + 𝒛) + (𝒙 + 𝒚)(𝒛 + 𝒙).
Using the distributive law:
= 𝒙𝒚 + 𝒙𝒛 + 𝒚𝒚 + 𝒚𝒛 + 𝒙𝒛 + 𝒙𝒙 + 𝒚𝒛 + 𝒚𝒙
Then simplifying each term:
=( 𝒙𝒚 + 𝒚𝒙) + 𝒚𝒚 + (𝒙𝒛 + 𝒙𝒛) + 𝒙𝒙 +(𝒚𝒛 + 𝒚𝒛)
Applying the identity laws:
= y( 𝒙 + 𝒙) + 𝒚𝒚 + 𝟐𝒙𝒛 + 𝒙𝒙 + z(𝒚 + 𝒚)
= y.1 + 0 + 𝟐𝒙𝒛 +0 + z.1
= y + z + 𝟐𝒙𝒛

The Boolean expression after being simplified is: y + z + 𝟐𝒙𝒛

2.3. (𝒙 + 𝒚)(𝒙𝒛 + 𝒙𝒛) + 𝒛𝒙 + 𝒙.
Use distributive law:
(𝒙 + 𝒚)(𝒙𝒛 + 𝒙𝒛) = 𝒙𝒙𝒛 + 𝒙𝒙𝒛 + 𝒙𝒚𝒛 + 𝒙𝒚𝒛
Simplify expressions:
Starting with:
(𝒙 + 𝒚)(𝒙𝒛 + 𝒙𝒛) + 𝒛𝒙 + 𝒙
Using the distributive law:
= 𝒙𝒙𝒛 + 𝒙𝒙𝒛 + 𝒙𝒚𝒛 + 𝒙𝒚𝒛 + 𝒛𝒙 + 𝒙
Then combining like terms:
= (𝒙𝟐 𝒛 + 𝒙𝟐 𝒛 ) + (𝒙𝒚𝒛 + 𝒙𝒚𝒛 ) + 𝒛𝒙 + 𝒙
Using the absorption law:
= 𝒙𝟐 (𝒛 + 𝒛 ) + 𝒙𝒚(𝒛 + 𝒛 ) + 𝒙(𝒛 + 𝟏)
= 𝒙𝟐 . 𝟏 + 𝒙𝒚. 𝟏 + 𝒙(𝒛 + 𝟏)
= 𝒙(𝒙 + 𝒚 + 𝒛 + 𝟏)

The Boolean expression after being simplified is: 𝒙(𝒙 + 𝒚 + 𝒛 + 𝟏)

2.4. 𝒙(𝒙 + 𝒚) + (𝒙 + 𝒚)(𝒙 + 𝒚).
Simplify expressions:
Starting with:
𝒙(𝒙 + 𝒚) + (𝒙 + 𝒚)(𝒙 + 𝒚).
Using the distributive law:
= (𝒙 + 𝒚)(𝒙 + 𝒙 + 𝒚)
= (𝒙 + 𝒚)(𝟏 + 𝒚)
= 𝒙 + 𝒙𝒚 + 𝒚 + 𝒚𝒚
= 𝑥 + 𝒙𝒚 + 𝒚
The Boolean expression after being simplified is: 𝑥 + 𝒙𝒚 + 𝒚
V. Describe the distinguishing characteristics of different binary operations that are performed on the same set. (P7)
1. Explain the attributes of various binary operations executed within a common set
In mathematics, binary operations are types of operations that require only two elements to perform. In other words, binary operations
are operations that perform on pairs of elements from a given set and return a new value.
Closure :
Definition: The binary operation × on a set S is said to be closed if, for every two elements a, b in S, the result of the operation a × b
is also an element of S.
For example: In the set of positive integers {1, 2, 3, 4}, the addition operation (+) is closed because the result of every addition
between two positive integers is still a positive integer.
Associativity :

Definition: The × operation is associative if changing the order of the operations does not affect the result. That is, (a × b) × c = a ×
(b × c) for all a, b, c in the set.
For example: In the set of integers, addition (+) is associative because (1 + 2) + 3 = 1 + (2 + 3) = 6.
Commutativity :

Definition: The × operation is commutative if the order of the elements does not affect the result. That is, a × b = b × a for all a, b in
the set.
For example: In the set of integers, addition (+) is commutative because 2 + 3 = 3 + 2 = 5.
Identity Element :

Definition: An element e is called an identifier for the operation × if a × e = e × a = a for every a in the set.
For example: In the set of positive integers {1, 2, 3, 4}, the identifier for addition (+) is 0 because a + 0 = 0 + a = a for every positive
integer a.
Inverse Element :

Definition: The inverse element b of a for the operation × is the element such that a × b = b × a = e, where e is the identifier.
For example: In the set of integers, each integer a has an inverse for addition (+) which is -a because a + (-a) = (-a) + a = 0.
Distributivity :
 Definition: The operation × is distributive through the operation + if a × (b + c) = (a × b) + (a × c) and (b + c) × a = (b × a) + (c × a)
for all a, b, c in the set.
For example: In the set of integers, multiplication (×) distributes over addition (+) because a × (b + c) = a × b + a × c.
These properties provide an important basis for understanding and analyzing binary operations in mathematics and related
applications such as in programming and computer science.
2. Check whether the operations applied to pertinent sets qualify as binary operations.
To check whether the operations applied to pertinent sets qualify as binary operations, you need to follow these steps:

Identify the Pertinent Sets: Determine the sets on which the operations are applied. These sets can be any predefined collection of
elements, such as sets of integers, real numbers, functions, or other mathematical objects.

Define the Operations: Clearly define the operations being performed on the elements of the sets. These operations should take two
elements from the sets and produce a single result.

Check Closure: Verify that the operations are closed under the pertinent sets. In other words, ensure that for any two elements taken
from the sets, the result of the operation also belongs to the same set.

Verify Associativity: Check if the operations are associative. This means that changing the order of operations doesn't affect the
result. Verify that (a × b) × c = a × (b × c) for all elements a, b, and c in the sets.

Examine Commutativity: Determine if the operations are commutative. This implies that the order of operands doesn't affect the
result. Check if a × b = b × a for all elements a and b in the sets.

Find Identity Element (if applicable): If there exists an identity element within the sets for the operations, verify its presence. The
identity element e satisfies the condition a × e = e × a = a for all elements a in the sets.

Check for Inverse Elements (if applicable): If inverse elements exist for the operations within the sets, ensure their presence. An
inverse element b for an element a satisfies the condition a × b = b × a = e, where e is the identity element.
 Examine Distributivity (if applicable): If one operation is distributed over another operation, ensure that the distributive property
holds true. Verify that a × (b + c) = (a × b) + (a × c) and (b + c) × a = (b × a) + (c × a) for all elements a, b, and c in the sets.
2.1.Subtraction on set of natural numbers. − : N × N → N ( x, y) x − y.
To determine whether given operations qualify as binary operations on appropriate sets, we need to check whether the operations are
closed, associative, and have an identifier. .
We can conclude: Subtraction, symbolized by -, on the set of natural numbers N is not a binary operation.
The reason we can conclude like that is because it does not meet the "Closure" requirement. We can take an example:
x=5 ∈ N
y=10 ∈ N
To satisfy this condition x-y=5-10 = -5 must belong to N but in this example 𝑥 − 𝑦 = −5 ∈ 𝑍and ∉ N.
Therefore we conclude that " Subtraction on set of natural numbers. − : N × N → N ( x, y) x − y. " is not a binary operation.
2.2.Subtraction on set of natural numbers ^: ℤ × ℤ → ℤ (𝒙, 𝒚) ↦ 𝒙𝒚
Similarly follow the steps above:
Check Closure:
According to the conditions set out for (𝒙, 𝒚) ∈ 𝒁, then 𝒙𝒚 ∈ 𝒁
There are 4 cases for (𝒙, 𝒚) ∈ 𝒁
Case 1: x is positive, y is positive
In this case, 𝒙𝒚 is simply the product of x repeated y times.
Since every multiplication between positive integers is still a positive integer, 𝒙𝒚 will also be a positive integer.
 𝒙𝒚 ∈ 𝒁
Case 2: x is positive, y is negative
𝟏
In this case, 𝒙𝒚 can be understood as the inverse of 𝒙−𝒚 or 𝒚 .
𝒙
𝟏
Since 𝒚 . is also a positive integer (provided x is not 0), its inverse is still a positive integer.
𝒙
 𝒙𝒚 ∈ 𝒁
Case 3: x is negative, y is positive
In this case 𝒙𝒚 can be represented as (−𝒙)𝒚 then the result will be similar to case 1
(−𝒙)𝒚 =±𝑎 (where a is an integer) then ±𝑎 ∈ 𝒁.
  𝒙𝒚 ∈ 𝒁
Case 4: x is negative, y is negative
In this case 𝒙𝒚 can be represented as (−𝒙)−𝒚 then the result will be similar to case 2
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
(−𝒙)−𝒚 = = (where a is an integer – case 3) then ∈ 𝒁.
(−𝒙)𝒚 ±𝑎 ±𝑎
 𝒙𝒚 ∈ 𝒁
So 𝒙𝒚 ∈ 𝒁 is in all cases, so we can conclude that it satisfies the condition: Closure

Verify Associativity:
𝒛
This condition is to ensure (𝒙𝒚 )𝒛 = 𝑥 (𝒚 ) .So we need to add z (𝑧 ∈ 𝑍 ),
Pretending:
x=2
y=3
z=4
𝟒
To satisfy this condition, (𝟐𝟑 )𝟒 = 2(𝟑 ) must occur.
4096 = 2^81 is impossible, so we can conclude that the exercise does not bother chronic linking.
 Exponential operation ^: ℤ × ℤ → ℤ (𝒙, 𝒚) ↦ 𝒙𝒚 is not a binary operation on Z.

VI. Determine the order of a group and the order of a subgroup in given examples
1. The concept of the order of a group
Group Theory in Mathematics :
Group theory is the study of a set of elements present in a group, in Math. A group’s concept is fundamental to abstract algebra. Other
familiar algebraic structures, namely rings, fields, and vector spaces can be recognized as groups provided with additional operations
and axioms. The concepts and hypotheses of Groups repeat throughout mathematics. Also, the rules of group theory have influenced
several components of algebra. Also, we have an important theorem called the Lagrange theorem in group theory of mathematics.
For instance: A group of integers which are performed under multiplication operation. Geometric group theory in the branch of
Mathematics is basically the study of groups that are finitely produced with the use of the research of the relationships between the
algebraic properties of these groups and topological and geometric properties of the spaces. (VEDANTU, n.d.). (6)

Group Theory Properties :

Uniqueness of Identity
In a group, the identity element is unique; that is, there exists only one identity element. In other words, let e and f be two identity
elements of a group. Then e = f, and the elements are equal. (VEDANTU, n.d.). (6)
Uniqueness of Inverse:
The inverse of each element is unique.
Proof. Let a group element a have both b and c as inverses (b and c are distinct). Then,
b = b × e (e is the identity element)
b = b × (a × c) (c is an inverse)
b = (b × a) × c (associativity)
b = e × c (b is an inverse)
b = c (e is the identity element)
This completes the proof.

Understanding Constructing Cayley Tables :

Cayley tables represent a powerful tool in group theory, which is a field in abstract algebra. They are named after mathematician
Arthur Cayley, who first developed them. Constructing Cayley tables using the concepts of group theory and binary operations allows
you to visualize the structure of a group.
A group is a set G, alongside an operation (*) that satisfies the following four conditions:
Closure: for every a, b belonging to G, a * b also belongs to G
Associativity: for every a, b, c belonging to G, (a × b) × c = a × (b × c)
Identity element: there exists an element e belonging to G such that e × a = a × e = a for every a in the group
Inverse element: for each a belonging to G, there exists an element a-1 belonging to G
Role of Cayley Table in Abstract Algebra
Cayley tables play a significant role in abstract algebra due to their ability to present groups in a clear, organized, and visually
appealing manner. This makes them a convenient tool for demonstrating different properties of groups and their operations. Some
valuable applications of Cayley tables in abstract algebra include:
• Determining if a certain set and operation form a group.
• Visualizing groups to identify patterns and properties.
• Comparing and contrasting different groups
• Representing groups in a manner suitable for both human and computer analysis

Lagrange's theorem :
Lagrange's theorem, named after the Italian mathematician Joseph-Louis Lagrange, is a fundamental result in group theory that
provides insights into the structure of finite groups. It establishes a relationship between the order of a subgroup and the order of its
parent group. (Cuemath, n.d.) (5)

Statement of Lagrange's Theorem:

If G is a finite group and H is a subgroup of G, then the order of H divides the order of G. In mathematical terms, if ∣G∣ represents
the order of group G and ∣H∣ represents the order of subgroup H, then ∣H∣ divides ∣G∣. (Cuemath, n.d.) (5)
Mathematically, Lagrange's theorem can be stated as:
∣G∣=∣H∣⋅[G:H]
where:
• ∣G∣ is the order of group G,
• ∣H∣ is the order of subgroup H,
• [G:H] represents the index of subgroup H in group G, which is the number of distinct left (or right) cosets of H in G.
2. Construct the operation tables for group with orders 1, 2, 3, and 4, utilizing the elements a,b,c and e as the identity element
in a suitable manner
2.1.Order 1 (Elements: e )
every group must have identity element. We’ll use e for the identity element so e * e = e since it’s the only element around and it’s
the identity element so there’s a single group of order 1
* e
e e

2.2.Order 2 (Elements: e and a)

With Order 2 we can apply the following:
• e*e=e
• Ensure grouping properties: Each element appears exactly once in each row and each column, and every combination of two
elements creates another element in the group.

* e a
e e a
a a e

In the last column a*a= e to ensure group properties.

There’s only one group of order 2
2.3.Order 3 (Elements: e , a and b)
Because e is the identity element, we can quickly fill in the first row and first column.
In the second row, we have a * a = b and a * b = e

* e a b
e e a b
a a b e
b b e

Next we need to follow some rules to find the remaining empty cells:
Closure: Verify that the operations are closed under the pertinent sets. In other words, ensure that for any two elements taken from
the sets, the result of the operation also belongs to the same set.
Ensure grouping properties: Each element appears exactly once in each row and each column, and every combination of two elements
creates another element in the group.

Because both row and column already have b and e, the final position must be a.
* e a b
e e a b
a a b e
b b e a
2.4.Order 4 (Elements: e , a ,b and c)
The tables are constructed such that the group properties are satisfied,including closure, associativity, identity element, and inverses.
But here there are 4 elements so it will be a bit different from order 3.
Because e is an identity element, a*a = b*b = c*c = e
And a*e = a , b*e = b , c*e = c

* e a b c
e e a b c
a a e
b b e
c c e

Notice that each column already has an element e. To ensure grouping: Each element appears exactly once in each row and column,
and every combination of two elements creates a new element. other element in the group, then element e will not appear in the
remaining cells.
 a * b = b* a = c
 b*c=c*b=a
 a*c=c*a=b
* e a b c
e e a b c
a a e c b
b b c e a
c c b a e
3. State the Lagrange’s theorem of group theory. Using this theorem to discuss whether a group with order 4 can be a subgroup
of a group G with order 9 or not.
Lagrange's theorem is a fundamental result in group theory, named after the Italian mathematician Joseph-Louis Lagrange. It states
that for any finite group G and any subgroup H of G, the order of the subgroup H divides the order of the group G. Mathematically,
it can be expressed as:

Order of H divides order of G, i.e., ∣G∣=∣H∣⋅[G:H]

Where ∣G∣ represents the order (number of elements) of group G,∣H∣ represents the order of subgroup H, and [G:H] represents the
index of H in G, which is the number of distinct left cosets (or right cosets, since they have the same number) of H in G.

To determine whether a group with order 4 can be a subgroup of a group G with order 9, we will
use Lagrange's theorem.
Given Information:
Let G be a group with order |G| = 9.
We want to determine if there exists a subgroup H of G with order | H| = 4.
Application of Lagrange's Theorem:
According to Lagrange's theorem, the order of any subgroup of G must divide the order of G
Therefore, if a subgroup H of G has order 4, then | H| must divide |G|.
In this case, since |G = 9 and |H = 4, we need to check if 4 divides 9.
Verification:
Since 4 does not divide 9 (as 9 is not divisible by 4 without remainder), according to
Lagrange's theorem, there cannot exist a subgroup H of G with order 4.
Therefore, a group with order 4 cannot be a subgroup of a group G with order 9.

The reasoning behind this conclusion lies in the fundamental property stated by Lagrange's theorem. Lagrange's theorem essentially
tells us that the size of any subgroup within a group must divide the size of the group. In this specific case, since the order of the
group G is 9, and the order of the subgroup we're considering H is 4, if H were to be a subgroup of G, the order of H would need to
divide the order of G. However, since 4 does not divide 9, H cannot be a subgroup of G. This reasoning demonstrates the application
of Lagrange's theorem in determining the possibility of subgroups within groups.
VII. Validate whether a given set with a binary operation is indeed a group.
1. Check whether the set 𝑺 = ℝ − {−𝟏}is a group under the binary operation ∗ defined as 𝒂 ∗ 𝒃 = 𝒂 + 𝒃 + 𝒂𝒃 for any 𝒂, 𝒃 ∈
𝑺.
To check whether the set S = R - {-1} is a group under the binary operation * defined as a * b = a + b + ab for any a, b ∈ S, we need
to check whether it satisfies the following conditions:

Closure: For any a, b ∈ S, we need a * b ∈ S.

Associativity: For any a, b, c ∈ S, we need (a * b) * c = a * (b * c).
Identity element: There must exist an element e ∈ S such that for any a ∈ S, we have e * a = a * e = a.
Inverse element: For any a ∈ S, there must exist an element b ∈ S such that a * b = b * a = e, where e is the identity element.

Check Closure:
The set S is defined as R - {-1}, meaning that the set S includes all real numbers except the number -1.
The operation * is defined as a * b = a + b + ab, where 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑆.
That is, to satisfy Closure, if a and b belong to S, then a + b + ab ∈ 𝑆
We have a,b ∈ S, meaning a,b are real numbers other than -1, so a+b and ab must also be real numbers.
=> a + b + ab is also a real number.
For any a, b: a=2,b=3:
2+3+2.3 = 11 ∈ R-{-1}.

Or we can prove it the opposite way:

Suppose it does not satisfy Closure, that is, there exists some value of a,b ∈ R-{-1} such that a*b = a + b + ab = -1 (−1 ∉ R-{-1}) .
𝑎 × 𝑏 = −1
𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑎𝑏 = −1
With a,b ∈ R , we realize that for a*b =-1 then a,b must have values of 1 and -1 . Thus we have:
1 × (−1) = 1 + (−1) + (1 × (−1)) = −1
Thus a * b = a + b + ab ∉ R-{-1} if and only if a,b takes on the value {1,-1}. But the problem is that we are proving closure. That
means is that we need a,b ∉ R-{-1}. Thus the value for a * b = a + b + ab= -1 is not valid for R-{-1}.
 Conclusion: There exists no value in R-{-1} such that a * b = a + b + ab= -1 , or in other words, the set that satisfies the closure for
any value in R-{-1 }.
Associativity:
For any a, b, c ∈ S, we have:
(a * b) * c = (a + b + ab) * c
a * (b * c) = a * (b + c + bc)

We need to prove that the above two expressions are equal.

However, this is a rather complicated expression and difficult to prove algebraically. Therefore, we can use the counterexample
method.

Suppose a = 1, b = 2 and c = 3. Then:

(a * b) * c = (1 + 2 + 1*2) * 3 = 15
a * (b * c) = 1 * (2 + 3 + 2*3) = 11
Obviously, these two expressions are not equal.

So, the set S is not associative under the * operation.

Conclusion: The set S = R − {−1} is not a group under the binary operation ∗ defined as a ∗ b = a + b + ab
2. Express the connection between the order of a group and the quantity of binary operations that can be defined on that set.
Apply to answer the question "What is the total number of binary operations that can be defined on a set containing 3
elements?"
2.1. Express the connection between the order of a group and the quantity of binary operations that can be defined on
that set
The relationship between the order of a group and the number of binary operations that can be defined on that set is
described by the fundamental theorem of group theory.

Given a group of order n (the number of elements in the group), we can describe all binary operations that can be defined on
that set using an addition table or a group table.
 The addition table is an n×n square table in which each element of the group is used only once in each row and each column.
The total number of elements in the addition table is n2.
Based on the nature of the grouping operation, each row and each column of the addition table must contain all the elements
of the group, and no two elements can be repeated in each row or column.

Therefore, the number of binary operations that can be determined on a group with order n is n 2

In short, the relationship between the order of a group and the number of binary operations that can be specified on that set
is described by the number of elements of the group, specifically the exponent of the number of elements there.
2.2. The total number of binary operations that can be determined on a set of 3 elements.
For a more detailed and understandable proof, we will apply a basic theorem of group theory and the relationship between
the order of a group and the number of binary operations that can be determined on that set.

Fundamental theorem of group theory: Let G be a group with the unit element e, the number of elements of G is called the
order of the group and is denoted ∣G∣.

Relationship to the number of binary operations: If G is a group with order ∣G∣=n, then the number of binary operations that
can be defined on G is n2

Applies to specific cases:

• Given a set G consisting of 3 elements.

• We know that the order of the group created by this set is 3, because there are 3 elements.
• According to the relationship between the order of a group and the number of binary operations that can be specified
on that set, we calculate the number of binary operations as 32=9.
So the total number of binary operations that can be determined on a set of 3 elements is 9.
VIII. Conclusion
In this report, we have explored and learned about Discrete Algebra and its applications in practice. We took a deep dive into Boolean
Algebra and learned how it is used to solve logic problems. We have examined the concepts of combinatorics and graph theory, and
gained an understanding of how to apply them to real-world problems.

Through the study of Discrete Algebra, we develop and improve our mathematical skills, logical thinking and problem-solving
abilities. We learned how to decompose complex problems into simpler components and apply mathematical principles to find
effective solutions.

Discrete Algebra is not only significant in the field of Mathematics but also in many other fields such as Computer Science,
Engineering, Data Science and Information Technology. Concepts and methods in Discrete Algebra play an important role in building
logic systems, computer networks, algorithms, and data analysis processes.

From this report, we can see that Discrete Algebra contributes a lot to solving real-world mathematical and logical problems. Applying
the concepts and methods of Discrete Algebra provides precision, efficiency, and feasibility in solving complex problems.

Ultimately, it is hoped that this report has helped us better understand Discrete Algebra and its importance in developing mathematical
and logical skills, as well as its practical application. We can apply this knowledge to solve complex problems and contribute to the
development of the fields of science and technology.
IX. References

Reference slides:
Lam, N., Truong, N. and Trieu, L. (2024). ASM_Discrete Maths_Group2 - Google Drive. [online] drive.google.com. Available
at: https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/1YvyTGEBkUoxYbgqKoj_m0OKlK76a8S-6?usp=sharing [Accessed 10 Apr.
2024].

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https://www.techtarget.com/whatis/definition/truth-table#:~:text=A%20truth%20table%20is%20a [Accessed 1 Apr. 2024].
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