Contemporary Music Theory

LearnMusicTheory.
net
6.1 Overview of Contemporary Music History
In one sense, contemporary music history can be summarized as modernism (1900s – 1950s) followed by postmodernism (1960s – Present).
Dates are highly approximate. This is one understanding of the development of contemporary music, and other interpretations are certainly possible.
Approximate Approximate The classical music “story” Other happenings

dates contemporaneous
streams
1600ish to the Traditional Tonality is a vibrant and developing tradition at least until the middle of the twentieth century. Contrary to much
present tonality scholarship, I do not believe that composers such as Shostakovich and Vaughan Williams represent
“anachronisms.” Rather, the tonal works of Mahler and Sibelius flow forward into a continued vibrant tradition of
tonal composition. Shortly after the inheritors of the tonal tradition reached the end of their productivity around
the middle of the century, new (independent?) streams of tonality developed as a reaction to the experimental
tendencies of “serious” music.
1890ish – • Futurism During this highly experimental period, many composers sought the • World War I, the first modern war,
1920ish • Impressionism “future” of music: has a profound cultural impact
• Primitivism • Debussy through the modal scales and non-Western influences of • Ragtime develops into early New
EXPERIMENT Impressionism Orleans jazz (Also called “classic”
• Expressionism
FREEDOM • Stravinsky through the rhythmic primitivism of his Diaghalev ballets, or “Dixieland”)
“ROMANTIC” and
• Schoenberg (later Webern and Berg) through atonal expressionism.
• In America, Henry Cowell and Charles Ives experiment with new
harmonic and rhythmic resources
1920ish – • Neoclassicism This period saw a consolidation of certain experimental tendencies • World War II
1945ish • Serialism from the first part of the century: • New Orleans jazz becomes Swing,
• Nationalism • Stravinsky and Ravel experimented with Neoclassicism, attempting which leads to the Big Band era
CONSOLIDATE to find a way forward by incorporating the order and balance of • Records and later radio give the
STRUCTURE earlier eras. entire United States a “shared”
“CLASSICAL” • The serialist experiments of Schoenberg became conslidated into a cultural experience
“school” in the works of Webern and Berg. (2nd Viennese School)
• Many nationalist movements came to the forefront in the years
leading up to and surrounding WWII: Ives and Copland in America;
Vaughan Williams, Holst, and Walton in England; Strauss in
Germany; Prokofiev and Shostakovich in Russia; Bartók in Hungary,
etc.
Copyright © 2010 by Mark Feezell. All Rights Reserved.

1945ish – • Total serialism While the tradition of tonality continues to grow and develop, the • Cold War, etc.
1960ish • Indeterminism experimental or “modern” tradition reaches chaos from two opposing • Jazz relegated to “art music”
directions: heard by few people, as Rock n’
• Texture music
ULTIMATE 1. Composers such as Messiaen (one piece only), Milton Babbitt, and Roll becomes the most popular
EXPERIMENT Pierre Boulez attempt total control by serializing all musical music among white listeners;
parameters, not just pitch (total serialism) blues and R&B develop in
2. Other composers, in particular John Cage, release control to chance popularity within the African-
STRUCTURE or performer choice to varying degrees (indeterminism or chance American community
“CLASSICAL” music)
The end result of both approaches is a music whose aural perception
VS. belies the complexity and subtlety of the underlying constructive
techniques. In the end, both musics give the illusion of chaos.
FREEDOM Simultaneously, electronic music becomes a viable art form, and some
“ROMANTIC” composers take advantage of timbre and texture as a foreground element
(1960ish Threnody by Ligeti).
1960ish – • Minimalism While the experimental tendencies of serialism and indeterminism continue, • Peace movements and Vietnam
1980ish • Neoromanticism and the last of the “direct” links to the tonal tradition end their careers (or • Man on the moon (1969)
lives), composers begin new paths to tonality: introduces a new era of
• Polystylism
TONAL • Minimalism (Terry Riley, Steve Reich, Philip Glass, later John Adams) technological progress
BACKLASH uses ostinato and limited harmonic resources to create highly stable • Interest in non-Western musics
(some would say repetitive) tonal structures increases in America and
• Neoromanticism (ex: George Rochberg) renews interest in lyrical Europe
tonality in the vein of the nineteenth-century tradition • Popular music increasingly
• Polystylistic composers such as Schnittke intentionally juxtapose styles fractured
within single pieces or even movements
1980ish – • Postminimalism • John Adams combines minimalism with development techniques from • Cold War ends; Berlin Wall
2000ish • New Complexity / the tonal tradition to create postminimalism torn down 1989
Avant-garde • Some composers seek intellectual rigor in the form of extremely • Rapid advances in technology
CONSOLIDATE complex rhythmic and pitch patterns and healthcare
• Continued
• Electronic music comes into its own as the computer develops • Unprecedented prosperity and
neoromanticism
• Composers like Corigliano develop intensely personal neoromantic need
• Electronic music styles • Proliferation of musical styles
• Timbral music • “Art music” takes freely from a variety of influences and cultures; non-
Western composers such as Takemitsu and Tan Dun increase in
influence.
2000ish – • Decategorization “Anything goes”; Personalized media experiences & intensive cross-fertilization render stylistic classifications
Present moot. Could this signal the end of historical progression in art music? If so, is “art” music dying? Or having a
rebirth?

LearnMusicTheory.net
6.2 The Diatonic Modes in Contemporary Music

The diatonic modes use the same notes as the major scale, but start on different scale steps (except Ionian).
          (Same notes as major, but chord

1st mode of the major scale
1. Ionian See 4.3, 4.6-7
for jazz usage

progressions are more flexible.)

of modes.
2. Dorian         2nd mode of the major scale
 ("2nd mode" means it starts on scale step 2.)
  
3. Phrygian        3rd mode of the major scale
      
4. Lydian    4th mode of the major scale
      
5. Mixolydian   5th mode of the major scale
      
6. Aeolian   6th mode of the major scale
      

7. Locrian   7th mode of
the major scale
Shortcuts from parallel scales

You can also spell the modes starting from a major or minor scale on the same tonic pitch as that mode:
I I
D Dorian scale
       
 _        

D natural minor scale (compare above)
__
Dorian
raise
6th step
E Phrygian scale
 lower _ 
E natural minor scale
  I      2nd step _   I     

_
Phrygian
I    _ I   
           
F major scale F Lydian scale
__
raise
Lydian
4th step
 I  I 
 
      _      
G major scale G Mixolydian scale
__
lower
Mixolydian
7th step

   
A natural minor scale (same notes as Aeolian)
Aeolian    
  I    I 
B Locrian scale
   
B natural minor scale
 I lower
_  I
Locrian  steps __ 
2&5

6.3 Analyzing Diatonic Modes
When analyzing to determine the scale or mode of a passage:
STEP 1: Find the tonal center. See "tonic by assertion" below.
STEP 2: Create a pitch inventory by listing all the notes low to high starting on the tonal center.
STEP 3: Determine the scale or mode in use, based on the tonal center and pitch inventory.
Tonic by Assertion
Tonic by assertion = Establishing a tonal center without the formulas of common practice period music.
Common practice period tonality (about 1600-1910) uses melodic formulas like Mi-Re-Do and cadential
progressions like V-I, ii-V-I, etc. to establish the tonic as the tonal center. Many pitch-centric pieces
written after 1900ish establish a tonal center without these melodic and harmonic formulas, making it
more difficult to see the tonal center.
Tonic by assertion emphasizes the tonal center with one or more techniques such as:
1. Repetition: Doubling the note, repeating it, or using it as a pedal point or in a repeating pattern.
2. Position in the passage: Making the note the first and/or last note of the passage or movement.
3. Dynamic emphasis: Using a louder dynamic or accent marks.
4. Range emphasis: Making the note the highest or lowest note of the passage or movement.
5. Rhythmic emphasis: Metric accent (placing the note on downbeats);
Agogic accent (using longer rhythmic values to emphasize the note).
6. Harmonic emphasis: Pairing the note with a harmony or note that is a perfect fifth above.
  
Scale/Mode Analysis Example

   
    
      
STEP 1: The tonal center is E. Although B is emphasized in the first two measures, E is highest, lowest, the
most frequent, and the longest rhythmic value (agogic accent). Also, B is a perfect fifth above E.
STEP 2: The pitch inventory lists all the notes in the passage starting from E (without a key signature):
Step 2: Pitch Inventory
   
    
STEP 3: Because there are seven notes (don't count E twice), and because the accidentals fit a diatonic key
signature for three sharps (F#, C#, and G#), this is a diatonic mode (see 6.2 The Diatonic Modes). When
analyzing diatonic modes, find the answer using a relative OR parallel approach (NOT both!):
Relative approach: 3 sharps = A major. E is the fifth scale step in A major, so this is mixolydian.
OR
Parallel approach: This scale is E major with the seventh step lowered (D natural), so it is mixolydian.
Hybrid Modes
Hybrid mode = Mode formed from the lower tetrachord of one diatonic mode and the upper tetrachord
of another. Most common are Lydian-Mixolydian (below) and Phrygian-Dorian (natural minor w/ b2, #6).
Lydian (lower tetrachord) + Mixolydian (upper tetrachord) = Lydian-Mixolydian
         +          =         
#4 b7 #4 b7
lower tetrachord upper tetrachord

Special Cases
1. Scales and tonal centers may change from passage to passage within a single movement.
2. Sometimes a note or two may be missing from the mode. If so, comment on which mode(s) it could be if the
notes were there.
3. For more than 7 or less than 7 distinct pitches, check 6.4 Additional Contemporary Scales.
6.4 Additional Contemporary Scales
Scale = A melodic pattern of seconds (sometimes occasional thirds as well) spanning an octave.
The pattern of intervals in the scale creates its characteristic sound. The major scale is one
of many possibilities (W-W-h-W-W-W-h, see 1.4 Major Scales). Scales have 5 to 12 pitches.
Mode = 1. Often means "scale," especially scales other than major/minor, OR
2. A scale that follows a "parent" scale pattern, but focuses on a scale step in the parent scale
other than one. Ex: Dorian is the second mode of major. See 6.2 The Diatonic Modes for more.
5-note scales (pentatonic scales)

Major pentatonic scale on C (also called anhemitonic, meaning "no half steps.")
     
W W m3 W m3
Like all scales, the major pentatonic comes in different "modes" depending on which note in the
scale is used as the tonal center. Since it has five notes, the scale C-D-E-G-A has five different modes.
The fifth mode (far right, below) is also called the minor (or natural minor) pentatonic.
     
          
mode 1 mode 2 mode 3 mode 4 mode 5
minor pentatonic
Below are two more common pentatonic patterns. Each has five modes, just as the major pentatonic does.
     
Hirajoshi pentatonic Kumoi pentatonic
       
 W h M3 h M3  W h M3 W m3
6-note scales
Whole tone scale = A scale built from whole steps. Because the pattern repeats at the whole step, there
are only two distinct possibilities, shown below:
        OR        
W W W W W W W W W W W W
Augmented or hexatonic scale = Scale that alternates between half steps and minor 3rds. The augmented
scale pattern repeats at the major 3rd, so there are only four distinct possibilities.
        
h m3 h m3 h m3
7-note scales (heptatonic scales)
Although synthetic (i.e., arbitrary) scale patterns are possible, most 7-note scales are related to a
"parent" major or minor scale. See 6.2 The Diatonic Modes in Contemporary Music.
8-note scales (octatonic scales)
Octatonic scales = A scale of alternating whole steps and half steps. Octatonic scales may be h-W or W-h.
A whole-half octatonic is also called a diminished scale. There are three distinct octatonic scales.
            
    OR
    
Other scale terms
Modes of limited transposition = Scales from 6 to 10 notes with fewer than 12 transpositions.
For instance, the whole tone scale can only be transposed 1 half-step without repeating pitches.
The composer Olivier Messiaen used them. See 6.11 Set Theory: Symmetric Sets.
Microtonal scales = Scales that use intervals smaller than half steps. Common in non-Western music.
Synthetic scale = A scale based on an arbitrary interval pattern unrelated to major or minor scales.
Whole tone, hexatonic, and octatonic scales are examples of synthetic scales.
6.5 Analyzing Additional Contemporary Scales
When analyzing to determine the scale or mode of a passage:
STEP 1: Find the tonal center. See "tonic by assertion" on 6.3 Analyzing Diatonic Modes.
STEP 2: Create a pitch inventory listing all the notes low to high in one octave starting with the
tonal center. Observe how many notes are in the scale (don't count duplicates).
STEP 3: Determine the scale or mode in use, based on the tonal center and pitch inventory.
Remember that scales and tonal centers may change from passage to passage within a single movement.
Scale Analysis: Example One



       
         

STEP 1: The tonal center is G. G is the first note, the last note, and the highest note. 2 out of 3 downbeats
are G. G is also the only note with an accent, it occurs more times than any other note, and it is
the longest note.
STEP 2: Listing all the notes in the passage from G to G in a single octave yields:
   

    
STEP 3: The scale above contains eight notes (don't count G twice). Examining the intervals confirms that
this is a half-step/whole-step octatonic scale (h-W-h-W-h-W-h-W).
  
Scale Analysis: Example Two
 
    
    
      
STEP 1: The tonal center is E. Although B is emphasized in the first two measures, E is highest, lowest, the
most frequent, and the longest rhythmic value (agogic accent). Also, B is a perfect fifth above E.
STEP 2: Listing all the notes in the passage from E to E in a single octave (without a key signature) yields:

     
STEP 3: Because there are five notes (don't count E twice), this is a pentatonic scale. The interval pattern
(W-h-M3-h-M3) matches that of the Hirajoshi pentatonic.
Special Cases
1. The tonal center may not be the starting note of the scale, especially for pentatonic scales. For instance,
suppose the melody using notes E-F#-G-B-C in example 2 were rewritten to use F# instead of E as the
tonal center. In that case, it would have been the 2nd mode of the Hirajoshi pentatonic on E since F# is
the 2nd step of that scale. See 6.4 Additional Contemporary Scales for the pentatonic modes.
2. Sometimes a note or two may be missing from the scale. If so, comment on which mode(s) it could be
if the notes were there. Don't analyze pentatonic (5-note) scales as diatonic modes like Dorian, however!
Related terms: Polytonality, Bitonality, and Pandiatonicism

Polytonality = Simultaneous use of multiple tonal centers (usually one for each performer or staff).
Bitonality = Simultaneous use of 2 tonal centers (usually one for each performer or staff).
Pandiatonicism = Using the pitches of a major or minor scale without traditional harmonic progressions
and resolution of dissonances.
6.6 Parallelism, Planing, and Impressionism
Parallelism = Two or more voices moving in parallel motion (see 2.4 Elementary Contrapuntal Motions).
Chordal parallelism or planing (say "PLAY-ning") = Entire triads or seventh chords moving in parallel motion.
Three types of planing:

1. Diatonic parallelism
2. Chromatic parallelism
3. Mixed parallelism

1. Diatonic Planing
 
In diatonic planing, all voices follow the pitch classes of a major or minor scale (or diatonic mode).
    


 
     
     
  

2. Chromatic (or "Real") Planing
In chromatic (or "real") planing, the voices maintain exact interval relationships, adding accidentals as needed.
 
Below, the intervals in the top-line melody are reproduced exactly in each part below (M2, M2, m3, M2, m2).
  
 
   


  


  

  

3. Mixed Planing
 
In mixed planing, the voices use a mixture of diatonic and chromatic planing techniques (compare 1 and 2 above).
   


  
     
    
  
Impressionism
Planing is commonly associated with Impressionism, a designation used to descibe the works of composers
such as Claude Debussy and Maurice Ravel from the early twentieth-century. In addition to planing,
Impressionism uses modes (primarily diatonic modes, whole tone scales, and pentatonic scales), reduced
emphasis on downbeats, and programmatic titles (like "The Sunken Cathedral"). Impressionist composers
were inspired at least partially by the Impressionist movement in art which began in the late 1800s
(Renoir, Monet, etc.).
6.7 Chords and Harmonic Sonorities
1. Chord or sonority = any group of notes played at the same time.
2. Voicing = The vertical spacing/arrangement of notes in a sonority. Usually emphasizes 2nds, 3rds, or 4ths/5ths.
SECONDS: Secundal Chords
A secundal chord is any harmonic sonority whose voicing emphasizes major and minor seconds or sevenths.
A tone cluster is a secundual chord voiced as a stack-of-seconds in a single octave.
 



A whole-tone chord is any chord (in any voicing) drawn entirely from any single whole-tone scale.

 

  
  

 __    
...all come from


and

and this whole-tone
   
scale. _
   
More examples of secundal chords:
  

 
  
  
  



Tone cluster A-B-C-D-E-F, Overwhelmingly
Based on a series of with the pitch A
with 2 notes seconds (B-C-D-E-F), secundal, despite
raised an octave raised an octave. the P4 (D-G) and
with the C doubled.
M3 (C-E).
THIRDS: Tertian Chords
A tertian chord is any harmonic sonority whose voicing emphasizes major and minor thirds.
 
You should know triads and 7th/9th/11th/13th chords (see earlier chapters). Here are more tertian chords:
   

 

 
  

  

  
   

Chord with
Added-note chord: Split-third chord: split members: Polychord: Stravinsky's
One or more notes are Triad or 7th chord Triad or 7th chord Two or more "Petrushka"
added to a primarily with major AND with note(s) a m2 simultaneous chord:
tertian sonority. Above: minor 3rds. Above: away from root, 3rd, triads. Above: Polychord
"A" is an added 2nd. F minor + F major 5th, and/or 7th. Above: C and Db. with two triads
(voicing varies). B§ (=Cb) is the split 5th. a tritone apart,
here C and F#.
FOURTHS/FIFTHS: Quartal/quintal Chords
E  
A quartal/quintal chord is any harmonic sonority whose voicing emphasizes fourths and/or fifths.


C
  
 AD  
 
OR
 
 

G
 
  DA    
Open-fifth chord: E
GC  
Triad lacking the Quartal chord: Quintal chord: Scriabin's "mystic"chord:
third (root + fifth "Stack of Fourths" "Stack of Fifths" Favored by composer
only). Notes may Notice any quartal stack can Alexander Scriabin.
be doubled. be reordered as a quintal stack.
SPECIAL CASES: Mixed-interval chords and revoicing

Mixed-interval chord = No single interval type dominates the voicing. When analyzing these, discuss the overall
interval structure. Which interval(s) occur the most? Is there a pattern to the structure?
Revoicing: Often a sonority can be revoiced (reordered) to emphasize different intervals. For instance,
G-B-D-F-A is a stack of 3rds, but F-G-A-B-D emphasizes 2nds. Always analyze the voicing in the music itself.
6.8 Rhythm and Meter 1: Metric Techniques
Metric = Music that relies on meter signatures (also called time signatures).
Metric structure = The pattern of stresses (strong beats and weak beats) that create the feeling of a time signature.
1. Polymeter = Using more than one meter at a time.
2. Polytempo = Using more than one tempo at a time.

3. Mixed meter = Frequent time signature changes (every 1-3 measures); notated with time signatures or accents.
e=e e=e 
 
          
             
      
4. Hemiola = Type of mixed meter (or polymeter) that alternates between 3+3 and 2+2+2 beat patterns.
  
         
      
 
   
5. Asymmetric meter = Meter in which some beats have two divisions and some have three.
 
                   
3 + 2
    
(2+3 is also possible)
6. Complex meter = Using nonstandard beat lengths in a normally compound or complex time signature.
May be notated by indicating the division groupings (below left) OR with accents / beaming.
  3 + 3 + 2
 3 + 3 + 2
                                 
   
OR
7. Metric Modulation (Tempo Modulation) = Some rythmic value in the first temo becomes equal to a different
rhytmic value in the second tempo. Metric modulation always involves a change of tempo, and usually involves
a tuplet in one or both tempos. Associated first with composer Elliott Carter.
[ p ]e =e
 
             
  
 
       
    
3 3 
8. Ostinato = Repeating rhythmic/pitch pattern. Unlike isorhythm, the pitch and rhythmic patterns are
equal in length.
    
                          
 
9. Displaced accent = Using accents to imply a time signature other than the notated time signature.
 
              
   
 
These accents imply 2-beat measures, contrary to notated time signature.

6.9 Rhythm and Meter 2: Ametric Techniques
Ametric = Music whose rhythmic content doesn't depend on metric structure for its organization.
Some music is notated with a time signature, but the organization of the rhythm may be ametric.
1. Additive Rhythm = The rhythm is "built up" from a short rhythmic value (below, the eighth note)
   
through integer groupings (1, 2, 3, 4, etc. of the base value tied together).
             
           

2. Added Value = Adding a short rhythmic value to an otherwise straightforward rhythm to give it interest;

The composer Messiaen was fond of this technique.
__        

           

    
_
3. Nonretrogradable Rhythm = Rhythm that sounds the same forwards and backwards. In other words,
a rhythmic palindrome. There will always be a "center point" where the pattern reverses. The pitch pattern

may or may not be the same forwards and backwards.
          
    

rhythmic
center
4. Serialized Rhythm = Music using a predetermined, repeating series of durations, similar to twelve-tone
      
music's use of tone rows. Total serialism, the serialization of all musical elements, includes serial rhythm.

           
Rhythmic series statement 1 Rhythmic series statement 2 Rhythmic series statement 3
  

 

 

  




5. Time-line notation or graphic notation = Rhythm is notated graphically along a timeline marked with
seconds or minutes. Pitch may be notated approximately (as below) or using traditional pitch notation.
        
10 sec. 20 sec. 30 sec.
    
 
6. Text notation = Rhythmic instructions are given using words. For example, "Play as fast as possible."
7. Fibonacci series = Some composers have organized rhythms (or even the lengths of sections in the piece)
using the Fibonacci series, in which each number is the sum of the previous two numbers: 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13...
8. Golden ratio or golden section = A ratio of sections of a whole in which section a is to section b as
section b is to the whole; in other words, a is to b as b is to (a+b). The golden section of a movement is
about 0.618 of the way through, or a little less than two-thirds of the way through. Some composers used
this ratio to determine climax points or other important aspects of their organization of time.
6.10 Set Theory Simplified
Pitch Classes
Pitch class = A category of notes including all possible octaves and enharmonic spellings of a particular
pitch. There are only 12 pitch classes. For instance, C, B#, and Dº in any octave are all in one pitch class.
Pitch classes are normally numbered from 0 to 11, starting on C:
       
    
Pitch class numbers: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 "T" "E"
=10 =11
Transposition of Sets (Tn)
1. A set is any unordered group of unique (no-repeats) pitch classes. For example, D, F, A# is (2, 5, T).
2. To transpose a set up by n half steps, add n to each pitch class in the set.
3. To transpose a set down by n half steps, subtract n from each pitch class in the set.
4. If you get a number larger than 11 or smaller than 0, add or subtract 12 to get a valid pitch class number.
Example showing transposition up 3 half steps:

T3
 
 _ 
Original:
    
_
Pitch class: 4 9 1 2
New pitch class: 7 0 4 5
(Calculation:) (4+3=7) (9+3=12, (1+3=4) (2+3=5)
Example showing transposition down 3 half steps: 12-12=0)

T-3
 _ 
Original:
      
_
Pitch class: 4 9 1 2 New pitch class: 1 6 T E
(Calculation:) (4-3=1) (9-3=6) (1-3=-2, (2-3=-1,
Inversion of Pitch Classes: (12-x) -2+12=10) -1+12=11)
In set theory, inversion means the same number of half steps in the opposite direction.
The inversion of a pitch class is the pitch class that is the same number of half steps away from C,
but in the opposite direction. If you get a number less than 0, add 12 to get a valid pitch class number.
ORIGINAL: 4 half steps above C INVERSION: 4 half steps below C

   
0+4 = Pitch class 4 = E 0-4 = -4, but -4+12=Pitch class 8=Ab

C=0 E=4 C=0 Ab=8
REMEMBER: For any pitch class x, inversion = (12-x) [since (0-x)+12 = (0-x+12) = (12-x)].
Inversion of Sets (TnI)
Inversion of sets (TnI) is a two-step process: first invert each pitch class (12-x), then transpose (Tn).
Example: T2I Pitch-class
 
Original:
  _
T2I = I(x) + 2
_     
Inversion (12-x):
 _      (add 2 to each
to transpose...)
Pitch class: 4 9 1 2 8 3 E T T 5 1 0
OPTIONAL shortcut: Since I(x)=(12-x), TnI(x) = Tn(12-x) = (12-x)+n = (12-x+n) = (n-x+12).
SO TnI(x) = (n-x), if you remember to add/subtract 12 as needed to keep pitch classes as 0 to 11.
6.10 continues on next page...
Normal Order Method 1: The Full Method
Normal Order = A standard format for listing pitch class sets; normal order is useful for comparing sets.
The four steps for finding normal order are to remove duplicates, list pitches low to high in one octave,
select the smallest outer interval, and break the tie if necessary.
1. Remove duplicated notes to get a list of unique pitches.

Given these notes from some music...
 _
...remove duplicates:

  
  _  
 _ 
Eb C B G
2. List the pitches low to high in one octave. Make versions starting on each pitch in the list.
  
Starting on G: Starting on B:
         
Starting on C: Starting on Eb:
     

3. For each version, find the smallest outer interval by subtracting the bottom pitch class from the top.
If you get a negative number, add 12 to correct it. Proceed to step #4 only if there is a tie.
3   
7
           
0 11 3 0 7 11
    

0-3 = -3 + 12 = 9 3-7 = -4 + 12 = 8 7-11 = -4 + 12 = 8
11-0 = 11 half steps 8 half steps = smallest 8 half steps = smallest
9 half steps
Both have 8 half steps -- a tie! So, go to step 4.
4. If there is a tie for normal order (as in this example), select the version with the largest interval from
the second-to-last to the last pitch class. If there is still a tie, check the third-to-last to the last, and so on.
Comparing last intervals to break the tie:
0

3
  
3
7
    
3-0 = 3 half steps 7-3 = 4 half steps = larger than C up to Eb,
so NORMAL ORDER=[B,C,Eb,G]
Normal Order Method 2: Shortcut with Pitch Class Numbers (RECOMMENDED!)

1. Remove duplicated notes and list the pitch class NUMBERS in order, smallest pitch class number first.
2. Duplicate the lowest pitch class at the end. (Do NOT make versions starting on each pitch.)
3. Find the largest interval between consecutive notes. Use those notes as the smallest outer interval.
Half-steps: 3 4 4 1
largest! largest!
 
0 3 7 11 0
  

    
   OR  
largest inverts to smallest largest inverts to smallest
4. Use step 4 from the "full" method above to break any ties.
6.10 continues on next page...
Best Normal Order
The best normal order of a set is one of two normal orders:
1. The normal order of the given set, OR
2. The normal order of the inversion of the given set (12-x for each pitch class, then do normal order).
Since these two normal orders will generally have the same outer intervals, choose the normal order
with the smallest interval from the first note to the second-to-last note. If there is still a tie, check
the third-to-last interval, and so on. Here is an example of the complete process:
1. Find the normal order of the set: Select the most compact arrangement
Remove duplicates: (largest adjacent becomes smallest outer):
_ _  _
Given notes: 8 4 4 8
     _     _     _    
_ _ 3 1 8 _ NORMAL ORDER
(no tie to break)
2. Find the normal order of the inversion:
Normal order Reorder low to high, Select the most compact arrangement
of original set Find inversion no duplicate notes: (largest adjacent becomes smallest outer):
    __ _     __
from step 1: using (12-x):
 _
    _     _    
Pitch _ 8 5 4 _ _ 1 3 8 _NORMAL ORDER
classes: 4 7 8 =12-4 =12-7 =12-8 (no tie to break)
3. Choose the "best" of the two normal orders by comparing intervals. Since the outside interval
(bottom to top) is the same, choose the largest interval from the second-to-last up to the last note:
Normal order of inversion:
Normal order of original set: 3 half steps
1 half step (= larger)
    versus    
4 half steps 4 half steps
BEST NORMAL ORDER
Prime Form
Prime form = the best normal order as pitch class numbers transposed to start on C. Since C=0, prime
form reveals the number of half steps each pitch class is above the first one. Prime form provides
an easy shorthand for comparing the interval structure of sets throughout a piece of music.
Best normal order Transpose to C to
(from previous example): find prime form (014):
_ _
1 half step
    _       _       PRIME FORM
_ _
= (014)
Pitch 0 1 4
classes: 4 5 8 4 half steps
=4-4 =5-4 =8-4
In this case, the prime form is (014); the interval structure of the best normal order is thus
1 half step above the first pitch PLUS 4 half steps above the first pitch: (014).
Normal Order by the Clock (OPTIONAL)
Some theorists prefer to find normal order using the pitch class numbers 0-11 arranged in a clockface:
1. Remove duplicated notes to get a list of unique pitches. Convert to pitch classes.

Given these notes from some music...
 _ 
...remove duplicates:
  
  _    
 _ Eb C B G
Pitch classes: 3 0 11 7
2. Mark the pitches on the pitch-class "clockface," then start with the pitch class AFTER the largest gap.
Below, the largest gap is from 3 to 7 or 7 to 11, so the options are [7, 11, 0, 3] OR [11, 0, 3, 7].
0
11 1
10 2
9 3
8 4
7 5
6
3. To break a tie, select the version with the largest interval from the second-to-last pitch class to the last.
If there is still a tie, check the interval from the third-to-last to the last pitch class, and so on.
For [7, 11, 0, 3], the second-to-last to the last is 3-0 = 3 half steps.
For [11,0,3,7], the second-to-last to the last is 7-3 = 4 half steps, so [11,0,3,7] is the normal order.
Unbreakable Ties for Normal Order and Best Normal Order

If the tie for normal order cannot be broken after comparing all the intervals, the set is transpositionally
symmetric. If the tie for BEST normal order cannot be broken after comparing all the intervals, the set is
inversionally symmetric. See 6.11 Symmetric Sets for more details.
For any unbreakable tie, use the smallest starting pitch class number (that is, the one closest above C).
Normal Order by the Numbers (OPTIONAL)

It is possible to calculate the normal order entirely with pitch class numbers. Simply write down the pitch class
numbers without the music notation and continue all calculations from there. If you look back at the preceding
examples, you will notice that in each case the music notation is not necessary to do the calculations.
Format for Writing Sets as Text

Pitch class set (unordered): Use parentheses and commas, e.g. (E,G,Ab)
Normal order (or "normal form") OR best normal order: Use brackets & commas, e.g. [E,F,Ab]
Prime form: Parentheses, NO commas, e.g. (014). Use "T" for ten and "E" for eleven.
6.11 Set Theory: Symmetric Sets
Sets can have transpositional symmetry, inversional symmetry, or both types of symmetry.
Transpositional Symmetry
A set is transpositionally symmetric (or transpositionally symmetrical) if its normal order divides the
octave with a repeating pattern of half steps, like 1-5--1-5 or 1-3-2--1-3-2 or 4-4-4. The repeating
pattern means you can start on different note(s) in the set and keep the pattern.
REMEMBER: Transpositionally symmetric sets have a repeating pattern of half steps and an
unbreakable tie for normal order, and they reproduce themselves when transposed up or down
by a particular interval(s).
Example of Transpositional Symmetry
The set below is transpositionally symmetric. We know this because there is an unbreakable tie for
the normal order. Comparing the second-to-last intervals, etc., doesn't help, because the interval structure
is exactly the same for all three options.
 
9 half steps 9 half steps
           
9 half steps
        
normal order? normal order? normal order?
Doubling the lowest notes allows us to see the repeating pattern of half steps that divides the octave.
All transpositionally symmetric sets divide the octave using some sort of repeating half step pattern.
h-m3 pattern divides the octave
         
        
      1 3 1 3 1 3 1 3 1 3 1 3
half steps: 1 3 1 3 1 3
Transpositionally symmetric sets are also called modes of limited transposition if they have more
than 5 notes. They reproduce their pitch classes when you transpose them by a particular interval called
the interval of transpositional symmetry. The interval of transpositional symmetry is always equal to the
total size of the repeating pattern in half steps and is always less than an octave.
The interval of transpositional symmetry for the example above is 4 half steps, or a major third, since the
repeating pattern [1,3] spans 4 half steps. As shown above, transposing the leftmost normal order up a
major third to E or down a major third to Ab gives the same pitch classes in a different order. This
particular set is a hexatonic scale (h-m3-h-m3, etc.; see 6.4 More Contemporary Scales).
Inversional Symmetry
A set is inversionally symmetric (or inversionally symmetrical) if there is a tie for best normal order.
Inversionally symmetric sets have consecutive interval patterns that are palindromic (the same forwards
and backwards) like 1-3-3-1 or 1-4-1, OR that divide the octave with a pattern of half steps that is
palindromic, like 1-5-5-1 or 3-6-3 or 4-4-4. This type of pattern means you can build the set upwards
or downwards (and downwards means inversion here) and get the same interval pattern.
REMEMBER: Inversionally symmetric sets have a palindromic pattern of half steps and
an unbreakable tie for BEST normal order, and the inversion will reproduce the original set
when transposed up or down by a particular interval(s). Transpose down
Normal order 4 half steps

3
   
6 = original!
     
Normal order: Inversion (=12-x): of Inversion:
 
3
     
pitch class: 1 4 7 E 8 5 5 8 E 1 4 7
6.12 Interval Vectors
Basic Definitions
An interval class refers to the number of half steps in an interval.
If the interval is larger than an octave (i.e., a compound interval), reduce it to a simple interval (<octave).
If the interval is larger than 6 half steps (tritone), invert it at the octave.
Enharmonic spellings are not a consideration here, only the number of half steps.
An interval vector is a catalog of the interval classes present in a given sonority.
  
      
Interval class 0 Interval class 1 Interval class 2
(Not included in vector) 1 or 11 half steps 2 or 10 half steps
0 or 12 half steps
   
        
Interval class 3 Interval class 4 Interval class 5 Interval class 6
3 or 9 half steps 4 or 8 half steps 5 or 7 half steps 6 half steps
Sample interval vector example
 


Given sonority
Interval class numbers present (see above):
       

 
   
   
class 2 5 5 1 3 5 3 2 6 4
Adding up, we have 1 interval class 1, 2 interval class 2 intervals, 2 interval class 3 intervals,
1 interval class 4 interval, 3 interval class 5 intervals, and 1 interval class 6 interval.
So the interval vector for the given sonority is [122131].

6.13 Surviving Serialism 1: Basic Terminology
Read the "Set Theory Overview" page before this one.
Prime form
Classic serialism uses a particular ordering of the twelve pitch classes called a tone row or series.
The "main row" used in a piece is called the prime form of the row. (Don't confuse this with prime form in set
theory, which means something totally different.) Below is an example prime form.
Notice:
1. It has one of every pitch class (one Bb, one B§, one C§, etc.)
2. The first version of the row (usually the first in the piece) is designated P0 (prime zero, read "P zero").
3. The row forms a particular pattern of up and down intervals. These are shown as half steps up or down.
P0
  
         
-1 -4 -3 +1 etc.
Transposition
Transposition = keeping the same interval pattern and starting the row on a different pitch class.
Transpositions are designated by the number of half steps above P0.
P1(=one half step higher than original version)
   
        
-1 -4 -3 +1 etc.
Caution: When transposing, always count half steps ABOVE. Adjust transpositions that are below P0 accordingly:
P
 10    
etc.
        

+1 etc.
-1 -4 -3
In this case, 2 half steps below prime form zero = 10 half steps above, since Ab is 10 half steps above Bb.
Inversion
Inversion = the prime form with the direction of each interval reversed.
In this case, P0 starts with a one half step DOWN (Bb to A) followed by four half steps DOWN (A to F), etc.
P0 R0
  
         
-1 -4 -3 +1 etc.
So I0 starts with one half step UP followed by four half steps UP, etc.
I0
     
RI0
      
+1 +4 +3 -1 etc.
Retrograde and Retrograde Inversion

Retrograde = the prime form read backwards, starting with the last pitch class and moving to the first.
In this case, R0 = C# (the last pitch class of P0), C§ (the 2nd to last pitch class), E§, B§, Ab, F#, G§, Eb, D§, F§, A§, Bb.
Notice: The number for the retrograde is always the number for the corresponding PRIME form.
In this case, P0 starts on Bb and R0 happens to start on C#.
Retrograde inversion = the inversion form read backwards, starting with the last pitch class and moving to the first.
In this case, RI0 = G§ (the last pitch class of I0), G# (the 2nd to last pitch class), E§, A§, C§, D§, Db, F§, F#, D#, B§, Bb.
Notice: The number for the retrograde inversion is always the number for the corresponding INVERSION form.
In this case, I0 starts on Bb and RI0 happens to start on G§.
6.14 Surviving Serialism 2: Transposition Secrets
The secret to surviving serialism is to convert the row into a list of half step numbers above the first note:
1. STEP ONE: Raise the octave of the notes as needed so they are all above the first note.
2. STEP TWO: Label the first note as ZERO. Write the number of half steps each note is above the FIRST note.
IMPORTANT: GO UP THE CHROMATIC SCALE like this:
Bb        
    
0
       B§

    
0 1
        C§
    
0 1 2
        C#
    
0 1 2 3
Continuing up the chromatic scale, D§ is 4, Eb is 5, E§ is 6, F§ is 7, F# is 8, G§ is 9, Ab is 10, and A§ is 11.
  
The final result is:
      
  
0 11 7 4 5 9 8 10 1 6 2 3
Notice that you should have one of each number from 0 to 11.
Transposition
To transpose, start on a different pitch class and go up the chromatic scale using the interval pattern of the original.
Ex: P4 P4 is 4 half steps above the original row; here Bb (from the prime row given above) +4 half steps = D§
D§
 
0 11 7 4 5 9 8 10 1 6 2 3
Eb
  
0 11 7 4 5 9 8 10 1 6 2 3
E§
   
0 11 7 4 5 9 8 10 1 6 2 3
Continuing up the chromatic scale, 3 is F, 4 is F#, 5 is G, 6 is Ab, 7 is A§, 8 is Bb, 9 is B§, 10 is C§, and 11 is C#.
The final result is:
P4
        
   
0 11 7 4 5 9 8 10 1 6 2 3
6.15 Surviving Serialism 3: Inversion, R, RI Secrets
Inversion (as used in serialism)
Consider the following half step interval relationships for an example interval C-E:

Original example interval: Inversion (direction reversed):
 
      
+4 half steps -4 half steps +12 half steps = +8 half steps
(inversion of C-E) (raise an octave) (-4+12=8)
In fact, the inversion of an interval is always related to the original as the remainder from 12...
...for any positive (upward) interval of x half steps less than an octave, 12 - x = inversion.
So, to invert the prime form, subtract each number (except zero) from 12.
As an example, given this prime form...
P0
       
    
0 11 7 4 5 9 8 10 1 6 2 3
(=half steps above the first note Bb)
...here's how to build the inversion:

I 0 Bb 1. First, subtract prime form half step numbers from 12 to invert the interval numbers:
 
0 1 5 8 7 3 4 2 11 6 10 9
=12-11 =12-7 =12-4 =12-5 =12-9 =12-8 =12-10 =12-1 =12-6 =12-2 =12-3
2. Second, go up the chromatic scale with the new numbers using the method we used for transposition:
I0 B§
  
0 1 5 8 7 3 4 2 11 6 10 9
I0 C§
   
0 1 5 8 7 3 4 2 11 6 10 9
Continuing up the chromatic scale, 3 is C#, 4 is D§, 5 is Eb, 6 is E§, 7 is F§, 8 is F#, 9 is G§, 10 is Ab, and 11 is A§:
I0
   
    
   
0 1 5 8 7 3 4 2 11 6 10 9
R, RI and Combining Operations

To get the retrograde, list the prime form backwards, starting with the last pitch class and reading right to left.
To get the retrograde inversion, list the inversion form backwards, reading the notes from right to left.
To combine inversion or transposition with retrograde, do each operation one after the other, in any order.
For instance, to find RI6, transpose the prime form up to P6, then perform the inversion operation to get I6,
and finally read I6 backwards to get RI6.
6.16 Surviving Serialism 4: Derivation, Invariance, Combinatoriality
Derived Rows
Derivation = Creating a twelve-tone row by applying a combination of transposition, inversion, and/or
retrograde to a set containing less than twelve pitch classes. Trichords (3 pitch classes) are most common,
but dyads (2 pitch classes), pentachords (4 pitch classes) and hexachords (6 pitch classes) are possible.
Anton Webern favored this technique.
One of many possibilities is shown in this row from Webern's Concerto Op. 24:
& nœ bœ nœ nœ bœ nœ #œ nœ
P0 bœ #œ nœ nœ
trichord 1 trichord 2 trichord 3 trichord 4
Trichords 2, 3, and 4 are all derived from trichord 1 by various operations:
& nœ bœ nœ
P P P L L inversion,
L
I I I
trichord 1
retrograde inversion, transposed
L L L
transposed retrograde, transposed
P P P I I I
& bœ nœ #œ & bœ œ œ & nœ #œ œ
trichord 2 trichord 3 trichord 4
Invariance and Combinatoriality
Invariance = A twelve-tone row that recreates 1 or more subsets (dyads, trichords, pentachords, or
hexachords) after undergoing some combination of transposition, inversion, and/or retrograde.
Derived rows often exhibit invariance because of the close relationships among the subsets.
Below, inverting the row from Webern's Concerto Op. 24 and transposing up one half step
nœ
gives the trichords from P0 in reverse order. They are thus invariant trichords.
& nœ bœ nœ #œ bœ nœ nœ #œ nœ
P0 bœ nœ
bœ nœ nœ bœ œ #œ nœ
I1 & nœ #œ nœ nœ bœ
Combinatoriality = A type of invariance in which a subset of a row combines with subsets of transpositions,
inversions, and/or retrograde inversions of the row to create a new twelve-tone row.
Hexachordal combinatoriality = The most common type of combinatoriality, combining the first
hexachord of one row form with the first hexachord of a different row form (transposition, inversion,
and/or retrograde inversion) to create a new row. In other words, the first six pitch classes of one row
form are the last six of a different row form, though not necessarily in the same order. P0 and I1 above
bœ
happen to exhibit hexachordal combinatoriality in addition to the trichord invariance discussed above:
nœ nœ #œ nœ nœ
P0 + I1 & nœ bœ bœ nœ #œ nœ
P0, hexachord 1 + I1, hexachord 1 (like P0, hexachord 2, trichords reversed)
All-Interval Rows
All-interval row = Any row that contains one of each type of ascending interval from 1 to 11 half steps.
nœ nœ b œ bœ bœ 4 1 bœ
These rows may or may not be derived or combinatorial.
All-interval row from Lyric Suite
by Alban Berg. Numbers
11 8
& nœ nœ nœ9 10
nœ
7 6
bœ bœ
5 2 3
indicate ascending half steps.


Contemporary Music Theory

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like

Contemporary Music Theory

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Contemporary Music Theory

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

LearnMusicTheory.

Approximate Approximate The classical music “story” Other happenings

Copyright © 2010 by Mark Feezell. All Rights Reserved.

Copyright © 2010 by Mark Feezell. All Rights Reserved.

          (Same notes as major, but chord

Shortcuts from parallel scales

  I      2nd step _   I     

Copyright © 2011 by Mark Feezell. All Rights Reserved.

lower tetrachord upper tetrachord

Scale Analysis: Example One

Related terms: Polytonality, Bitonality, and Pandiatonicism

Three types of planing:

A tone cluster is a secundual chord voiced as a stack-of-seconds in a single octave.

SPECIAL CASES: Mixed-interval chords and revoicing

1. Polymeter = Using more than one meter at a time.

2. Polytempo = Using more than one tempo at a time.

Copyright © 2011 by Mark Feezell. All Rights Reserved.

Rhythmic series statement 1 Rhythmic series statement 2 Rhythmic series statement 3

1. Remove duplicated notes to get a list of unique pitches.

Normal Order Method 2: Shortcut with Pitch Class Numbers (RECOMMENDED!)

Unbreakable Ties for Normal Order and Best Normal Order

Normal Order by the Numbers (OPTIONAL)

Format for Writing Sets as Text

Sample interval vector example

Interval class numbers present (see above):

So the interval vector for the given sonority is [122131].

Copyright © 2010 by Mark Feezell. All Rights Reserved.

Retrograde and Retrograde Inversion

...here's how to build the inversion:

R, RI and Combining Operations

indicate ascending half steps.

You might also like