ALGEBRA

MATHEMATICS, SURVEYING, AND TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

LAW OF EXPONENTS WORD PROBLEMS

CLOCK PROBLEMS
Product of Powers 𝒙𝒎 𝒙𝒏 = 𝒙𝒎 𝒏

𝑴𝒊𝒏𝒖𝒕𝒆 𝑯𝒂𝒏𝒅 (𝜽𝟏 ) = 𝟔𝒕

Quotient of Powers 𝒙𝒎 /𝒙𝒏 = 𝒙𝒎 𝒏
𝑯𝒐𝒖𝒓 𝑯𝒂𝒏𝒅 (𝜽𝟐 ) = 𝜽𝑺.𝑯. + 𝟎. 𝟓𝒕

Power of a Power (𝒙𝒎 )𝒏 = 𝒙𝒎𝒏 MONEY PROBLEMS

𝑰𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒕 = 𝑪𝒂𝒑𝒊𝒕𝒂𝒍 (𝑹𝒂𝒕𝒆 %)
Power of a Product (𝒙𝒚)𝒎 = 𝒙𝒎 𝒚𝒎 𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒇𝒊𝒕 = 𝑺𝒆𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑷𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒆 − 𝑪𝒐𝒔𝒕
𝒙 𝒎 𝒙𝒎 𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝑷𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒆 = 𝑶𝒓𝒊𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝑷𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒆 (𝟏 − 𝑫%)
Power of a Quotient =
𝒚 𝑦
𝟏
Negative Exponent 𝒙 𝒏
= 𝒏 MOTION PROBLEM
𝒙 OBJ. – ENV. OBJ. – OBJ.
RELATION RELATION
Zero Exponent 𝟎
𝒙 =𝟏 SAME DIRECTION 𝑽𝟏 + 𝑽𝟐 𝑽𝟏 − 𝑽𝟐
OPPOSITE 𝑽𝟏 − 𝑽𝟐 𝑽𝟏 + 𝑽𝟐
DIRECTION

LAW OF LOGARITHMS WORK PROBLEM

𝑾𝒐𝒓𝒌
Log of a Product 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 𝒙𝒚 = 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒂 𝒙 + 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 𝒚 𝑹𝒂𝒕𝒆 = 𝑾𝒐𝒓𝒌 = 𝑵𝒎𝒂𝒏 × 𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒔
𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆
𝒙
Log of a Quotient 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 = 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒂 𝒙 − 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 𝒚 MIXTURE PROBLEMS
𝒚

Log of a Power 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 𝒙𝒏 = 𝒏 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒂 𝒙

Log of 1 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 𝟏 = 𝟎

Log of the Base 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 𝒂 = 𝟏

𝑨(%) + 𝑩(%) = (𝑨 + 𝑩)(%)
Equivalence 𝒂𝒙 = 𝒚, 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒙 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 𝒚
𝟏 VARIATION PROBLEMS
Log of a Reciprocal 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 = −𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒂 𝒙 Direct Variation Inverse Variation
𝒙
𝒚 = 𝒌𝒙 𝒌
𝒚=
𝒙
LAW OF NATURAL LOGARITHMS Joint Variation Combined Variation
𝒚 = 𝒌𝒙𝒛 𝒌𝒛
𝒚=
𝒙
Ln of a Product 𝒍𝒏 𝒙𝒚 = 𝒍𝒏 𝒙 + 𝒍𝒏 𝒚
𝒙
Ln of a Quotient 𝑙𝑛
𝒚
= 𝑙𝑛 𝒙 − 𝑙𝑛 𝒚
SEQUENCE AND SERIES
Ln of a Power 𝑙𝑛 𝒙𝒏 = 𝒏 𝑙𝑛𝒙
ARITHMETIC PROGRESSION
Ln of 1 𝑙𝑛 𝟏 = 𝟎 Nth Term 𝒂𝒏 = 𝒂𝟏 + (𝒏 − 𝟏)𝒅
𝒏
Ln of the Base 𝑙𝑛 𝒂 = 𝟏 Summation 𝑺𝒏 = (𝒂𝟏 + 𝒂𝒏 )
𝟐
𝒙+𝒚
Mean 𝑨𝑴 =
Equivalence 𝒂𝒙 = 𝒚, 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒙 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 𝒚 𝟐
𝟏 GEOMETRIC PROGRESSION
Ln of a Reciprocal 𝑙𝑛 = −𝒍𝒏 𝒙
𝒙
Nth Term 𝒂𝒏 = 𝒂𝟏 𝒓𝒏 𝟏

𝒂𝟏 (𝟏 − 𝒓𝒏 )
Summation 𝑺𝒏 =
SET THEORY (𝟏 − 𝒓)
𝒂𝟏
Infinite 𝑺𝒏 = , |𝑟| < 1.0
UNION (A u B) INTERSECTION (A ∩ B) (𝟏 − 𝒓)
Set of all things that are Set of all things that are Mean 𝑮𝑴 = 𝒏
𝒙𝟏 𝒙𝟐 … 𝒙𝒏
members of A or B members of A and B
𝑮𝑴𝟐 = (𝑨𝑴)(𝑯𝑴)

HARMONIC PROGRESSION
Nth Term Reciprocals form an arithmetic progression

𝟏
𝟏 𝟏
+
𝒙 𝒚
COMPLEMENT (A’ or AC) RELATIVE COMPLEMENT Mean 𝑯𝑴 =
𝟐
Set of all things that are not (A\B or A-B)
in A Set of all things the belongs
to A but not to B
TRIGONOMETRY
MATHEMATICS, SURVEYING, AND TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

Sum of Two Angles

ANGLE OF MEASUREMENTS
sin(𝐴 + 𝐵) = sin 𝐴 cos 𝐵 + cos 𝐴 sin 𝐵

SEXAGESIMAL CENTESIMAL CIRCULAR MILLIRADIAN

𝟏 𝒓𝒆𝒗 = 𝟑𝟔𝟎° = 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒔 = 𝟐𝝅 𝒓𝒂𝒅 = 𝟔𝟒𝟎𝟎𝒎𝒊𝒍𝒔 cos(𝐴 + 𝐵) = cos 𝐴 cos 𝐵 − sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵

tan 𝐴 + tan 𝐵
tan(𝐴 + 𝐵) =
ANGLE 1 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝐴 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝐵

Acute Angle 𝜽 < 𝟗𝟎° Difference of Two Angles

Right Angle 𝜽 = 𝟗𝟎°
sin(𝐴 − 𝐵) = sin 𝐴 cos 𝐵 − cos 𝐴 sin 𝐵
Obtuse Angle 𝜽 > 𝟗𝟎°
Straight Angle 𝜽 = 𝟏𝟖𝟎°
Reflex Angle 𝜽 > 𝟏𝟖𝟎° cos(𝐴 − 𝐵) = cos 𝐴 cos 𝐵 + sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵
Complementary Angle 𝜽𝑨 + 𝜽𝑩 = 𝟗𝟎°
tan 𝐴 − tan 𝐵
Supplementary Angle 𝜽𝑨 + 𝜽𝑩 = 𝟏𝟖𝟎° tan(𝐴 − 𝐵) =
1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝐴 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝐵
Explementary Angle 𝜽𝑨 + 𝜽𝑩 = 𝟑𝟔𝟎°

Double Angle
TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES
sin(2𝐴) = 2sin 𝐴 cos 𝐴

cos(2𝐴) = cos 𝐴 − sin 𝐴

2 tan 𝐴
tan(2𝐴) =
1 − tan 𝐴

OTHER TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

Quotient Identities
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑡
𝑡𝑎𝑛 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 =
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑐𝑠𝑐

𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑡𝑎𝑛

𝑐𝑜𝑡 = 𝑐𝑠𝑐 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 =
𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛

Product Identities

𝑡𝑎𝑛 = sin 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠𝑖𝑛 = tan 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 = sin 𝑐𝑜𝑡

𝑐𝑜𝑡 = cos 𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑐𝑠𝑐 = cot 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐 = csc 𝑡𝑎𝑛

Reciprocal Identities
1 1 1
𝑡𝑎𝑛 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 =
𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐 Versine
vers A = 1 − cos 𝐴
1 1 1
𝑐𝑜𝑡 = 𝑐𝑠𝑐 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 =
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠
Coversed Sine
Reciprocal Identities cvs A = 1 − sin 𝐴

1 1 1
𝑡𝑎𝑛 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 =
𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐 Exsecant
exsec A = sec 𝐴 − 1
1 1 1
𝑐𝑜𝑡 = 𝑐𝑠𝑐 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 =
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠
Excosecant
Pythagorean Identities excsc A = csc 𝐴 − 1

sin + cos = 1
Haversine:
1 − cos 𝐴
hav A =
tan + 1 = sec 2

1 + cot = csc
PLANE TRIGONOMETRY
MATHEMATICS, SURVEYING, AND TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

TYPES OF TRIANGLES BASED ON SIDES OBLIQUE TRIANGLES

EQUILATERAL ISOSCELES SCALENE Sine Law

𝒂 𝒃 𝒄
= =
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝑨 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝑩 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝑪

Cosine Law
𝒂𝟐 = 𝒃𝟐 + 𝒄𝟐 − 𝟐𝒃𝒄 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝑨
𝒃𝟐 = 𝒂𝟐 + 𝒄𝟐 − 𝟐𝒂𝒄 𝐜𝐨𝒔 𝑩
TYPES OF TRIANGLES BASED ON ANGLES 𝒄𝟐 = 𝒂𝟐 + 𝒃𝟐 − 𝟐𝒂𝒃 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝑪

RIGHT OBLIQUE
COMPLIMENTARY FUNCTIONS
ACUTE OBTUSE

𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 (𝟗𝟎 − 𝜽)

𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜽 = 𝒄𝒐𝒕 (𝟗𝟎 − 𝜽)
𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝜽 = 𝒄𝒔𝒄 (𝟗𝟎 − 𝜽)

WAVE CHARACTERISTICS

Area of Triangle
𝟏
Side ⊥ Vertex 𝑨= 𝒃𝒉
𝟐
𝟏
Sides with Included Angle 𝑨= 𝒂𝒃 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽
𝟐

Heron’s Formula 𝑨= 𝒔(𝒔 − 𝒂)(𝒔 − 𝒃)(𝒔 − 𝒄)

In Circle 𝑨𝒕 = 𝒓𝒔

𝒂𝒃𝒄
Circumcircle 𝑨𝒕 =
𝟒𝒓

Excircle 𝑨𝒕 𝒓(𝒔 − 𝒂)
Amplitude (𝑨) – greatest distance of any point on the graph from
the horizontal line.
Period (𝑻) – interval over which the graph of a function repeats.
RIGHT TRIANGLES Frequency (𝝎) – number of repetitions/cycles per unit of time or
𝟏
𝑻

Phase Shift ( /𝑩 ) – how far the function has shifted horizontally

𝑪
Sine, Cosine, and Tangent Formulas from the usual position.

𝒐𝒑𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒆 Vertical Shift (𝑫) – how far the function moves up and down.
SOH 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 =
𝒉𝒚𝒑𝒐𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒖𝒔𝒆
𝒂𝒅𝒋𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕
CAH 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 = Function Period Amplitude
𝒉𝒚𝒑𝒐𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒖𝒔𝒆
𝒐𝒑𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒆 𝟐𝝅
TOA 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜽 = 𝒚 = 𝑨 𝒔𝒊𝒏 (𝑩𝒙 + 𝑪) + 𝑫 𝑨
𝒂𝒅𝒋𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝑩
𝟐𝝅
Pythagorean Theorem 𝒚 = 𝑨 𝒄𝒐𝒔 (𝑩𝒙 + 𝑪) + 𝑫 𝑨
𝑩
𝒂𝟐 + 𝒃𝟐 = 𝒄𝟐 𝝅
𝒚 = 𝑨 𝒕𝒂𝒏 (𝑩𝒙 + 𝑪) + 𝑫
𝑩
PLANE GEOMETRY
MATHEMATICS, SURVEYING, AND TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

TERMINOLOGIES RADIUS OF CIRCLES

Inscribed Circles
 Plane Geometry – deals with the properties of plane figures or 𝑨
𝒓𝒊 =
geometrical shapes of two dimensions such as angles, triangles, 𝒔
squares, polygons, and conic sections. Circumscribing Circles
 Polygon – a plane figure with three or more angles with straight 𝒂𝒃𝒄 𝒂 𝒃 𝒄
lines as sides. 𝒓𝒄 = = = =
𝟒𝑨 𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝑨 𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝑩 𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝑪
 Regular Polygon – a polygon whose angles and sides are all
equal. Escribed Circles
 Similar Polygon – two polygons are similar if their corresponding 𝑨
angles are equal, and their corresponding sides are 𝒓𝒆 =
𝒔−𝒂
proportional.
 Convex Polygon - polygon having each interior angle less than
180°. QUADRILATERALS
 Concave Polygon – polygon having an interior angle greater
than 180°.
 Triangles – a polygon with three sides that are contained in a PERIMETER
plane. 𝑷= 𝒂+𝒃+𝒄+𝒅
 Quadrilaterals – a portion of a plane bounded by four straight
lines, also known as quadrangle or tetragon. AREA
𝟏
 Parallelogram (Rhomboid) – a quadrilateral whose opposite 𝑨𝟏 = 𝑫 𝑫 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
sides are parallel. 𝟐 𝟏 𝟐
 Rhombus – a parallelogram with four equal sides. 𝜽+𝜶 𝟐

 Rectangle – a parallelogram whose angles are right angles. 𝑨𝟐 = (𝒔 − 𝒂)(𝒔 − 𝒃)(𝒔 − 𝒄)(𝒔 − 𝒅) − 𝒂𝒃𝒄𝒅 𝒄𝒐𝒔
𝟐
 Square – a rectangle with equal sides.
 Trapezoid – a quadrilateral with only two sides parallel.
PTOLEMY’S THEOREM
 Cyclic Quadrilateral – a quadrilateral whose vertices lie on the 𝒂𝒄 + 𝒃𝒅 = 𝑫𝟏 𝑫𝟐
circumference of a circle.
RADIUS OF CIRCUMSCRIBING CIRCLES
GENERAL POLYGONS (𝒂𝒃 + 𝒄𝒅)(𝒂𝒄 + 𝒃𝒅)(𝒂𝒅 + 𝒃𝒄)
𝒓𝒄 =
𝟒𝑨

SUM OF INTERIOR ANGLES

∑𝜽 = 𝟏𝟖𝟎°(𝒏 − 𝟐)
CIRCLES

SUM OF EXTERIOR and CENTRAL ANGLES

CIRCUMFERENCE
∑𝜷 = 𝟑𝟔𝟎° 𝑪 = 𝟐𝝅𝒓 = 𝝅𝒅

NUMBER OF DIAGONAL LINES AREA

𝒏(𝒏 + 𝟑) 𝝅 𝟐
𝑫= 𝑨 = 𝝅𝒓𝟐 = 𝒅
𝟐 𝟒

PERIMETER OF REGULAR POLYGONS ARC LENGTH

In Degrees: In Radians:
𝑷 = 𝒔𝒏 𝜽 𝒔 = 𝜽𝒓
𝒔= 𝝅𝒓
𝟏𝟖𝟎
AREA
𝒔𝟐 𝒏 AREA OF A SECTOR
𝑨= In Degrees: In Radians:
𝟏𝟖𝟎
𝟒 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜽 𝜽 𝟐
𝒏 𝑨𝒔 = 𝝅𝒓𝟐 𝑨𝒔 = 𝒓
𝟑𝟔𝟎 𝟐

TRIANGLES
THEOREMS ON CIRCLE
AREA Central Angle Thales Theorem
𝟏
𝑨𝟏 = 𝒂𝒃 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽
𝟐
𝟏
𝑨𝟐 = 𝒃𝒉
𝟐
𝑨𝟑 = 𝒔(𝒔 − 𝒂)(𝒔 − 𝒃)(𝒔 − 𝒄)

LINES OF A TRIANGLE
Median - Centroid Angle Bisector – In Center Cross Chord Theorem Secant – Secant Theorem
𝑨𝑩 = 𝑪𝑫 𝑶𝑨(𝑶𝑩) = 𝑶𝑪(𝑶𝑫)

Altitude – Orthocenter Perpendicular Bisector -

Circumcenter

Secant – Tangent Theorem

𝑶𝑨(𝑶𝑩) = 𝑶𝑪(𝑶𝑫) = (𝑶𝑬)𝟐
SOLID GEOMETRY
MATHEMATICS, SURVEYING, AND TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

TERMINOLOGIES SOLIDS WITH CONSTANT CROSS SECTION

 Polyhedrons – a three-dimensional figure composed of flat CYLINDER PRISM TRUNCATED PRISM
polygonal faces, straight edges, and sharp corners.
 Regular Polyhedrons – solids with all their faces as identical
polygons.
 Prism – a polyhedron with two faces parallel and congruent
and whose remaining faces are parallelograms.
 Right Prism – a prism that has its lateral faces perpendicular to
the base.
𝑽 = 𝝅𝒓𝟐 𝒉 𝑽 = 𝑨𝑩 𝒉 𝑽 = 𝑨𝑩𝒉𝒂𝒗𝒆
 Oblique Prism – a prism in which the lateral faces are not 𝑻𝑺𝑨 = 𝟐𝝅𝒓𝟐 + 𝟐𝝅𝒓𝒉 𝑻𝑺𝑨 = 𝟐𝑨𝑩 + 𝑳𝑺𝑨 𝑻𝑺𝑨 = 𝑨𝟏 + 𝑨𝟐 + 𝑳𝑺𝑨
perpendicular to the base.
 Cylinder – a prism with two circular bases
 Pyramid – a polyhedron that contains triangular lateral faces
with a common vertex and a polygonal base. SOLIDS WITH SIMILAR CROSS SECTION
 Cone – is formed by a set of line segments connecting the apex
to all the points on the circumference of a circular base that is CONE PYRAMID FRUSTUM
in a plane that does not contain the apex.
 Sphere - a round solid figure with every point on its surface
equidistant from its center.
 Spherical Segment – the solid defined by cutting a sphere or a
ball with a pair of parallel planes.
 Spherical Zone – a portion of the surface of a sphere included
between two parallel planes.
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
 Spherical Cone – a solid generated by rotating a sector of a 𝑽 = 𝝅𝒓𝟐 𝒉 𝑽 = 𝑨𝑩 𝒉 𝑽= 𝑨 + 𝑨𝟐 + 𝑨𝟏 𝑨𝟐
𝟑 𝟑 𝟑 𝟏
circle about an axis that passes through the center of the circle 𝑻𝑺𝑨 = 𝝅𝒓𝟐 + 𝝅𝒓𝒍 𝑻𝑺𝑨 = 𝑨𝑩 + 𝑳𝑺𝑨 𝑻𝑺𝑨 = 𝑨𝟏 + 𝑨𝟐 + 𝑳𝑺𝑨
but contains no point inside the sector.
 Frustum – the remaining portion obtained after removing the
top portion when a pyramid or a cone is cut by a plane parallel GENERAL PRISMOIDAL FORMULA
to its base. 𝑳
𝑽 = (𝑨𝟏 + 𝟒𝑨𝑴 + 𝑨𝟐 )
 Truncated Prism – a portion of a prism formed by passing a 𝟔
plane not parallel to the base and intersecting all the lateral
edges, has two nonparallel bases which are polygons of the
same number of edges.
SPHERES
SIMILAR SOLIDS
SPHERE LUNE AND WEDGE

RATIOS
𝟏/𝟐 𝟏/𝟑
𝑺𝟏 𝑷𝟏 𝑨𝟏 𝑽𝟏
= = =
𝑺𝟐 𝑷𝟐 𝑨𝟐 𝑽𝟐

POLYHEDRONS

𝟒 𝟒 𝟑 𝜽
𝑽 = 𝝅𝒓𝟑 𝑽= 𝝅𝒓
𝟑 𝟑 𝟑𝟔𝟎
𝑺𝑨 = 𝟒𝝅𝒓𝟐 𝜽
𝑺𝑨 = 𝟒𝝅𝒓𝟐
𝟑𝟔𝟎

𝒏𝒇 ONE BASE TWO BASES

𝒗=
𝒎 SPHERICAL SEGMENT SPHERICAL SEGMENT

𝒏𝒇
𝒆= 𝝅𝒉𝟐 𝝅𝒉
𝟐 𝑽= (𝟑𝒓 − 𝒉) 𝑽= (𝟑𝒂𝟐 + 𝟑𝒃𝟐 − 𝒉𝟐 )
𝟑 𝟔
EULER’S FORMULA 𝑺𝑨 = 𝟐𝝅𝒓𝒉 𝑺𝑨 = 𝟐𝝅𝒓𝒉

𝒗+𝒇−𝒆 = 𝟐

PLASTIC SOLIDS
Polyhedra Vertices Faces Edges Sides Volume
Cube 8 6 12 Square e3
Tetrahedron 4 4 6 triangle 0.118 e3
Octahedron 6 8 12 Triangle 0.471 e3
Dodecahedron 20 12 30 Pentagon 7.663 e3
Icosahedron 12 20 30 Triangle 2.182 e3
ANALYTIC GEOMETRY
MATHEMATICS, SURVEYING, AND TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

DISTANCE FORMULA PARABOLA

Locus of a point that moves such that its distance from a fixed
Point to a Point 𝒅= (𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟏 )𝟐 + (𝒚𝟐 − 𝒚𝟏 )𝟐 point called the focus is always equal to its distance from a fixed
line called the directrix.
𝑨𝒙 + 𝑩𝒚 + 𝑪
Point to a Line 𝒅=
√𝑨𝟐 + 𝑩𝟐

𝑪𝟐 − 𝑪𝟏
Between Parallel Lines 𝒅=
√𝑨𝟐 + 𝑩𝟐

LINES
MIDPOINT FORMULA
𝒙𝟏 + 𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟏 + 𝒚𝟐
𝒙= , 𝒚=
𝟐 𝟐
Axis of Symmetry Standard Form General Form

DIVISION OF LINE SEGMENT Parallel to Y-Axis (𝑥 − ℎ) = ±4𝑎(𝑦 − 𝑘) 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐷𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 + 𝐹 = 0

𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙 𝒚𝟐 − 𝒚
𝒓𝒙 = , 𝒓𝒚 = Parallel to X-Axis (𝑦 − 𝑘) = ±4𝑎(𝑥 − ℎ) 𝐶𝑦 + 𝐷𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 + 𝐹 = 0
𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟏 𝒚𝟐 − 𝒚𝟏

EQUATION OF LINES ELLIPSE

Slope Intercept Form 𝒚 = 𝒎𝒙 + 𝒃

𝒚 − 𝒚𝟏
Point-Slope Form 𝒎=
𝒙 − 𝒙𝟏

𝒚𝟐 − 𝒚𝟏 𝒚 − 𝒚𝟏
Two-Point Form =
𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟏 𝒙 − 𝒙𝟏

𝒙 𝒚
Intercept Form + =𝟏
𝒂 𝒃

Parallel Lines 𝑴𝟏 = 𝑴𝟐

𝟏
Perpendicular Lines 𝑴𝟏 =
𝑴𝟐
Major Axis Standard Form General Form
(𝑥 − ℎ) (𝑦 − 𝑘)
POLAR COORDINATES Parallel to Y-Axis
𝑏
+
𝑎
=1
𝐴𝑥 + 𝐶𝑦 + 𝐷𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 + 𝐹 = 0
(𝑥 − ℎ) (𝑦 − 𝑘)
Parallel to X-Axis + =1
𝑎 𝑏
Polar coordinates represent points in a Cartesion plane using
distance (r) and angle measurements.
PROPERTIES
𝒙 = 𝒓𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 𝒚 = 𝒓𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 𝒓𝟐 = 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 𝑎 =𝑏 +𝑐 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑎𝑏
𝑎 +𝑏
𝑑 +𝑑 = 𝑑 +𝑑 𝑃 = 2𝜋
Polar to Cartesian Cartesian to Polar 2
POL(𝑥, 𝑦) REC(𝑟, 𝜃)
HYPERBOLA
CONIC SECTIONS
Conic Sections is a locus of a point that moves such that the ratio
of its distance from a fixed point (focus) and fixed line (directrix) is
constant.

General Form
𝑨𝒙𝟐 + 𝑩𝒙𝒚 + 𝑪𝒚𝟐 + 𝑫𝒙 + 𝑬𝒚 + 𝑭 = 𝟎

Section Case Eccentricity

Circle 𝐴=𝐶 𝑒=0

Parabola 𝐴 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝐶 = 0 𝑒=1
𝑐
Ellipse 𝐴(𝐶) > 0 𝑒= <1 Traverse Axis Standard Form General Form
𝑎
Hyperbola 𝐴(𝐶) < 0 𝑒>1 Parallel to Y-Axis
(𝑦 − 𝑘)
−
(𝑥 − ℎ)
=1 𝐴𝑥 − 𝐶𝑦 + 𝐷𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 + 𝐹 = 0
𝑎 𝑏
(𝑥 − ℎ) (𝑦 − 𝑘)
Parallel to X-Axis − =1 −𝐴𝑥 + 𝐶𝑦 + 𝐷𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 + 𝐹 = 0
CIRCLES 𝑎 𝑏

PROPERTIES
STANDARD FROM 𝑐 = 𝑎 +𝑏 𝑑 −𝑑 = 𝑑 −𝑑
(𝑥 − ℎ) + (𝑦 − 𝑘) = 𝑟
ASYMPTOTES
GENERAL FORM
Traverse Parallel to Y Traverse Parallel to X
𝐴𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦 + 𝐷𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 + 𝐹 = 0 𝑎 𝑏
𝑚=± 𝑚=±
𝑏 𝑎
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
MATHEMATICS, SURVEYING, AND TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

LIMITS OF FUNCTIONS IMPLICIT DIFFERENTIATION

Suppose that f and g are functions such thatlim 𝑓(𝑥) and lim 𝑔(𝑥) A method used to differentiate functions where the dependent
→ →
exist, suppose that k is a constant and suppose that n is a positive variable is not explicitly expressed in terms of the independent
integer. Then the following are accepted theorems of limits:
1. lim 𝑘 = 𝑘 variables.
→

2. lim 𝑥 = 𝑎
→
1. Differentiate the equation with respect to the
3. lim [𝑘 𝑓(𝑥)] = 𝑘 lim 𝑓(𝑥)
→ → independent variable.
4. lim [𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)] = lim 𝑓(𝑥) + lim 𝑔(𝑥)
→ → → 2. Isolate the derivative to one side of the equation.

SOLUTIONS FOR LIMITS:

1. Direct Substitution
HIGHER DERIVATIVES
2. Factorization Method
3. Rationalization Method
NOTATION
4. In inity Method
∞ The nth derivative of a function is denoted as 𝑓 (𝑥) 𝑜𝑟 . To
Divide both the numerator and denominator
∞ by the highest power of x. find higher order derivatives, differentiate the function
∞±∞ Write in rational form then use successively n times applying differentiation as needed.

L’HOPITALS’S RULE
𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓′(𝑥) RELATIONSHIP WITH FUNCTION BEHAVIOR
lim = lim
→ 𝑔(𝑥) → 𝑔′(𝑥) Higher derivatives help understand the behavior of a function
including concavity, inflection points, and rate of change.
ASYMPTOTES
CONCAVITY
VERTICAL ASYMPTOTE The graph curves upward (convex) if 𝑓 (𝑥) > 0, and the graph
Value of X such that the denominator will be equal to zero.
curves downward (concave) if 𝑓 (𝑥) < 0.
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 0

HORIZONTAL ASYMPTOTE INFLECTION POINTS

𝑎 𝑥 +⋯+𝑎 𝑥 These are points on a curve where the concavity changes. It is
𝑏 𝑥 + ⋯+ 𝑏 𝑥
where the second derivative changes sign 𝑓 (𝑥) = 0
1. 𝑚 = 𝑛 ; 𝑦 = accompanied by change in concavity.

2. 𝑚 < 𝑛 ; 𝑁𝑜 𝐻𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑒

3. 𝑚 > 𝑛 ; 𝑦 = 0 CRITICAL POINTS
Location on a function where the derivative is zero or undefined.
SLANTING ASYMPTOTE These points often indicate potential maxima, minima, or points
Use Long Division
1. Divide the first term of the dividend by the first term of of inflection.
the divisor and write the quotient above the dividend.
2. Multiply the divisor by the quotient and write the product
below the dividend.
3. Subtract the product from the dividend and bring down
APPLICATION
the next term of the dividend.
CIRCLE OF CURVATURE
BASIC DIFFERENTIATION
Radius of Curvature Curvature
|𝒚′′| 𝟏
General Power Formula 𝒅 𝑲= 𝟑 𝝆=
(𝒖)𝒏 = 𝒏(𝒖)𝒏 𝟏
𝒅𝒖 [𝟏 + (𝒚 )𝟐 ]𝟐 𝒌
𝒅𝒙

Exponential Formula 𝒅 TANGENT AND NORMAL LINES

(𝒖)𝒏 = 𝒏(𝒖)𝒏 𝟏
𝒅𝒖
𝒅𝒙
Tangent Line Normal Line
𝒅 𝒖 𝒅𝒚 𝟏
𝒂 = 𝒂𝒖 𝒍𝒏 𝒂 𝒅𝒖 𝑴𝑻𝑳 = 𝑴𝑵𝑳 = −
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙 𝑴𝑻𝑳

Logarithmic Formula 𝒅 𝒅𝒖
TIME RATES
𝒍𝒐𝒈(𝒖) =
𝒅𝒙 𝒖 𝒍𝒏 𝟏𝟎
Velocity Acceleration Flow
𝒅 𝒅𝒖 𝒅𝒔 𝒅𝒗 𝒅𝑽
𝒍𝒏(𝒖) = 𝒗= 𝒂= 𝑸=
𝒅𝒙 𝒖 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕

Product Rule 𝒅
𝒖𝒗 = 𝒖𝒅𝒗 + 𝒗𝒅𝒖
𝒅𝒙 OPTIMIZATION
Always express the quantity to be optimized in terms of a single
Quotient Rule 𝒅 𝒖 𝒗𝒅𝒖 − 𝒖𝒅𝒗
=
𝒅𝒙 𝒗 𝒗𝟐 variable function. Differentiate the function and set the
derivative equal to zero.
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
MATHEMATICS, SURVEYING, AND TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

INTEGRATION TECHNIQUES LENGTH OF CURVES

SUBSTITUTION METHOD
Parametric
Involves substituting a complex expression within the integral with 𝒅𝒙 2 𝒅𝒚 𝟐
a simpler variable to make integration easier. 𝑺 = ∫ √( ) + ( ) 𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕

∫ 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)𝑔 ′ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑢)𝑑𝑢 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑢 = 𝑔(𝑥) Rectangular

𝒅𝒚 𝟐
𝑺 = ∫ √𝟏 + ( ) 𝒅𝒙
𝒅𝒙

INTEGRATION BY PARTS 𝒅𝒙 𝟐
𝑺 = ∫ √𝟏 + ( ) 𝒅𝒚
This technique is used for integrating the product of two functions 𝒅𝒚
where u and dv are selected.
Polar
∫ 𝑢 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑢𝑣 − ∫ 𝑣𝑑𝑢 𝒅𝒓 𝟐
𝑺 = ∫ √𝒓 𝟐 + ( ) 𝒅𝜽
𝒅𝜽

BASIC INTEGRATION
SURFACE AREA OF CURVES
General Power Formula (𝒖)𝒏+𝟏
∫(𝒖)𝒏 𝒅𝒖 = +𝑪 𝑨𝒔 = 𝟐𝝅 ∫ 𝒙 𝒅𝑺 𝑜𝑟 𝑨𝒔 = 𝟐𝝅 ∫ 𝒚 𝒅𝑺
𝒏+𝟏

Exponential Formula ∫ 𝒆𝒖 𝒅𝒖 = 𝒆𝒖 + 𝑪
CENTROIDS
𝒂𝒖
∫ 𝒂𝒖 𝒅𝒖 = +𝑪 Length
𝐥𝐧 𝒂 ̅ = ∫ 𝒙 𝒅𝑺
𝑺𝒙 ̅ = ∫ 𝒚 𝒅𝑺
𝑺𝒚

Logarithmic Formula 𝟏
∫ 𝒅𝒖 = 𝐥𝐧|𝒖| + 𝑪 Area
𝒖 ̅ = ∫ 𝒙 𝒅𝑨
𝑨𝒙 ̅ = ∫ 𝒚 𝒅𝑨
𝑨𝒚

∫ 𝐥𝐧 𝒖 𝒅𝒖 = 𝒖 𝐥𝐧 𝒖 − 𝒖 + 𝑪 Volume ̅ = ∫ 𝒙 𝒅𝑽
𝑽𝒙 ̅ = ∫ 𝒚 𝒅𝑽
𝑽𝒚

PLANE AREAS MOMENT OF INERTIA

Vertical Strip 𝑨 = ∫(𝒚𝒖𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒓 − 𝒚𝒍𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 )𝒅𝒙 About the X-Axis
Horizontal Vertical
𝟏
Horizontal Strip 𝑰𝒙 = ∫ 𝒚𝟐 𝒅𝑨 𝑰𝒙 = ∫ 𝒚𝟑 𝒅𝒙
𝑨 = ∫(𝒙𝒓𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 − 𝒙𝒍𝒆𝒇𝒕 )𝒅𝒚 𝟑

About the Y-Axis

Radial Strip 𝟏 Vertical Horizontal
𝑨 = ∫ 𝒓𝟐 𝒅𝜽
𝟐 𝟏
𝑰𝒚 = ∫ 𝒙𝟐 𝒅𝑨 𝑰𝒚 = ∫ 𝒙𝟑 𝒅𝒚
𝟑

Polar Moment of Inertia

VOLUME OF SOLID REVOLUTION
Disk Method 𝑱 = ∫ 𝑹𝟐 𝒅𝑨 𝑱 = 𝑰𝒙 + 𝑰𝒚
𝑽 = 𝝅 ∫ 𝑹𝟐 𝒅𝒙
𝟐
𝑽 = 𝝅 ∫ 𝑹 𝒅𝒚 Product of Inertia
𝑰𝒙𝒚 = ∫ 𝒙𝒚𝒅𝑨
Ring Method 𝑽 = 𝝅 ∫(𝑹𝟐 − 𝒓𝟐 ) 𝒅𝒙

𝑽 = 𝝅 ∫(𝑹𝟐 − 𝒓𝟐 ) 𝒅𝒚 WORK
GENERAL FORMULA
Shell Method
𝑽 = 𝟐𝝅 ∫ 𝒙 𝒅𝑨 𝑾 = ∫ 𝑭(𝒙)𝒅𝒙
𝑽 = 𝟐𝝅 ∫ 𝒚 𝒅𝑨 SPRING
𝑾 = ∫ 𝑭(𝒙) 𝒅𝒙 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐹 = 𝑘𝑥

PUMP
𝒉𝑳
𝑾 = ∫ 𝜸(𝑨𝒅𝒉)(𝒉𝑻 − 𝒉)𝒅𝒙
𝟎
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
MATHEMATICS, SURVEYING, AND TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

A differential equation involves derivatives of an unknown

function. It relates the function to its derivatives in one or more APPLICATIONS
variables.

General Equation [Mode 3 – 5]

ORDER AND DEGREE
𝒀 = 𝑪𝒆𝒌(𝒙)
ORDER
The order is determined by the highest derivative present in the
X Y
equation.
𝒅𝒚 Cooling Time 𝑇−𝑇
First Order
𝒅𝒙
𝒅𝟐 𝒚 Heating Time 𝑇 −𝑇
Second Order
𝒅𝒙𝟐 Natural Population Growth Time 𝑃

DEGREE Radioactive Decay Time 𝑚

The degree applies to polynomial equations formed when
derivatives are eliminated. It is defined for polynomial equations
having the highest power of the highest derivative in the
equation. CHANGE IN CONCENTRATION

𝑪𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒆
𝒅𝒎
= 𝒅𝒕
METHODS FOR SOLVING 𝑪𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝑪𝒊𝒏 − 𝑪𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍

VARIABLE SEPARABLE
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
1. Express the differential equation in the form
𝑑𝑦
= 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑦) 𝒅
𝑑𝑥 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒖 𝒅𝒖 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒖 + 𝑪
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒖 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒖 𝒅𝒖
𝒅𝒙
2. Separate the variables. 𝒅
𝑑𝑦 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒖 = −𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒖 𝒅𝒖 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒖 𝒅𝒖 = −𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒖 + 𝑪
= 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 𝒅𝒙
𝑔(𝑦)
𝒅 𝟐
𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝒖 = 𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝒖 𝒅𝒖 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐 𝒖 𝒅𝒖 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝒖 + 𝑪
3. General Solution: 𝒅𝒙
𝑑𝑦 𝒅
= 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + 𝐶 𝒄𝒐𝒕 𝒖 = −𝒄𝒔𝒄𝟐 𝒖 𝒅𝒖 𝒄𝒔𝒄𝟐 𝒖 𝒅𝒖 = −𝒄𝒐𝒕 𝒖 + 𝑪
𝑔(𝑦) 𝒅𝒙
𝒅
𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝒖 = 𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝒖 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝒖 𝒅𝒖 𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝒖 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝒖 𝒅𝒖 = 𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝒖 + 𝑪
EXACT EQUATION 𝒅𝒙
1. Express the differential equation in the form 𝒅
𝒄𝒔𝒄 𝒖 = −𝒄𝒔𝒄 𝒖 𝒄𝒐𝒕 𝒖 𝒅𝒖 𝒄𝒔𝒄 𝒖 𝒄𝒐𝒕 𝒖 𝒅𝒖 = −𝒄𝒔𝒄 𝒖 + 𝑪
𝒅𝒙
𝑀(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝑥 + 𝑁(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝑦 = 0

wherein INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
=
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
𝒅 𝒅𝒖 𝒅𝒖 𝒖
2. General Solution: 𝒂𝒓𝒄𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒖 = = 𝒂𝒓𝒄𝒔𝒊𝒏 + 𝑪
𝒅𝒙 √𝟏 − 𝒖𝟐 √𝒂𝟐 − 𝒖𝟐 𝒂
𝑀(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝑥 𝑁(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝑦 𝒅 𝒅𝒖
𝐹(𝑥, 𝑦) = + =𝐶 𝒂𝒓𝒄𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒖 = −
"𝑦 𝑎𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡" "𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑥" 𝒅𝒙 √𝟏 − 𝒖𝟐
𝒅 𝒅𝒖 𝒅𝒖 𝟏 𝒖
𝒂𝒓𝒄𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝒖 = = 𝒂𝒓𝒄𝒕𝒂𝒏 + 𝑪
𝒅𝒙 𝟏 + 𝒖𝟐 𝒂𝟐 + 𝒖𝟐 𝒂 𝒂
LINEAR EQUATION 𝒅 𝒅𝒖
𝒂𝒓𝒄𝒄𝒐𝒕 𝒖 = −
1. Express the differential equation in the form 𝒅𝒙 𝟏 + 𝒖𝟐
𝒅 𝒅𝒖 𝒅𝒖 𝟏 𝒖
𝑑𝑦 𝒂𝒓𝒄𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝒖 = = 𝒂𝒓𝒄𝒔𝒆𝒄 + 𝑪
+ 𝑃(𝑥)𝑦 = 𝑄(𝑥) 𝒅𝒙 𝒖√𝒖𝟐 − 𝟏 𝒖√𝒖𝟐 − 𝒂𝟐 𝒂 𝒂
𝑑𝑥
𝒅 𝒅𝒖
𝒂𝒓𝒄𝒄𝒔𝒄 𝒖 = −
2. General Solution: 𝒅𝒙 𝒖√𝒖𝟐 − 𝟏
𝑦(𝜆) = 𝜆 𝑄(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + 𝐶
wherein
( )
𝜆 = 𝑒∫

HOMOGENOUS DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION

1. Express the differential equation in the form

𝑀(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝑥 + 𝑁(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝑦 = 0

wherein 𝑀(𝑥, 𝑦) and 𝑁(𝑥, 𝑦) has the same degree.

2. Introduce a new variable to transform the equation into a

separable form.

𝑥 = 𝑣𝑦 𝑦 = 𝑣𝑥
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑦𝑑𝑣 + 𝑣𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑥𝑑𝑣 + 𝑣𝑑𝑥
PHYSICS
MATHEMATICS, SURVEYING, AND TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

TERMINOLOGIES ROTATIONAL MOTION

 Dynamics – a branch of physics that deals with the forces and Involves the rotation of an object around its axis and is
torques affecting motion. characterized by angular displacement, angular velocity, and
 Kinematics – describes the motion of objects without angular acceleration.
considering the forces or torques that cause the motion.
 Kinetics – deals with the effects of forces and torques on the CONSTANT ANGULAR ACCELERATION
1
motion of bodies having mass. 𝜃 = 𝜔 𝑡 + 𝛼𝑡 𝜔 = 𝜔 + 2𝛼𝜃 𝜔 = 𝜔 + 𝛼𝑡
2
 Distance – a scalar quantity that refers to the total length
traveled by an object. VARYING ACCELERATION
 Displacement – a vector quantity that refers to the change in 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜔
𝜔= 𝛼= 𝑑𝜔 = 𝛼 𝑑𝜃
position of an object. 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
 Speed – a scalar quantity that refers to how fast an object is
moving.
 Velocity – a vector quantity that refers to the rate at which an RELATIONSHIP WITH RECTILINEAR MOTIONS
object changes its position. 𝑣
𝑠 = 𝑟𝜃 𝑣 = 𝑟𝜔 𝑎 = 𝑟𝛼 𝑎 =
 Acceleration – a vector quantity that is defined as the rate of 𝑟
change of an object with respect to time.
ERRATIC MOTION
RECTILINEAR MOTION Describes irregular and unpredictable movement with no
consistent pattern or direction of an object.
The movement of an object along a straight line is characterized
by a one-dimensional path with motion occurring in either the ACCELERATION-TIME DIAGRAM
positive or negative direction or remaining stationary. ∆𝑣 = 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎 − 𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚
∆𝑠 = 𝑣 𝑡 + 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎 − 𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚
CONSTANT ACCELERATION
1 VELOCITY-TIME DIAGRAM
𝑠 = 𝑣 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 𝑣 = 𝑣 + 2𝑎𝑠 𝑣 = 𝑣 + 𝑎𝑡
2 ∆𝑠 = 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣 − 𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚

VARYING ACCELERATION
𝑣=
𝑑𝑠
𝑎=
𝑑𝑣
𝑣 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑎 𝑑𝑠 FORCE AND ACCELERATION
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
The acceleration of an object as produced by a net force is
directly proportional to the magnitude of the net force and
inversely proportional to the mass of the object.
PROJECTILE MOTION
∑𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
The movement of an object along a curved path that is under
the influence of gravity, with an initial velocity.
WORK AND ENERGY
ENERGY EQUATION
1 1
𝑚𝑔ℎ + 𝑘𝑥 + 𝑚𝑣
2 2 =0
"𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙" "𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐"

WORK-ENERGY THEOREM
Work done by the net force on a particle equals the change in
the particle’s kinetic energy.

1 1
𝐹𝑑 + 𝑚𝑔ℎ + 𝑘𝑥 = 𝑚(𝑣 − 𝑣 )
2 2

IMPULSE AND MOMENTUM

CURVILINEAR MOTION IMPULSE-MOMENTUM THEOREM
The impulse of the net external force on a particle during a time
Involves the movement of an object along a curved path, interval equals the change in momentum of that particle.
departing from the straight-line trajectory observed in rectilinear
𝐹(∆𝑡) = 𝑚(∆𝑣)
motion.
IMPACT AND COLLISION
1. Apply Law of Conservation of Momentum
𝑚 (𝑣 ) + 𝑚 (𝑣 ) = 𝑚 (𝑣 ) + 𝑚 (𝑣 )

2. Apply Coefficient of Restitution “e”

𝑣 −𝑣
𝑒=
𝑣 −𝑣

values of e:
𝑒 = 1: perfectly elastic impact
(opposite direction after impact)

𝑒 = 0: perfectly plastic impact

(together after impact)
VECTORS AND CALCULUS FUNCTIONS
MATHEMATICS, SURVEYING, AND TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

A vector is a quantity that has both magnitude and direction. It

is represented by an arrow, where the length of the arrow TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
represents the magnitude, and the direction indicates the
direction of the vector.
𝒅
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒖 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒖 𝒅𝒖 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒖 𝒅𝒖 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒖 + 𝑪
𝒅𝒙
𝒅
VECTOR OPERATIONS 𝒅𝒙
𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒖 = −𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒖 𝒅𝒖 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒖 𝒅𝒖 = −𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒖 + 𝑪

Addition 𝑨+𝑩 = 𝑪 𝒅 𝟐
𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝒖 = 𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝒖 𝒅𝒖 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐 𝒖 𝒅𝒖 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝒖 + 𝑪
𝒅𝒙
Subtraction 𝑨−𝑩 = 𝑪 𝒅
𝒄𝒐𝒕 𝒖 = −𝒄𝒔𝒄𝟐 𝒖 𝒅𝒖 𝒄𝒔𝒄𝟐 𝒖 𝒅𝒖 = −𝒄𝒐𝒕 𝒖 + 𝑪
𝒅𝒙
Dot Product (Scalar) 𝑨 ∙ 𝑩 = 𝒙𝟏 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟏 𝒚𝟐 + 𝒛𝟏 𝒛𝟐 𝒅
𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝒖 = 𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝒖 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝒖 𝒅𝒖 𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝒖 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝒖 𝒅𝒖 = 𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝒖 + 𝑪
𝒅𝒙
𝑨 ∙ 𝑩 = |𝑨||𝑩| 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽
𝒅
𝒄𝒔𝒄 𝒖 = −𝒄𝒔𝒄 𝒖 𝒄𝒐𝒕 𝒖 𝒅𝒖 𝒄𝒔𝒄 𝒖 𝒄𝒐𝒕 𝒖 𝒅𝒖 = −𝒄𝒔𝒄 𝒖 + 𝑪
Cross Product (Vector) 𝑨×𝑩≠𝑩 ×𝑨 𝒅𝒙

|𝑨 × 𝑩| = |𝑩 × 𝑨|
INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
|𝑨 × 𝑩| = |𝑨||𝑩| 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽

𝒅 𝒅𝒖 𝒅𝒖 𝒖
𝒂𝒓𝒄𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒖 = = 𝒂𝒓𝒄𝒔𝒊𝒏 + 𝑪
𝒅𝒙 √𝟏 − 𝒖𝟐 √𝒂𝟐 − 𝒖𝟐 𝒂
𝒅 𝒅𝒖
COMPONENT OF VECTORS 𝒂𝒓𝒄𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒖 = −
𝒅𝒙 √𝟏 − 𝒖𝟐
Vectors can be expressed in terms of their components, which 𝒅 𝒅𝒖 𝒅𝒖 𝟏 𝒖
𝒂𝒓𝒄𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝒖 = = 𝒂𝒓𝒄𝒕𝒂𝒏 + 𝑪
are the parts of the vector that act along specific directions in a 𝒅𝒙 𝟏 + 𝒖𝟐 𝒂𝟐 + 𝒖𝟐 𝒂 𝒂
coordinate system. 𝒅 𝒅𝒖
𝒂𝒓𝒄𝒄𝒐𝒕 𝒖 = −
𝒅𝒙 𝟏 + 𝒖𝟐
Magnitude [Mode 8 – Abs(VctA)]
𝒅 𝒅𝒖 𝒅𝒖 𝟏 𝒖
𝒂𝒓𝒄𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝒖 = = 𝒂𝒓𝒄𝒔𝒆𝒄 + 𝑪
𝒅𝒙 𝒖√𝒖𝟐 − 𝟏 𝒖√𝒖𝟐 − 𝒂𝟐 𝒂 𝒂
𝑨⃗ = 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 + 𝒛𝟐
𝒅 𝒅𝒖
𝒂𝒓𝒄𝒄𝒔𝒄 𝒖 = −
UNIT VECTOR 𝒅𝒙 𝒖√𝒖𝟐 − 𝟏
𝑨𝒙 𝑨𝒚 𝑨𝒛 𝑨
𝝀𝑨 = 〈 〉=
|𝑨| |𝑨| |𝑨| |𝑨|

DIRECTION COSINE
𝑨𝒙 𝑨𝒚 𝑨𝒛
𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽𝒙 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽𝒚 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽𝒛 =
|𝑨| |𝑨| |𝑨|

FORCE VECTOR
𝑭⃗ = 𝑭𝝀

APPLICATIONS

Shortest Distance |𝑨 × 𝑩|
𝒅=
𝑨

Area of Triangle 𝟏
𝑨 = |𝑨 × 𝑩|
𝟐

Area of Parallelogram 𝑨 = |𝑨 × 𝑩|

Volume of Parallelepiped 𝑽 = |𝑨 × 𝑩| ∙ 𝑪

Direction Number 𝑫𝑵 = 〈𝑨 𝑩 𝑪〉 = |𝑨 × 𝑩|

Work 𝑾 = 𝑭⃗𝒅⃗

Moment 𝑴 = 𝒓 × 𝑭𝝀
ENGINEERING ECONOMICS
MATHEMATICS, SURVEYING, AND TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

ENGINEERING ECONOMY RULES PERPETUITY

RULE 1: Reference refers to the period of want, while source refers A perpetuity is a financial arrangement or investment that
to the period of what is given. provides a constant stream of cash flows that continues
indefinitely into the future.
𝑊 = 𝐻(1 + 𝑖)
Interval = 1: Interval > 1:
RULE 2: The start and end refer to the period of Annuities. 𝐴 𝐴
𝑃= 𝑃=
𝑖 (1 + 𝑖) − 1

𝑊=𝐴 (1 + 𝑖)
CAPITALIZED COST AND ANNUAL COST
RULE 3: The start and end refer to the period of Gradients. CAPITALIZED COST
Refers to the total cost incurred to acquire, construct, or upgrade
𝑃= [(𝑦)(1 + 𝑖) ] a long-term asset. This includes the purchase price, installation,
transportation, and any additional cost such as maintenance
and repair.

INTEREST 𝐶𝐶 = 𝐹𝐶 +
𝑂+𝑀
+
𝐹𝐶 − 𝑆
𝑖 (1 + 𝑖) − 1
SIMPLE INTEREST
Interest is computed based on Ordinary Interest (one banker’s ANNUAL COST
year – 360 days) or based on the exact number of days. Annual cost represents the total cost of owning, operating, and
maintaining an asset on an annual basis.
𝐼 = 𝑃𝑟𝑛 𝐹 = 𝑃(1 + 𝑟𝑛)
𝐴𝐶 = 𝐶𝐶(𝑖)
COMPOUND INTEREST
Interest is computed at the end of each interest period and the
interest earned for each period is added to the principal. DEPRECIATION
𝑟 𝑟 GENERAL FORMULAS
𝑖 = 1+ −1 𝐹 = 𝑃 1+
𝑚 𝑚
𝐵𝑉 = 𝐹𝐶 − 𝐷 𝑑 = 𝐵𝑉 − 𝐵𝑉
For continuous:
𝑖 =𝑒 −1 𝐹 = 𝑃𝑒 𝐷 = 𝑑 𝑑 =𝐷 −𝐷

ANNUTIES STRAIGHT LINE METHOD [MODE 3 – 2]

X (𝑚) y (𝐵𝑉 )
Annuity refers to a series of equal payments made at regular
0 𝐹𝐶
intervals.
𝑛 𝑆𝑉
ORDINARY ANNUITY
(1 + 𝑖) − 1 SUM OF YEARS DIGIT METHOD [MODE 3 – 3]
𝐹 =𝐴
𝑖 X (𝑚) y (𝐵𝑉 )
0 𝐹𝐶
ANNUITY DUE 𝑛 𝑆𝑉
𝐹 =𝐹 + 𝐴(1 + 𝑖) 𝑛+1 𝑆𝑉

DECLINING BALANCE METHOD [MODE 3 – 6]

GRADIENTS X (𝑚) y (𝐵𝑉 )
0 𝐹𝐶
X (𝟎 − 𝒔𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒄𝒆) y (𝒄𝒂𝒔𝒉𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘) 𝑛 𝑆𝑉
𝟎 − 𝒙𝟏 𝑦
DOUBLE DECLINING BALANCE METHOD [MODE 3 – 6]
𝟎 − 𝒙𝟐 𝑦
X (𝑚) y (𝐵𝑉 )
0 𝐹𝐶
UNIFORM GRADIENT [Mode 3 – 2] 1 2
𝐹𝐶 1 −
A constant rate of change in cash flows over a series of periods 𝑛
that increases or decreases at a fixed amount per period.
SINKING FUND METHOD
(1 + 𝑖) − 1 (1 + 𝑖) − 1
𝐹𝐶 = 𝑆𝑉 + 𝑑 𝐷 =𝑑
GEOMETRIC GRADIENT [Mode 3 – 6] 𝑖 𝑖

Involves a constant ratio of change in cash flows over time that

increases or decreases by a fixed percentage in each period.
INFLATION
Increase in the amount of money needed to purchase same
INTEREST RATE FACTORS amount of goods or services.

Compound Amount 𝑭/𝑷 For Commodity For Purchasing Power

Single Payment 𝑃
Present Worth 𝑷/𝑭 𝐹 = 𝑃 (1 + 𝑓) 𝐹 =
(1 + 𝑓)
Compound Amount 𝑭/𝑨
Sinking Fund 𝑨/𝑭 Equal Payment
Present Worth 𝑷/𝑨 Series BREAK-EVEN ANALYSIS
Capital Recovery 𝑨/𝑷
A method to determine when costs exactly equal revenue.
Gradient Uniform Series 𝑨/𝑮
Gradient Series
Gradient Present Worth 𝑷/𝑮 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 = 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑒
DATA ANALYTICS
MATHEMATICS, SURVEYING, AND TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

STATISTICS PROBABILITIES
MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY A measure of the likelihood that a particular event will occur.
The average of a given set of values 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒
𝑃(𝐸) =
Mean ∑𝑥 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒
𝑥̅ =
𝑛
The middle value in a set of data in order INDEPENDENT EVENT
Median If the occurrence of one event does not affect the probability of
𝑃 = 0.5(𝑛 + 1)
the other event.
Mode The most common value 𝑃(𝐴⋂𝐵) = 𝑃(𝐴) ⋅ 𝑃(𝐵)

CONDITIONAL PROBABILITY
MEASURES OF DISPERSION
The probability of event A given that event B has occurred.
Range 𝑅=𝑥 −𝑥
𝑃(𝐴⋂𝐵)
𝑃(𝐴/𝐵) =
Interquartile Range 𝐼𝑄𝑅 = 𝑄 − 𝑄 𝑃(𝐵)

Population SD BINOMIAL DISTRIBUTION

Describes the number of successes in a fixed number of Bernoulli
∑(𝑥 − 𝑥̅ )
𝜎= trials.
Standard 𝑛 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑛𝐶𝑥(𝑝) (𝑞)
Deviation Sample SD
∑(𝑥 − 𝑥̅ ) GEOMETRIC DISTRIBUTION
𝑠= Describes the number of trials needed to achieve the first success
𝑛−1
in a sequence of independent Bernoulli trials.
Measures the average squared
deviation of each data point from 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑞 (𝑝)
Variance
the mean. (𝑠 )
NEGATIVE BINOMIAL DISTRIBUTION
Mean Absolute ∑(𝑥 − 𝑥̅ ) Describes the number of trials needed to achieve kth success in a
𝑀𝐴𝐷 =
Deviation 𝑛 sequence of independent Bernoulli trials.

𝑃(𝑥) = 𝐶 (𝑝) (𝑞)

PERCENTILES
𝑃 = 𝑖(𝑛 + 1) MULTINOMIAL DISTRIBUTION
Generalization of the binomial distribution to multiple categories
wherein: or outcomes.
𝐷 =𝑃 𝑄 =𝑃
𝑛!
𝑃(𝑥 , 𝑥 , … , 𝑥 ) = 𝑃 ⋅𝑃 ⋅ …⋅ 𝑃
𝑥 !𝑥 !…𝑥 !
COUNTING PRINCIPLES
HYPERGEOMETRIC DISTRIBUTION
LINEAR PERMUTATION 𝑛 𝐶𝑟 + 𝑛 𝐶𝑟 + ⋯ + 𝑛 𝐶𝑟
𝑃(𝑥) =
Distinct Permutation Identical Permutation 𝑛𝐶𝑟
𝒏! 𝒏!
𝒏𝑷𝒓 = 𝑳𝑷 =
(𝒏 − 𝒓)! 𝒏𝒂 ! 𝒏𝒃 ! … 𝒏𝒛 ! POISSON DISTRIBUTION
𝜇 𝑒
𝑃(𝑥) =
CIRCULAR PERMUTATION 𝑥!
If 𝑛 ≠ 𝑟 If 𝑛 = 𝑟
CONTINUOUS PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION
𝒏𝑷𝒓
𝑪𝑷 = 𝑪𝑷 = (𝒏 − 𝟏)!
𝒓
𝑃(𝑎 < 𝑥 < 𝑏) = 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 1
COMBINATION
𝒏! NORMAL DISTRIBUTION [Mode 3 – 1]
𝒏𝑪𝒓 =
(𝒏 − 𝒓)! 𝒓!

MATHEMATICAL EXPECTATION

EXPECTATION [Mode 3 - 1]
It is a measure of the central tendency of a random variable and
represents the long-term average of a variable’s values in
Mean Standard Deviation Z-Score
repeated trials. 𝑥−𝜇
𝜇 = 𝑛𝑝 𝜎 = 𝑛𝑝𝑞 𝑧=
Discrete Random Variable Continuous Random Variable 𝜎

𝐸(𝑥) = ∑𝑥𝑝 𝐸(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 SAMPLE DISTRIBUTION

Sample Sample Standard
Z-Score
Mean Deviation
𝜎 = ∑(𝑥 − 𝑥̅ ) 𝑝 𝜎 = (𝑥 − 𝑥̅ ) 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 𝜎 𝑥̅ − 𝜇 ̅
𝜇 ̅=𝜇 𝜎̅= 𝑧=
𝑛 𝜎̅

𝑠 = ∑(𝑥 − 𝑥̅ ) 𝑝 𝑠 = 𝜎 PROBABILITY OF FAILURE AND RELIABILITY

Failure Reliability
𝜆𝑒 , 𝑡≥0
𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑅=𝑒
0 , 𝑒𝑙𝑠𝑒𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒

wherein,
1
𝜆=
𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑢𝑟𝑒
ELEMENTARY SURVEYING
MATHEMATICS, SURVEYING, AND TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

PACING TACHEOMETRY (STADIA)

Tacheometry is a branch of angular surveying in which the
STRIDE horizontal and vertical distances are obtained by optical
means.

PACE 𝑓
𝐿= (𝑆𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃) + (𝑓 + 𝑐)
𝑖
Where:
The pace factor is determined by comparing the surveyor’s
actual pace to the standard pace, and it is applied to ensure L = Distance from instrument center to the rod
accurate and calibrated measurements in surveying.
f = focal length of lens
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑
𝑃𝐹 = i = spacing between stadia wires
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠
S = stadia intercept or interval
c = distance from the instrument center to the objective lens
THEORY OF ERRORS IN OBSERVATION
f/i = interval factor
For Any Single Observation For The Mean
Standard Deviation Standard Deviation
𝑠 CURVATURE AND REFRACTION
∑𝑣 𝑠̅=
𝑠 = √𝑛
𝑛−1 Curvature Effect (for correction, effect is subtracted)
Probable Error Probable Error
𝑠 ℎ = 0.0785 𝑘
𝑃𝐸 = 0.6745 𝑠 𝑃𝐸 = 0.6745
√𝑛 Refraction Correction (for correction, effect is added)
RELATIVE ERROR (PRECISION) 1
ℎ = (0.0785 𝑘 )
𝑃𝐸 7
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 Combined Correction (for correction. The effect is subtracted)
6
WEIGHTED MEASUREMENTS ℎ = (0.0785 𝑘 )
7
Observation Probable Error Distance
1 1
𝑊=𝑂 𝑊=
𝐸
𝑊=
𝐷 TRAVERSE SURVEYING

TAPE CORRECTIONS

𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 + 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠

Factor Error

Temperature 𝑐 = 𝛼(𝑇 − 𝑇 )𝐿

(𝑃 − 𝑃 )𝐿
Pull 𝑐 =
𝐴𝐸
𝑤 (∑ 𝐿 )
Sag 𝑐 = ERROR OF CLOSURE
24𝑃
1 ℎ Linear Error of Closure Relative Error or Precision
Slope 𝑐 = ∑
2 𝑆 𝐿𝐸𝐶 = (∑𝐿𝑎𝑡) + (∑𝐷𝑒𝑝) 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝑅𝐸 =
𝐻𝐿 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
Reduction to Mean Sea Level 𝑐 =
𝑅
BALANCING DATA [Mode 3 - 2]

LEVELING X Y

Leveling is a branch of surveying that deals with the 0 0

measurement of the elevation of different points with respect to Perimeter Error
a fixed line called a datum.
Compass Rule Transit Rule
𝑐 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑐 𝐿𝐴𝑇
STA BS HI FS ELEV = =
𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑒 ∑|𝐿𝐴𝑇|
BM 𝑥 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑣 + 𝐵𝑆 𝑦
TP1 𝑥 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑣 + 𝐵𝑆 𝑧 𝐻𝐼 − 𝐹𝑆
TP2 𝑥 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑣 + 𝐵𝑆 𝑧 𝐻𝐼 − 𝐹𝑆 𝑐 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑐 𝐷𝐸𝑃
= =
𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑒 ∑|𝐷𝐸𝑃|

BUBBLE SENSITIVITY AREA CALCULATION [Mode 3 -1]

𝐴 = 0.5 ∑𝑥

Angle of Angular Value of Radius of the

Adjusted Adjusted Double Double
Deviation One Space Level Tube
Latitude Departure Parallel Meridian
∆𝑦 𝜃
tan(𝜃) = ∝= 𝑛𝑙 = 𝑅𝜃 Distance Distance
𝑥 𝑛
A D A D
B E 2A+B 2D+E
C F 2A+2B+C 2D+2E+F
ROUTE SURVEYING (HORIZONTAL)
MATHEMATICS, SURVEYING, AND TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

SIMPLE CURVES SPIRAL CURVES

Degree of Curve Length of Spiral Curve Desirable Length of Spiral

Arc Basis Chord Basis 𝑣 0.036𝐾
𝐿 = 𝐿 =
𝐷 𝑅(𝑐) 𝑅
20 = 2𝜋𝑅 20 = 𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝐷)
360
Length of Curve Long Chord Spiral Angle
𝐼 𝐼 𝐿 𝐿
𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑅 𝐶 = 2𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃= 𝜃 =
360 2 2𝑅𝐿 2𝑅
Tangent Distance External Distance
𝑅
𝐼 𝐸= −𝑅 Offset Distance
𝑇 = 𝑅𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝐼
2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐿 𝐿
2 𝑥= 𝑥 = 𝑥= 𝜃𝑑𝐿
Deflection Angle Middle Ordinate 6𝑅𝐿 6𝑅
𝐼
𝑖 = 𝜃/2 𝑀 = 𝑅 − 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠
2 Distance Along Spiral Tangent
𝐿 𝐿
𝑦=𝐿− 𝑦=𝐿 − 𝑦= cos (𝜃)𝑑𝐿
COMPOUND CURVES 40𝑅 𝐿 40𝑅

Angle of Intersection Common Tangent Spiral Angle of

Deflection Angle Length of Throw
𝐼 = 𝐼 +𝐼 𝑇 = 𝑇 +𝑇 Intersection
𝑥
𝑖 = 𝜃/3 𝜌= 𝐼 = 𝐼 + 2𝜃
4
REVERSE CURVES
Spiral Tangent External Distance
𝐿 𝐼 (𝑅 + 𝜌)
𝑇 = + (𝑅 + 𝜌) tan 𝐸 = −𝑅
2 2 𝐼
cos
2

Impact Factor Design Super Elevation

𝑣 0.0079𝐾
𝐼𝐹 = tan(𝜃 + ∅) = 𝑒= (𝐼 )
𝑔𝑅 𝑅

HORIZONTAL SIGHT DISTANCE

Case 1: S < L Case 2: S > L

S 𝐿(2𝑆 − 𝐿)
R= R=
8𝑀 8𝑀
Wherein:
If tangent lines are parallel, central angle is equal and PRC is
along LC. L = Length of Curve
S = Sight Distance
Long Chord
𝐼 𝑦 𝐼 𝐼 R = Radius of Curve
sin = 𝐶 = 2𝑅 sin + 2𝑅 sin
2 𝑐 +𝑐 2 2 M = Clearance from the centerline of the Road
ROUTE SURVEYING (VERTICAL)
MATHEMATICS, SURVEYING, AND TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

SYMMETRICAL PARABOLIC CURVES EARTHWORKS

A vertical curve is symmetrical if the horizontal length is equal at Station Notes
both sides of the vertex. 𝑥 0 𝑥
𝑦 𝑦 𝑦

Cross Section Method

1 𝑤
Station and Elevation [Mode 3 – 2] 𝐴= (𝑦 + 𝑦 ) + 𝑦 (𝑥 + 𝑥 )
2 2

X (STA) Y (g%)
STA PVC g1 Volume Approximation Methods
STA PVT g2 End-Area Method
𝐿
𝑆𝑇𝐴 𝐻𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑡/𝐿𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑠𝑡 = 𝑆𝑇𝐴 𝑃𝐶 + 0x 𝑉 = (𝐴 + 𝐴 )
2
Prismoidal Formula
𝐸𝐿𝐸𝑉 𝐻𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑡/𝐿𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑠𝑡 = 𝐸𝐿𝐸𝑉 𝑃𝐶 + (𝐴 + 𝐵𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝐿
𝑉 = (𝐴 + 4𝐴 + 𝐴 )
6
Length of the Curve Tangent Distance
∆𝑔 Prismoidal Correction Formula
𝐿 = 𝑅∆𝑔 𝑇=𝑅
2 𝐿
∆𝑉 = 𝑉 − 𝑉 = (𝐷 − 𝐷 )(𝐶 − 𝐶 )
12
Vertical Offset Relation of Parabolic Curve
𝐻 𝐿 𝑥 (𝐿/2)
= (𝑔 − 𝑔 ) =
4 8 𝑦 𝐻 Borrow-Pit Method

UNSYMMETRICAL PARABOLIC CURVES

A vertical curve is unsymmetrical if the horizontal length is not
equal at both sides of the vertex.

The land is divided into prisms of square base to estimate the

volume of excavation or filled.
𝐴
𝑉= [∑ℎ + 2∑ℎ + 3∑ℎ + 4∑ℎ ]
4

Intermediate Grade (𝒈𝟑 )

𝐿 𝐿
(𝑔 − 𝑔 ) = (𝑔 − 𝑔 )
2 2
Station and Elevation [Mode 3 – 2]

X (STA) Y (g%)
STA PVC g1
𝒚𝟏 = 𝐴 + 𝐵𝑥
STA L1 g3
STA L1 g3
𝒚𝟐 = 𝐶 + 𝐷𝑥
STA PVT g2

𝐸𝐿. 𝑃𝑉𝑇 = 𝐸𝐿. 𝑃𝐶 + (𝐴 + 𝐵𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + (𝐶 + 𝐷𝑥)𝑑𝑥

TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING
MATHEMATICS, SURVEYING, AND TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

FUNDAMENTALS OF TRAFFIC FLOW DEMAND AND SERVICE RATE

PARAMETERS DEMAND – describes the number of vehicles arriving at the queue
1. Speed – the rate at which vehicles are traveling. point and awaiting service that is associated with arrival rate (𝜆).
Time Mean Speed Space Mean Speed
𝑛 SERVICE RATE – describes the number of vehicles given service on
∑𝑣 𝜇 =
𝜇 = 1 a highway that is associated with departure rate (𝜇).
𝑛 ∑
𝑣
TRAFFIC INTENSITY (𝜌) – defined as the ratio of arrival rate and
2. Flow – The number of vehicles passing a point on a
departure rate.
roadway per unit of time.
𝑣𝑒ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠
𝑞= QUEUE – the difference between the demand and service rate
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
for a certain stretch of a highway.
3. Density – The number of vehicles per unit length of a Kendall’s Notation
roadway
D – Deterministic (Constant)
𝑘=
𝑣𝑒ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠
A/B/C M – Markovian (Average)
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
Number of Departure Channel
HEADWAY
Nature of Departure
Nature of Arrival

D / D / 1 QUEUING
This queuing model is the simplest, having deterministic arrivals,
deterministic departures, and one departure channel.

Space Headway Time Headway

1 1
ℎ = ℎ =
𝑘 𝑞

RELATIONSHIP
The traffic flow equation represents the basic principle that flow
is the product of density and speed.

𝑞 = 𝑘𝑣
M / D / 1 QUEUING
Queuing that has exponentially distributed arrivals,
JAM DENSITY AND FREE FLOW deterministic departures and one departure channel.
𝜌
Average Length of Queue 𝑄=
2(1 − 𝜌)
VELOCITY VS DENSITY 𝜌
Average Waiting Time in Queue 𝑤=
2𝜇(1 − 𝜌)
2−𝜌
Average Time Spent in the System 𝑡̅ =
2𝜇(1 − 𝜌)

M / M / 1 QUEUING
Queuing that has exponentially distributed arrivals and
distributed departures, and one departure channel.
𝜌
Average Length of Queue 𝑄=
(1 − 𝜌)
𝜆
Average Waiting Time in Queue 𝑤=
𝜇(𝜇 − 𝜆)
1
Average Time Spent in the System ̅
𝑡=
𝜇−𝜆
Depicts the relationship between speed and density. As density
increases, the speed tends to decrease.

−𝑚 =
𝑣−𝑣 PEAK HOUR FACTOR
𝑘−𝑘
𝑃𝐸𝐴𝐾 𝐻𝑂𝑈𝑅 𝑉𝑂𝐿𝑈𝑀𝐸 (𝑃𝐻𝑉)
FLOW VS DENSITY OR VELOCITY 𝑃𝐻𝐹 =
𝐷𝐸𝑆𝐼𝐺𝑁 𝐻𝑂𝑈𝑅𝐿𝑌 𝑉𝑂𝐿𝑈𝑀𝐸 (𝐷𝐻𝑉)
≤ 1.0

ACCIDENT ANALYSIS
EXPANSION FACTORS
Hourly Daily Monthly
𝑣𝑜𝑙 1 𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑣𝑜𝑙 1 𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑘 𝐴𝐴𝐷𝑇
𝐻𝐸𝐹 = 𝐷𝐸𝐹 = 𝑀𝐸𝐹 =
𝑣𝑜𝑙 1 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑣𝑜𝑙 1 𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝐴𝐷𝑇

DIRECTIONAL DESIGN HOURLY VOLUME

𝐷𝐷𝐻𝑉 = 𝐾(𝐷)(𝐴𝐴𝐷𝑇) 𝐷𝐷𝐻𝑉 = 𝐿𝑂𝑆(𝑃𝐻𝐹)(𝑓 )(𝑓 )𝑛

ACCIDENT RATES
Illustrates the relationship between flow and density/velocity. It Intersection Segment
typically shows a curve with an inverse U-shape, indicating that 𝐴(10) 𝐴(10)
𝑅= 𝑅=
flow increases with density and velocity up to a point and then 𝐴𝐷𝑇(𝑛)(365) 𝐴𝐷𝑇(𝑛)(365)(𝐿)
decreases due to congestion.
SEVERITY RATIO
𝑣 𝑘 𝑓𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑙 + 𝑖𝑛𝑗𝑢𝑟𝑦
𝑞 = 𝑆𝑅 =
4 𝑓𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑙 + 𝑖𝑛𝑗𝑢𝑟𝑦 + 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑦 𝑑𝑎𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒
OTHER TOPICS
MATHEMATICS, SURVEYING, AND TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

SPHERICAL TRIGONOMETRY HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

SINE LAW COSINE LAW PAVEMENTS

For Angles Design of Pavement Thickness
sin 𝑎 sin 𝑏 sin 𝑐 cos 𝐴 = − cos 𝐵 cos 𝐶 + sin 𝐵 sin 𝐶 cos 𝑎 Flexible Pavements Rigid Pavements
= =
sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵 sin 𝐶 For Sides 𝐹 Without 3𝑊
cos 𝑎 = − cos 𝑏 cos 𝑐 + sin 𝑏 sin 𝑐 cos 𝐴 Concept 𝑓= 𝑡=
𝐴 Dowel 2𝑓
AREA SPHERICAL EXCESS VOLUME Base 𝑊
𝑓 = 3𝑊
𝜋𝑅 𝐸 𝜋𝑅 𝐸 Bearing 𝑡 =
𝐴= 𝐸 = (𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶) − 180 𝑉= 𝜋 𝑟+𝑡 2𝑓
180 540 Stress
With Dowel
Subgrade 𝑊
𝑓 = 3𝑊
Bearing 𝑡 =
𝜋 𝑟+𝑡 +𝑡 4𝑓
PORTS AND HARBOR Stress

Design of Joints in Concrete Pavements

WAVES Transverse Joints Longitudinal Joints
Length Velocity Expansion ∆= 𝛼𝐿∆𝑇 𝐹
Bond Stress 𝜎 =
𝑔𝑇 2𝜋𝑑 𝑔𝑇 2𝜋𝑑 Transverse 𝑇 = 𝜇𝑁 𝐿𝑆𝐴
Shallow 𝐿= 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ℎ 𝑉= 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ℎ
2𝜋 𝐿 2𝜋 𝐿
𝑔𝑇 Parameters
𝑔𝑇
Deep 𝐿= 𝑉= Stiffness Factor Modulus of Subgrade Reaction
2𝜋 2𝜋
𝐸 𝜎 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝑆𝐹 = 𝐾= =
QUAY WALLS 𝐸 𝛿 𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
Gravity Type Sheet Pile Type
California Bearing Ratio Shrinkage Factor
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑒 −𝑒
𝐶𝐵𝑅 = 𝑆=
𝐶𝐵𝑅 𝐴 1+𝑒

ASPHALT MIXTURE
Absolute SG Bulk SG Porosity

Where:
𝑊 𝑊 𝑊 𝐺 −𝐺
𝐺 = 𝐺 = = 𝑛=
𝐻 = Tidal Range 𝐻𝑊𝐿 = High Water Level 𝑉 𝑉 𝑊 −𝑊 𝐺
𝑅𝑊𝐿 = Residual Water Level 𝑀𝐿𝐿𝑊 = Mean Lower Low Water
𝐿𝑊𝐿 = Low Water Level

HARBORS DESIGN
PHILIPPINE PORTS AUTHORITY PAVING MIXTURE
Design Low Tide
𝐷𝐿𝑇 = 0.15𝑚 − 0.40𝑚 X Material Y Quantity
B : Bulk
𝐺 M : Mixture
E : Effective
Scouring Protection S : Aggregate
A : Absolute
𝑅𝑅 = 0.5𝑚 B : Asphalt
M : Maximum

Effective S.G. of Aggregates Percent Asphalt Absorption of Aggregates

GROUND ENGINEERING 𝑃 −𝑃 (𝐺 − 𝐺 )𝐺
𝐺 =
𝑃 𝑃 𝑃 = (100)
− 𝐺 𝐺
𝐺 𝐺
EARTHMOVING
Effective Asphalt Content Percent of Voids in Mineral Aggretates
𝜌 𝑃 𝑃 𝐺 𝑃
Factor

1
Load

𝑃 =𝑃 − 𝑉𝑀𝐴 = 100 −
𝑺𝒘𝒆𝒍𝒍(%) 𝐿𝐹 = 100 𝐺
1 + 𝑆𝑊
Percent Air Voids Percent of Voids Filled with Asphalt
𝜌 𝐺 −𝐺 (𝑉𝑀𝐴 − 𝑉 )
𝑉 = (100) 𝑉𝐹𝐴 = (100)
𝐺 𝑉𝑀𝐴
Shrinkage
Factor

1 − 𝑆𝑅
𝑺𝒉𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒌𝒂𝒈𝒆(%) 𝑆𝐹 =
1
𝜌

RAILROAD ENGINEERING
GRADE AND ROLLING RESISTANCE
Grade Resistance Rolling Resistance Effective Grade
Frog Number
𝑇𝑅
𝐺𝑅 = 10(𝑔%) 𝑅𝑅 = 20 + 6(𝑃) 𝐸𝐺(%) =
10 𝐻𝐿
𝐹𝑁 =
𝐻𝑆
HEAVY CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENTS PRODUCTION
Excavating/Lifting Loading Dozing Frog Angle
𝑉𝐵𝐸 𝑉𝐸
𝑃 = 𝐶𝑆𝑉𝐵𝐸 𝑃= 𝑃= 1
𝐶 𝐶 𝜃 = 2 𝑡𝑎𝑛
2𝐹𝑁
HAULING
Tractive Capacity (Power)
Number of Hauls Loading Time Production
Note:
𝐿 +𝐻 𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑐𝑘 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑇 = 𝜇𝑁𝑉 1HP = 746Watts 30mph = 48.28kph
𝑁= 𝐿 = 𝑃 =𝐿 𝐸
𝐿 𝑃 %
FLUID MECHANICS
HYDRAULICS AND GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

FLUID PROPERTIES BUOYANCY

Mass Density Specific Weight Specific Volume Partially Submerged Fully Submerged
𝑚 𝑊 V
𝜌= 𝛾= ∀=
𝑉 𝑉 m

Specific Gravity SG of Common Fluids

𝜌 𝛾 Air 0.001204
𝐺 = = Sea Water 1.025
𝜌 𝛾
Mercury 13.6

Properties of Water Capillary Action

1000 𝑘𝑔/𝑚 4𝜎 cos 𝜃
𝝆𝒘
STANDARD 1.9 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔𝑠/𝑓𝑡
ℎ=
𝛾𝑑
STABILITY OF FLOATING BODIES
𝜸𝒘 9810 𝑁/𝑚 Water Mercury
STANDARD 62.4 𝑙𝑏/𝑓𝑡

Viscosity Surface Tension

𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
Absolute Kinematic 𝜎=
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝜏 𝜇 Surface Tension of Water:
𝜇= 𝑣=
𝑈/𝑦 𝜌 𝜎 ° = 0.0728 𝑁/𝑚
Metacentric Height
Compressibility Bulk Modulus of Elasticity 𝑀𝐺 > 0 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒
1 ∆𝑃 𝑀𝐺 = 𝑀𝐵 − 𝐺𝐵 𝑀𝐺 < 0 𝑢𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒
𝛽= 𝑘=−
𝑘 ∆𝑉/𝑉 Distance between Metacenter and Center of Buoyancy
For Rectangular Sections For All Sections
𝐼 𝐵 tan 𝜃
FLUID STATICS 𝑀𝐵 =
𝑉 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑀𝐵 =
12𝐷
1+
2
GAS LAWS
BOYLE’S LAW
ANALYSIS OF DAM STABILITY
GAY LUSSAC’S LAW

P V
CHARLES’ LAW

PRESSURE VOLUME

T
TEMPERATURE

Ideal Gas Law

𝐽
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑚𝑅𝑇 𝑅 = 287 °𝐾
𝑘𝑔

Absolute Temperature 1. Solve for the Horizontal Forces (Hydrostatic Force) and
SI: 𝑇 = [𝑇(°𝐶) + 273]𝐾𝑒𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛 Vertical Forces (Weight of Concrete, Uplift, and Weight of
English: 𝑇 = [𝑇(°𝐹) + 460]𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒 Water).
2. Solve for Ry, RM, and OM.
Absolute Pressure 3. Solve for the Factor of Safety
𝑃 =𝑃 +𝑃 Sliding Overturning Distance of Ry to Toe
𝜇𝑅 𝑅𝑀 𝑅𝑀 − 𝑂𝑀
𝐹𝑆 = 𝐹𝑆 = 𝑥̅ =
Atmospheric Pressure at Sea Level Gauge 𝐹 𝑂𝑀 𝑅
𝑃 = 101.325 𝑘𝑃𝑎 = 14.7 𝑝𝑠𝑖 = 760 𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑟 𝑃 = ∑𝛾ℎ 4. Solve for Foundation Pressure
Case 1: 𝑒 ≤ Case 2: 𝑒 >
EXCESS PRESSURE 𝑅 6𝑒 2𝑅
𝑞= 1± 𝑞 =
Droplet/Air Bubble Soap Bubble 𝐵 𝐵 3𝑥̅
4𝜎 8𝜎
∆𝑃 = ∆𝑃 =
𝑑 𝑑
RELATIVE EQUILIBRIUM
HYDROSTATIC FORCE
Plane Surface RECTILINEAR MOTION
Horizontal Inclined Vertical
Hydrostatic Force 𝑎 𝑎 ±𝑎
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = 𝑃 = 𝛾ℎ 1 ±
𝑔 𝑔±𝑎 𝑔
𝐹 = 𝛾ℎ𝐴
ROTATIONAL MOTION
Eccentricity
Height of Vortex Slope Volume
𝐼 𝜔 𝑟 𝜔 𝑥 1
𝑒= 𝑦 = tan𝜃 = 𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟 ℎ
𝐴𝑦 2𝑔 𝑔 2
Curved Surface Open Tank
Case 1: More than Half Full Case 2: Less than Half Full
Horizontal Force 𝐻
𝑦 = 2𝑑 𝑦 =
2ℎ
𝐹 = 𝛾ℎ𝐴
Closed Tank
Vertical Force Case 1: 𝑦 < Case 2: 𝑦 = Case 3: 𝑦 >

𝐹 = 𝛾𝑉

𝑑 𝐻
𝑦 = 𝑦−
𝐻 2𝑑
HYDRAULICS
HYDRAULICS AND GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

FUNDAMENTALS OF FLUID FLOW UNSTEADY FLOW

FLOW RATES ORIFICE
Volume Flow Rate Mass Flow Rate Weight Flow Rate 𝐴
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑣 𝑀 = 𝜌𝑄 W = γQ General Formula 𝑡= 𝑑ℎ
𝑄 −𝑄
ENERGY HEADS 2 ℎ − ℎ
Kinetic Potential No Inflow 𝑡= 𝐴
𝐶 𝐴 2𝑔
Velocity Pressure Elevation
𝑣 𝑃 2 ℎ − ℎ 𝐴 𝐴
𝑧 Connector of Two Tanks 𝑡=
2𝑔 𝛾 𝐴 +𝐴
𝐶 𝐴 2𝑔
BERNOULLI’S ENERGY EQUATION
𝑣 𝑃 𝑣 𝑃 WEIRS
+ + 𝑧 + ℎ − ℎ − 𝐻𝐿 = + +𝑧
2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 𝐴
wherein: General Formula 𝑡= 𝑑ℎ
−𝑄
ℎ =head added ℎ =head extracted 𝐻𝐿=Head Loss
Suppressed Rectangular 2𝐴 1 1
𝑡= −
POWER AND EFFICIENCY Weir 𝐶 𝐿 ℎ ℎ
Power Efficiency
𝑃
𝑃 = 𝛾𝑄(𝐻𝐿) 𝐸= × 100%
𝑃
PIPES
REYNOLD’S NUMBER MULTIPLE PIPE SYSTEMS
Circular Pipes Non-Circular Pipes Hydraulic Radius Pipes in Series Pipes in Parallel
𝑉𝐷 𝜌𝑉𝐷 𝑉(4𝑅) 𝐴
𝑅𝑒 = = 𝑅𝑒 = 𝑅=
𝑣 𝜇 𝑣 𝑃

Flow Classification Based on Reynolds Number

Laminar 𝑅𝑒 < 2000
Transition 2000 < 𝑅𝑒 < 4000 𝑄=𝑄 =𝑄 =𝑄 𝑄 =𝑄 =𝑄 +𝑄 =𝑄
Turbulent 𝑅𝑒 > 4000 ℎ = ℎ +ℎ +ℎ ℎ = ℎ + ℎ 𝑜𝑟 ℎ + ℎ

HEAD LOSS FOR CIRCULAR PIPES

FLUID FLOW MEASURING INSTRUMENTS Major 𝒉𝒇 Minor 𝒉
Darcy-Weisbach Manning Hazen-Williams
HYDRAULIC COEFFICIENTS 𝑣
.
Velocity Contraction Discharge 0.0826𝑓𝐿𝑄 10.29𝑛 𝐿𝑄 10.67𝐿𝑄 𝑘
2𝑔
𝑉 𝑉 𝐴 / 𝑄 𝐷 𝐷 / 𝐶 . 𝐷 .
𝐶 = = 𝐶 = 𝐶 = =𝐶 𝐶
𝑉 2𝑔𝐻 𝐴 / 𝐴 2𝑔𝐻
THREE RESERVOIR
VENTURI METERS – Uses a converging section of pipe to give an 1 Determine the elevation at the x y
increase in the flow velocity and a corresponding pressure drop junction by assuming 𝑄 is Zero. 0 𝐸𝐿
from which the flow rate can be deduced. 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑣 = 𝐴𝑦 ℎ +ℎ 𝐸𝐿
2 Determine the Flow Equation.
PITOT TUBE – Used to measure velocity by converting the kinetic 𝑄 receives if ℎ 𝑦 > 𝐸𝑙 𝑄 gives if 𝐴𝑦 < 𝐸𝑙
energy in a fluid flow to potential energy. Moving fluid is brought 𝑄 =𝑄 +𝑄 𝑄 +𝑄 =𝑄
to rest (stagnation) as there is no outlet to allow flow to continue. 3 Rewrite the Flow Equation All interms of ℎ
ℎ = (𝐸𝐿 − 𝐸𝐿 ) − ℎ ℎ = (𝐸𝐿 − 𝐸𝐿 ) − ℎ
NOZZLE AND DIFFUSER – Nozzle increases the velocity of a fluid
where steadily flowing fluid accelerates due to a pressure drop.
Meanwhile diffuser increases the pressure of a fluid by slowing it
down.
OPEN CHANNEL
FLOW CAPACITY
ORIFICE– a small opening of any cross-section on the side or at Manning’s Formula Chezy’s Formula Boundary Shear Stress
the bottom of a tank, through which a fluid is flowing. 1
𝑣= 𝑅 / 𝑆 / 𝑣 = 𝐶√𝑅𝑆 𝜏 = 𝛾𝑅𝑆
Steady Flow: 𝑄 = 𝐶 𝐴 2𝑔ℎ 𝑛

FLOW STATES
WEIRS Froude Number – Ratio of inertial and gravitational forces that
describes different flow regimes of open channel flow.
SHARP-CRESTED WEIRS Non-Rectangular Rectangular 𝐹 <1 Subcritical
Rectangular Triangular Trapezoidal 𝐹 =1 Critical
𝑄 𝐵 𝑣
𝜃 𝐹 =
𝑄 = 𝐶 𝐿𝐻 /
𝑄 = 𝐶 tan 𝐻 / 𝑄 = 𝑄□ + 𝑄∆ 𝐹 = 𝑔𝑑 Super
2 𝐴 𝑔 𝐹 >1
Critical
2 8
𝐶 = 𝐶 2𝑔 𝐶 = 𝐶 2𝑔 Cipolletti Critical Flow
3 15
Specific Energy Critical Depth
/ / /
𝑄 = 1.84𝐿𝐻 𝑄 = 1.38𝐻 𝑄 = 1.86𝐿𝐻 Non-Rectangular Rectangular Non-Rectangular Rectangular Unit Flow
𝑣 3 𝑄 𝐴 𝑞 𝑄
𝐸= +𝑑 𝐸= 𝑑 = = 𝑑𝑐 𝑞=
2𝑔 2 𝑔 𝐵 𝑔 𝐵
BROAD-CRESTED WEIRS
Square Corner Rounded Corner
NON-UNIFORM FLOW
𝑏/𝐻 < 2: 𝑏/𝐻 < 5:
Hydraulic Jump Rectangular Non-Rectangular
𝑄 = 1.82𝐿𝐻 / 𝑄 = 1.49𝐿𝐻 /
𝑄 = 1.71𝐿𝐻 /

𝑞 𝑑 𝑑 𝑄 𝐴 𝑦 −𝐴 𝑦
∆𝐹 = 𝛾𝑄(∆𝑣) = (𝑑 + 𝑑 ) =
𝑔 1 1
END CONTRACTION 𝑔 2 𝐴
−
𝐴
Singly Contracted Doubly Contracted MOST EFFICIENT SECTION

𝐿 = 𝐿 − 0.1𝐻 𝐿 = 𝐿 − 0.2𝐻
SOIL MECHANICS
HYDRAULICS AND GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

SOIL PROPERTIES ATTERBERG LIMITS

Void Ratio Degree of Saturation Porosity
𝑉 𝑉 V
𝑒= 𝑆= n=
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
𝑛 𝑒
𝑒= 𝑆𝑒 = 𝜔𝐺 𝑛=
1−𝑛 1+𝑒
LIQUID LIMIT [Mode 3 – 4]
Casagrande’s Apparatus Cone Penetrometer
Water Content Air Content Air Void Ratio
𝑊 𝑉 𝑉 Moisture content required to close Moisture content at a penetration
𝜔= 𝑎 = 𝑛 = a distance along the bottom of of d= 20mm in 5 seconds when a
𝑊 𝑉 𝑉 the groove at 25 blows. standard cone is allowed to drop.
𝑚 −𝑚
𝜔= 𝑎 = 1−𝑆 𝑛 = 𝑛(1 − 𝑆)
𝑚
PLASTIC LIMIT
Hand Rolling Method Moisture Content
Dry Unit Weight Moist Unit Weight Saturated Unit Weight
Moisture content at which the soil 𝑚 −𝑚
𝑊 𝑊 𝑊 𝜔=
𝛾 = 𝛾 = 𝛾 = crumbles when rolled into 3.2 mm
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 threads.
𝑚
𝛾 𝐺 𝛾 (𝐺 + 𝑆𝑒) 𝛾 (𝐺 + 𝑒)
𝛾 = 𝛾 = 𝛾 =
1+𝑒 1+𝑒 1+𝑒 SHRINKAGE LIMIT [Mode 3 – 2]
𝛾 𝛾 𝐺 Moisture content at which further
𝛾 = 𝛾 = 𝛾 (1 + 𝜔) 𝛾 = (𝑣 − 𝑣 )𝜌
1+𝜔 1+𝐺 𝜔 loss in moisture will not cause a 𝑆𝐿 = 𝜔 −
decrease in volume. 𝑚

Specific Gravity Casagrande’s Estimate X Y

Solids Bulk Dry Bulk 𝑃𝐼 = 0.73(𝐿𝐿 − 20) -43.53 -46.38 𝑆𝐿 = 0𝑥

𝑃𝐼 = 0.90(𝐿𝐿 − 8) LL PI
𝛾 𝛾 𝛾
𝐺 = 𝐺 = 𝑔=
𝛾 𝛾 𝛾
Shrinkage Ratio Specific Gravity
𝜌 𝑚 𝑆𝑅
𝑆𝑅 = = 𝐺 =
𝜌 𝑣 𝜌 1 − 𝑆𝑅(𝑆𝐿)
SOIL CLASSIFICATIONS
SOIL INDICES
PARTICLE SIZE CLASSIFICATION
Shrinkage Plasticity Liquidity
𝜔 − 𝑃𝐿
USCS/ 𝑆𝐼 = 𝑃𝐿 − 𝑆𝐿 𝑃𝐼 = 𝐿𝐿 − 𝑃𝐿 𝐿𝐼 =
AASHTO MIT USDA 𝑃𝐼
ASTM G G Consistency Flow Toughness
𝐿𝐿 − 𝜔 𝜔 −𝜔 𝑃𝐼
4.75 2.00 2.00 2.00 𝐶𝐼 = 𝐹𝐼 = 𝑇𝐼 =
𝑃𝐼 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑁 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑁 𝐹𝐼
S S
0.0075 0.0075 0.006 0.005 SOILD DESCRIPTIONS
M M Category Soil PI (%) Degree of Plasticity
0.002 0.002 0.002 Sand or Silt 0 Non
I Traces of Clay 1-5 Slight
C C
Little Clay 5 - 10 Low
II Clay Loam 10 - 20 Medium
Silty Clay 20 - 40 High
PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION CURVE III
Clay > 40 Very High
Sieve
Opening MR CMR CMP % Finer
No.
LI <0 0-1 >1
4 4.75 230 230 190 45.2% Description Brittle Plastic Liquid

10 2.00 62 292 128 30.5%

20 0.425 58 350 70 16.7% SOIL COMPACTION
200 0.075 38 388 32 7.6%
BORROW PIT METHOD
Pan - 32 420 0 0.0%
𝑉 𝛾 =𝑉 𝛾

Grain Size [Mode 3 – 4] Relative Compaction Relative Density

X (mm) Y (%) Grain Effective 1
−
1
𝛾 𝑒 −𝑒 𝛾 𝛾
0.425 16.7 Size Size 𝑅 =
( )
𝑅 = =
0.075 7.6 𝐷% = %𝑥 𝐷 = 10𝑥 𝛾 ( ) 𝑒 −𝑒 1 1
−
𝛾 𝛾
Soil Parameters
STANDARD PROCTOR TEST
Suitability Number
𝐷 Maximum Dry Optimum Moisture Content [Mode 3 –
Uniformity 𝐶 = 3 1 1 Unit Weight 3]
𝐷 𝑆 = 1.7 + +
(𝐷 ) (𝐷 ) (𝐷 ) 𝑦 = 𝐴 + 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶𝑥
𝑦 = 0 = 𝐵 + 2𝐶𝑥
(𝐷 ) X Y
Gradation 𝐶 = 𝑊
𝐷 𝐷 𝑆 Rating 𝜔 𝛾
𝑉
𝛾 = 𝜔 𝛾
𝐷 0 − 10 Excellent 1+𝜔
Sorting 𝑆 = 𝜔 𝛾
𝐷 10 − 20 Good
20 − 30 Fair SAND CONE METHOD RUBBER BALLOON METHOD
𝐶 > 4: Well Graded Gravel 𝑊 𝑊
𝐶 > 6: Well Graded Sand 30 − 50 Poor 𝑉 𝑉
1 < 𝐶 < 3: Well Graded Soil 𝛾 ( ) = 𝛾 ( ) =
> 50 Unsuitable 1+𝜔 1+𝜔
GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING 1
HYDRAULICS AND GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

PERMEABILITY STRESSES IN SOIL

DARCY’S LAW VERTICAL STRESSES
Discharge Hydraulic Gradient Seepage Velocity Pore Water Pressure
𝑣 Total Seepage
∆ℎ Water Pressure Capillary Rise
𝑄 = 𝑘𝑖𝐴 𝑖= v =
𝐿 𝑛 𝐶
𝑃 = ∑𝛾ℎ 𝑃 =𝛾 𝑑 𝑃 = −𝑆𝛾 𝑃 = 𝑖𝛾 𝑧
𝑒𝐷
Temperature Correction 𝑪𝒐𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝑽𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆
𝑅 = 2.42 − 0.475𝑙𝑛𝑇 𝑘 ° =𝑅 𝑘
EFFECTIVE STRESSES
With Seepage
EQUIVALENT HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY Without Seepage
Upward Downward
Parallel Flow Perpendicular Flow
𝐻 𝐻 𝑃 = 𝑃 −𝑃 −𝑃 𝑃 = 𝑃 −𝑃 𝑃 =𝑃 +𝑃
𝐻 𝑘 = ∑𝐻𝑘 =∑
𝑘 𝑘

COEFFICIENT OF PERMEABILITY SOIL SETTLEMENTS

Constant Head Test Falling Head Test
𝑉𝐿 𝑎𝐿 ℎ
𝑘= 𝑘= ln 𝐵𝑞(1 − 𝜇 )𝐼
ℎ𝐴𝑡 𝐴𝑡 ℎ IMMEDIATE 𝑆 =
wherein: 𝐸
𝑉 = Volume of Water Collected 𝑎 = area of standpipe
𝐿 = Length of Sample 𝐿 = Length of Sample 𝐶𝐻 𝑃 + ∆𝑃
ℎ = Head Loss ℎ = Initial Head Loss Normally 𝑆 = log
𝐴 = Cross Sectional Area of Sample ℎ = Final Head Loss 𝑒 +1 𝑃
𝑡 = time
Case 1: (𝑃 + ∆𝑃) ≤ 𝑃
PRIMARY

𝐶𝐻 𝑃 + ∆𝑃
𝑆 = log
𝑒 +1 𝑃
Over
Consolidated
Case 2: (𝑃 + ∆𝑃) > 𝑃

𝐶𝐻 𝑃 𝐶𝐻 𝑃 + ∆𝑃
𝑆 = log + log
𝑒 +1 𝑃 𝑒 +1 𝑃

𝐶 𝐻 𝑇
Unconfined Aquifer Confined Aquifer SECONDARY 𝑆 = log
𝑒 +1 𝑇
𝑟 𝑟
𝑄𝑙𝑛 𝑄𝑙𝑛
𝑟 𝑟
𝑘= 𝑘= TOTAL 𝑆 =𝑆 +𝑆 +𝑆
𝜋(ℎ − ℎ ) 2𝜋𝑡(ℎ − ℎ )
Transmissibility of Aquifer
𝑄𝑙𝑛
𝑟 INDICES
𝑟 Compression Swell
𝑇 = 𝑘𝑡 =
2𝜋(𝑧 − 𝑧 ) ∆𝑒
𝐶 =
𝑃 + ∆𝑃
FLOW NETS log 𝐶𝑐 𝐶𝑐
𝑃
𝐶 = 𝑡𝑜
Uplift Pressure Remodeled Undisturbed 5 10
∆𝐻
𝑃 = 𝛾 ∆𝐻 − 𝑛 𝐶 = 0.007(𝐿𝐿 − 7%) 𝐶 = 0.009(𝐿𝐿 − 10%)
𝑁
Isotropic Soil
𝑁 DEGREE OF CONSLIDATION
𝑞 = 𝑘∆𝐻 𝛿 𝛿 = settlement at time t
𝑁 𝑈=
𝛿 𝛿 = settlement at the end of primary consolidation
Non-Isotropic Soil
𝑁 𝑢 −𝑢 𝑢 = initial excess pore water pressure
𝑞 = 𝑘 𝑘 ∆𝐻 𝑈=
𝑁 𝑢 𝑢 = excess pore water pressure at time t
wherein:
∆𝐻 = Head Difference Between Upstream and Downstream
𝑛 = Number of Potential Drop
TIME RATE OF CONSOLIDATION
𝑁 = Number of Flow Channels Volume
Compressibility Consolidation
𝑁 = Number of Equipotential Drop Compressibility
𝑒 −𝑒 𝑎 𝑘
𝑎 = 𝑚 = 𝑐 =
Empirical Formulas for k 𝑃 −𝑃 1+𝑒 𝑚 𝛾
Hazen Casagrande
𝑘 = 𝑐𝐷 𝑘 = 1.4𝑒 𝑘 .
Time Factor
Kozeny-Carman Samarasinghe, Huang, & Drnevich
𝑒 𝑒 𝑐 𝑡 0 < 𝑈 ≤ 60% 𝑈 > 60%
𝑘= 𝑘=𝐶
1+𝑒 1+𝑒 𝑇 = 𝜋 𝑈
𝐻 𝑇 = 𝑇 = 1.781 − 0.933 log(100 − 𝑈)
4 100
GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING 2
HYDRAULICS AND GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

SHEAR STRENGTH OF SOIL TERZAGHI’S BEARING CAPACITY

DIRECT SHEAR TEST [Mode 3 – 2]
Shear Stress Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion GENERAL SHEAR FAILURE
𝒌 𝒄𝑵 𝒒𝑵𝒒 𝒌 (𝜸𝑩)𝑵𝜸
𝜏 = 𝑐 + 𝜎 tan 𝜙 𝒒𝒖 = 𝟏 𝒄 + + 𝟐
𝑐𝑜ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
Strength Parameters
1. Cohesion
2. Internal Friction Angle 𝒌𝟏 𝒌𝟐

0.3𝐵 0.2𝐵
TRIAXIAL TEST Rectangular Footing 1+ 0.5 1 −
Major Principal Stress Minor Principal Stress 𝐿 𝐿
𝑅
𝜎 = 𝜎 tan 𝜃 + 2𝑐 tan 𝜃 𝜎 = −𝑅 Strip Footing 1.0 0.5
sin 𝜙
Angle of Failure Plane Angle of Friction
Square Footing 1.3 0.4
𝜙 𝑅 −𝑅
𝜃 = 45 + 𝜙 = sin
2 𝐶 −𝐶
Circle Footing 1.3 0.3

Consolidated Drained Consolidated Undrained

The drainage is open during the LOCAL SHEAR FAILURE BEARING CAPACITY FACTORS
The drainage valve is always open. consolidation phase but closed
during the shear phase.
𝑒( . )

2 𝑁 =
𝑐 = 𝑐 𝜙
2 cos 45 +
3 2
𝑁 = 𝑁 − 1 cot 𝜙
2
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜙 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜙
3 𝑁 = 1.1 𝑁 − 1 tan(1.3𝜙)

PILE CAPACITY
Unconsolidated Undrained Unconfined Compression
Special Case of UU where there is
The drainage valve is always closed.
no confining pressure.
Ultimate bearing Load Allowable Bearing Capacity
𝑄
𝑄 =𝑄 +𝑄 𝑄 =
𝐹𝑆

Resistance of the Pile

Analysis
End-Bearing Skin-Friction

SLOPE STABILITY
SAND

𝑄 = 𝑝∙𝐴 ∙𝑁 𝑄 = 𝑃∙𝐴 ∙𝑘∙𝜇

ANALYSIS OF INFINITE SLOPES
Factor of Safety Dense = 20x
𝑐 + 𝜎 tan 𝜙 Loose = 10x
FS =
𝑐 + 𝜎 tan 𝜙
Normal Stress 𝑄 = 𝑐∙𝐿∙𝛼∙𝑝
CLAY

𝑄 = 𝛽∙𝐿∙𝜎 ∙𝑝
σ = γH cos 𝛽 𝑄 = 𝑐∙𝐴 ∙𝑁
𝑄 = 𝛾𝐿(𝜎 + 2𝑐)𝑝
Shear Stress
τ = γH sin 𝛽 cos 𝛽

Case1: Without Seepage

𝑐 tan 𝜙 EARTH PRESSURE
𝐹𝑆 = +
𝛾𝐻 sin 𝛽 cos 𝛽 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛽
Case2: With Seepage SOIL WATER SURCHARGE COHESION
𝑐 𝐻𝛾 − ℎ𝛾 tan 𝜙
𝐹𝑆 = +
𝛾 𝐻 sin 𝛽 cos 𝛽 𝐻𝛾 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛽

Critical Height (𝐹𝑆 = 1)

𝑐 tan 𝜙
𝐻 = +
𝛾 sin 𝛽 cos 𝛽 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛽
PRESSURE 𝑝 = 𝑘𝛾ℎ 𝑝 = 𝛾ℎ 𝑝 = 𝑘𝑞 𝑝 = ±2𝑐√𝑘
ANALYSIS OF FINITE SLOPES
Frictional Force
RANKINE’S THEORY
F = 𝑊 cos 𝜃 tan 𝜃 EARTH
𝛽>0 𝛽=0
Cohesion Force PRESSURE
𝐻 1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙
F =𝐶 𝑊 cosβ − cos β − cos ϕ
sin 𝜃 Active k = cosβ k =
cosβ + cos β − cos ϕ 1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙
Sliding Force
𝐹 = 𝑊 sin 𝜃 1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙
cosβ + cos β − cos ϕ
Factor of Safety Height of Soil Passive k = cosβ k =
cosβ − cos β − cos ϕ 1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙
𝐹 +𝐹 4𝑐 sin 𝛽 cos 𝜙
FS = 𝐻=
𝐹 𝛾 1 − cos(𝛽 − 𝜙 ) k = 1 − sin 𝜙
Stability Number Stability Factor Critical Failure Plane At Rest
c k ( ) = (1 − sin 𝜙)√𝑂𝐶𝑅
1
m= SF = ϕ = 0.50(β + ϕ )
𝛾𝐻 m
OTHER TOPICS
HYDRAULICS AND GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

BOUSSINESQ THEORY FOUNDATION

POINT AND LINE LOAD
Point Load Line Load ISOLATED FOOTING
Concentrically Loaded Eccentrically Loaded
General

3𝑃 𝑧 2𝑞 𝑧
∆𝑃 = ∙ .
∆𝑃 = ∙
2𝜋 (𝑟 + 𝑧 ) 𝜋 (𝑟 + 𝑧 )

3𝑃 𝑁𝑄
∆𝑃 = ∙ .
2𝜋 𝑟
Semi-Infinite

𝑧 1+ 2𝑞 1
𝑧 ∆𝑃 = ∙
Westergaard’s Theory: 𝜋 𝑟
𝑃 𝑁𝑄 𝑧 1+ SOIL PRESSURE
𝑧
∆𝑃 = . Trapezoidal Triangular
𝜋 𝑟
𝑧 1+2 𝑃 6𝑀 2𝑅
𝑧 𝑞 / =− ± 𝑞 =−
𝐴 𝑏𝑑 3𝑥̅
FLEXIBLE CIRCULAR AREA
Below the Center Any Distance from Center
𝑞 ∆𝑃 = 𝑞(𝑁 + 𝑁 )
∆𝑃 = 𝑞 − . Where:
𝑅 𝑁 = value from Table GH 001
1+
𝑧 𝑁 = value from Table GH 002

FLEXIBLE RECTANGULAR AREA

Corner Any Point

∆𝑃 = 𝑞(𝐼) ∆𝑃 = 𝑞∑𝐼
Where: 𝐼 value of intersection of Note: Make sure to compute for 𝐼
m (B/z) and n (L/z) from Table GH of each corner
STATICS OF RIGID BODIES
PRINCIPLES OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

REACTIONS ON COMMON SUPPORTS FRICTION

PIN SUPPORT ROLLER SUPPORT FIXED SUPPORT

LOADS

Concentrated
MOTION FRICTION
1. No Motion/ At Rest 𝑓 =𝑃
2. Impending Motion (𝑓 ) =𝜇 𝑁
3. In Motion 𝑓 =𝜇 𝑁

Rectangular BELT FRICTION

𝑻𝟏 = 𝑻𝟐 𝒆 𝝁 𝜷
Where:
𝑇 = larger tension (tight side)
𝑇 = smaller tension (slack side)
𝜇 = coefficient of friction
𝛽 = angle of contact, in radians
Triangular

MOMENT OF INERTA
Rectangles

𝑏ℎ 𝑏 ℎ
Spandrel 𝐼 = 𝐼 =
12 12

Circles

𝜋𝑑
General 𝐼=
64

Triangles

SYSTEM OF FORCES 𝑏ℎ 𝑏 ℎ
𝐼 = 𝐼 =
36 36
Concurrent Parallel Non-Concurrent
Forces with a Forces that do
Forces that do
common point not have a
not intersect.
of action. common point. PARALLEL AXIS THEOREM [Mode 3 – 2]
∑𝐹 = 0
∑𝐹 = 0 ∑𝐹 = 0
∑𝑀 = 0 𝑰 = ∑𝑰𝒈 + 𝑨𝒅𝟐

TRUSS ANALYSIS
Method of Joints Method of Section
Used to find forces of Used to find forces far from
members near the support the support by exposing
by analyzing the free body the internal forces of the
diagram of each joint. members passing the
cutting plane.
x y FREQ (A)
Triangle 𝟐𝒃𝟏 /𝟑 ℎ/3 0.5 𝑏 ℎ
Circle 𝒃𝟏 + 𝒃𝟐 /𝟐 ℎ/2 𝜋𝑟
Rectangle 𝒃𝟏 + 𝒃𝟐 /𝟐 ℎ/2 𝑏 ℎ

𝐼 = [𝐼⊿ + 𝐼 + 𝐼□ ] + 𝑛 𝜎
𝐼 = [𝐼⊿ + 𝐼 + 𝐼□ ] + 𝑛(𝜎 )
THEORY OF STRUCTURES
PRINCIPLES OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

STABILITY AND DETERMINACY INFLUENCE LINES

BEAMS AND 2D FRAMES Point Load Multiple Point Load Distributed Load
𝑹 + 𝟑𝑷 + 𝟐𝑯 ? 𝟑𝑵 𝐹 = 𝑃(ℎ) 𝐹 = ∑𝑃(ℎ) 𝐹 = 𝑤(𝐴 )
< Statically Unstable
= Statically Determinate Remove the restraint caused by the parameter displace the point
> Statically Indeterminate of analysis by a unit for reaction and shear and rotate that point
by 1 radian for the moment.
Where:
R = Number of Reactions H = Number of Hinges
P = Number of Cutting Planes N = Number of Members

2D TRUSSES
𝑩+𝑹 ? 𝟐𝑱
< Statically Unstable
= Statically Determinate
> Statically Indeterminate

Where:
B = Number of Bars
J = Number of Joints

DEGREE OF INDETERMINACY
Beams and Frames 𝐷𝐼 = (𝑅 + 3𝑃 − 2𝐻) − 3𝑁
Trusses 𝐷𝐼 = (𝐵 + 𝑅) − 2𝐽

ANALYSIS OF CABLES
FUNICULAR CABLES

MOVING LOADS
Maximum Shear
Equal to the support reaction when the larger load is over the
support.

∑𝑀 = 0 ∑𝑀 = 0

PARABOLIC CABLES

Step 1: Compute for the Resultant of forces using

Varignon’s Theorem.
𝑃 (𝑥̅ ) = ∑𝐹(𝑥)

Step 2: Solve for the Reaction of Support.

∑𝑀 = 𝑃 (𝑥) + 𝑅 (𝐿)

Maximum Moment
For One Point Load For 2 Concentrated Load
𝑃𝐿 (𝑃𝐿 − 𝑃 𝑑)
𝑀 = 𝑀 =
4 4𝑃𝐿

For Three or More Concentrated Load

∑𝐹 = 0 ∑𝑀 = 0 Place the loads where the centerline of the beam is midway
Minimum Tension Maximum Tension between the Resultant and Load P in consideration.
𝑤𝐿
𝑇 = 𝑇 = 𝑇 + 𝑅
8𝑦

CATENARY CABLES

Step 1: Compute for the Resultant of forces using

Varignon’s Theorem.
𝑃 (𝑥̅ ) = ∑𝐹(𝑥)

Step 2: Consider the right side of Load P in consideration

and solve for its corresponding moment.
∑𝑀 = 𝑃 (𝑥) + 𝑅 (𝐿)
Tension at Support Tension at Any Point
𝑇 = 𝑤𝑦 𝑇 = 𝑤𝑙
BEAM DEFLECTIONS
PRINCIPLES OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

BOUNDARY CONDITIONS THREE MOMENT EQUATION

Pinned and Roller Support Fixed Support

𝛿=0 𝛿=0
𝜃≠0 𝜃=0

DOUBLE INTEGRATION METHOD

DOUBLE INTEGRATION METHOD
Moment 𝐸𝐼 𝑦′′ = 𝑀
Slope 𝐸𝐼 𝑦 = 𝑀 𝑑𝑥 + 𝐶

Deflection 𝐸𝐼 𝑦 = 𝑀𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝐶 𝑥 + 𝐶

AREA MOMENT METHOD 6𝐴𝑎 6𝐴𝑏 ℎ ℎ

𝑀 𝐿 + 2𝑀 (𝐿 + 𝐿 ) + 𝑀 𝐿 + + = 6𝐸𝐼 +
𝐿 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿

Where:
6𝐴𝑎 𝑃𝑥(𝐿 − 𝑥 ) 6𝐴𝑏 𝑃(𝐿 − 𝑥)[𝐿 − (𝐿 − 𝑥) ]
= =
𝐿 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿

𝐴 𝐴 (𝑥̅ ) 𝐴 (𝑥̅ ) MOMENT DISTRIBUTION METHOD

𝜃 = 𝑡 / = 𝛿=
𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼

VIRTUAL WORK METHOD

Moment Equations:
𝑊𝑥 A B
𝑀 = 𝑅 (𝑥) 𝑀 = 𝑅 (𝑥) − 𝑃(𝑥 − 𝑎) 𝑀 = − 𝑅 (𝑥)
2 𝐾 𝐾
Distribution Factor
∑𝐾 ∑𝐾
BEAMS
Deflection (Unit Load) Slope (Unit Couple) Fixed End Moment 𝐹𝐸𝑀 𝐹𝐸𝑀
𝑀𝑚 𝑀𝑚
𝛿=∑ 𝑑𝑥 𝜃=∑ 𝑑𝑥
𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼
Balancing joint −𝐷𝐹 (𝐹𝐸𝑀 ) −𝐷𝐹 (𝐹𝐸𝑀 )
TRUSSES
𝐵𝐽 𝐵𝐽
Where: Carry Over Moment
2 2
S = Bar Forces from Applied Loads
𝑆𝑢𝐿 u = Bar Stresses from the Unit Load
𝛿=∑ End Moment 𝑀 = ∑𝐴 𝑀 = ∑𝐵
𝐴𝐸 L = Length of Individual Bars
A = Area of Individual Bars
E = Modulus of Elasticity of the Bars

SLOPE DEFLECTION METHOD

FIXED END MOMENT
POINT LOAD 2𝐸𝐼 3𝜓
𝑃𝑎𝑏 𝑀 = 𝐹𝐸𝑀 + 2𝜃 + 𝜃 +
𝑀 =− 𝐿 𝐿
𝐿
𝑀 = Moment at A for Span AB
𝑃𝑎 𝑏 𝐹𝐸𝑀 = Fixed End Moment at A for Span AB
𝑀 =
𝐿 𝜃 = Slope at A
𝜃 = Slope at B
𝜓 = Settlement of A with respect to B
UNIFORM LOAD
𝑤𝑑𝑥 (𝑥)(𝐿 − 𝑥)
𝑀 =−
𝐿

𝑤𝑑𝑥 (𝑥) (𝐿 − 𝑥)
𝑀 =
𝐿
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
PRINCIPLES OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

DEFORMATIONS STRAIN ENERGY

COMPRESSION TENSION BENDING TORSION SHEARING
The potential energy stored due to deformation caused by
applied forces or stresses. It represents the work done to deform
the material and is a measure of the material’s ability to absorb
and release energy during deformation.

𝑃𝛿 𝑃 𝐿 𝐴𝐸𝛿
𝑈= = =
2 2𝐴𝐸 2𝐿

THERMAL STRESS
STRESS AND STRAIN
𝛿 =𝛿

Simple Shear Torsion 𝑃𝐿

= 𝛼𝐿∆𝑇
𝐴𝐸
𝑃 𝑉 𝑇𝑟
Stress 𝜎= 𝜏= 𝜏=
𝐴 𝐴 𝐽
𝑃𝐿
𝛿 𝛿 𝑟𝜃 𝛼𝐿∆𝑇 = 𝑥 +
Strain 𝜀= 𝛾= 𝛾= 𝐴𝐸
𝐿 𝐿 𝐿
𝜎 𝜏 𝜏
Modulus 𝐸= 𝐺= 𝐺=
𝜀 𝛾 𝛾 HELICAL SPRINGS
𝑃𝐿 𝑉𝐿 𝑇𝐿
Deformation 𝛿= 𝛿 = 𝜃= SERIES PARALLEL
𝐴𝐸 𝐴𝐺 𝐽𝐺

ANALYSIS OF BOLT CONNECTIONS

BEARING STRESS
𝐹
𝜎 =
𝑑𝑡 1 1 1
𝑓= = + 𝐾 =𝐾 +𝐾
𝐾 𝐾 𝐾
SPRING SPRING
SHEAR STRESS SHEAR STRESS ELONGATION
CONSTANT PERIOD
Single Shear Double Shear Punching Shear
16𝑃𝑅 𝑑 64𝑃𝑅 𝑛 𝑃 𝑚
𝜏= 1+ 𝛿= 𝐾= 𝑇 = 2𝜋
𝜋𝑑 4𝑅 𝐺𝑑 𝛿 𝐾

PRESSURE VESSELS

𝐹 𝐹 𝐹
𝜏 =𝜋 𝜏 = 𝜋 𝜏 =
𝑑 2 𝑑 𝜋𝑑𝑡
4 4

Tangential Stress Longitudinal Stress Sphere Wall Stress

𝑝𝐷 𝑝𝐷 𝑝𝐷
TRIAXIAL DEFORMATION 𝜎 =
2𝑡
𝜎 =
4𝑡
𝜎 =
4𝑡
POISSON’S RATIO
A material property that quantifies the ratio of transverse strain to
axial strain when a material is subjected to axial stress, indicating STRESS IN BEAMS
its resistance to lateral deformation. FLEXURAL STRESS
𝒇𝒃 𝑴 𝑬
𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝜖 𝜖 ∆𝑥 = =
𝑣=− =− =− 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝜖 = 𝒚 𝑰 𝝆
𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝜖 𝜖 𝑥 Wherein:
𝑀𝑐 𝑀
𝑓 = =
TRIAXIAL STRAIN 𝐼 𝑆
Deformation occurs in three dimensions due to the application
of stress in three perpendicular directions. Deformation:
𝐿
𝛿=
1 8𝜌
𝜖 = 𝜎 +𝑣 𝜎 +𝜎 𝑀 = Moment For Rectangular Beams
𝐸 𝑦 = centroid from neutral axis
1 6𝑀
𝜖 = 𝜎 + 𝑣(𝜎 + 𝜎 ) 𝜌 = radius of curvature 𝑓 =
𝐸 𝑆 = section modulus 𝑏𝑑
1
𝜖 = 𝜎 +𝑣 𝜎 +𝜎
𝐸 HORIZONTAL SHEAR STRESS
𝑽𝑸
VOLUMETRIC STRAIN 𝒇𝒗 =
𝑰𝒃
The change in volume of a material per unit volume, typically
expressed as a ratio, resulting from applied stress or deformation. Wherein:
When subjected to 𝑄 = 𝐴𝑦
∆𝑉 hydrostatic pressure, P
𝑒= = 𝜖 +𝜖 +𝜖
𝑉 3(1 − 2𝑣)𝑃
𝑒= For Circular Beams
𝐸 𝑉 = Shear Force
Modulus Solid Hollow
𝑄 = First Moment of Area
4𝑉 2𝑉
Rigidity Resilience 𝑏 = thickness of section 𝑓 = 𝑓 =
𝐸 1 3𝐴 𝐴
𝐺= 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 = 𝜎𝜖
2(1 + 𝑣) 2
For Rectangular and Triangular Beams
3𝑉
𝑓 =
2𝐴
SUPERPOSITION
PRINCIPLES OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

𝑹𝒆𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑴𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝑫𝒆𝒇𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 (𝜹)

Simply Supported Beams
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝑷𝑳𝟑
Point Load at Midspan 𝑷 𝑷𝑳
𝟐 𝟒 𝟒𝟖 𝑬𝑰
𝟏 𝟐𝟑 𝑷𝑳𝟑
Point Load at Third Points 𝑷 𝑷𝑳
𝟑 𝟔𝟒 𝑬𝑰
𝟏 𝟏 𝟓 𝒘𝑳𝟒
Rectangular Load 𝒘𝑳 𝒘𝑳𝟐
𝟐 𝟖 𝟑𝟖𝟒 𝑬𝑰
𝟑 𝟏
𝑹𝒆𝒏𝒅 = 𝒘𝑳 −𝑴 = 𝒘𝑳𝟐
Rectangular Load 𝟏𝟔 𝟑𝟐
Supported at Midspan 𝟏𝟎 𝟗
𝑹𝒎𝒊𝒅 = 𝒘𝑳 +𝑴 = 𝒘𝑳𝟐
𝟏𝟔 𝟓𝟏𝟐
𝟒 𝟏
𝑹𝒆𝒏𝒅 = 𝒘𝑳 −𝑴 = 𝒘𝑳𝟐
𝟑𝟎 𝟗𝟎
Rectangular Load 𝟏
+𝑴𝒎𝒊𝒅 = 𝒘𝑳𝟐
Supported at Third Points 𝟏𝟏 𝟑𝟔𝟎
𝑹𝒎𝒊𝒅 = 𝒘𝑳 𝟏
𝟑𝟎 +𝑴 = 𝒘𝑳𝟐
𝟏𝟐𝟎
Propped Beams
𝟓
𝑽= 𝒘𝑳
𝟖 𝟏 𝟏 𝒘𝑳𝟒
Rectangular Load 𝒘𝑳𝟐
𝟑 𝟖 𝟏𝟖𝟓 𝑬𝑰
𝑹 = 𝒘𝑳
𝟖
𝟒
𝑽= 𝒘𝑳
𝟏𝟎 𝟏 𝟑 𝒘𝑳𝟒
Triangular Load 𝒘𝑳𝟐
𝟏 𝟏𝟓 𝟏𝟐𝟖𝟎 𝑬𝑰
𝑹= 𝒘𝑳
𝟏𝟎
Cantilever Beams
𝟏 𝑷𝑳𝟑
Point Load at End Span 𝑷 𝑷𝑳
𝟑 𝑬𝑰
𝟏 𝟓 𝑷𝑳𝟑
Point Load at Midspan 𝑷 𝑷𝑳
𝟐 𝟒𝟖 𝑬𝑰
𝑷𝒂𝟐 (𝟑𝑳 − 𝒂)
Point Load at Any Point 𝑷 𝑷𝒂
𝟔 𝑬𝑰
𝟏 𝟏 𝒘𝑳𝟒
Rectangular Load 𝒘𝑳 𝒘𝑳𝟐
𝟐 𝟖 𝑬𝑰
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝒘𝑳𝟒
Triangular Load 𝒘𝑳 𝒘𝑳𝟐
𝟐 𝟔 𝟑𝟎 𝑬𝑰
Fully Restrained Beams
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝑷𝑳𝟑
Point Load at Midspan 𝑷 𝑷𝑳
𝟐 𝟖 𝟏𝟗𝟐 𝑬𝑰
𝑷𝒂𝟐 𝑷𝒂𝟐 𝒃
Point Load at 𝑎 > 𝑏 (𝒂 + 𝟑𝒃) −𝑴𝑳 =
𝑳𝟑 𝑳𝟐 𝑷𝒂𝟑 𝒃𝟑
𝑷𝒃𝟐 𝑷𝒂𝒃𝟐 𝟑𝑬𝑰𝑳𝟑
Point Load at 𝑎 < 𝑏 (𝒃 + 𝟑𝒂) +𝑴𝑹 =
𝑳𝟑 𝑳𝟐
𝟏
−𝑴𝒇 = 𝒘𝑳𝟐
𝟏 𝟏𝟐 𝟏 𝒘𝑳𝟒
Rectangular Load 𝒘𝑳
𝟐 𝟏 𝟑𝟖𝟒 𝑬𝑰
+𝑴𝒎𝒊𝒅 = 𝒘𝑳𝟐
𝟐𝟒
𝟏 𝟏
𝑽= 𝒘𝑳 −𝑴 = 𝒘𝑳𝟐
Rectangular Load 𝟒 𝟒𝟖
Supported at Midspan 𝟏 𝟏
𝑹 = 𝒘𝑳 +𝑴 = 𝒘𝑳𝟐
𝟐 𝟗𝟔
SHEAR FLOW AND COMBINED STRESSES
PRINCIPLES OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

SHEAR FLOW OF THIN-WALLED TUBE MOHR’S CIRCLE

Shear Flow
𝑇
𝑞=
2𝐴
Shear Stress
𝑞
𝜏=
𝑡
Angle of Twist Wherein:
𝑇𝐿 𝑆 𝐴 = Area bounded by centerline of the wall
𝜃=
4𝐺𝐴 𝑡 𝑆 = Length of the sides with equal thickness.

SHEAR FLOW OF THIN-WALLED MEMBER

Shear Flow
𝑉𝑄
𝑞=
𝐼
Wherein:
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑦 STATE OF PLANE SIGN CONVENTIONS
+ Tension
Eccentricity 𝜎:
− Compression
Compute for the summation of
the moment where there is no
+ Clockwise
twisting. 𝜏:
− Counterclockwise
∑𝑀 = 0

COMBINED STRESSES
1. Plot the points σ , ±𝜏 and (σ , ±𝜏 ).
2. Connect the two points to form the diameter.
3. Apply Geometry and Trigonometry to determine the principal
stresses and location of the plane.

CALC TECH [Mode 3 – 2]

X (𝛔) Y(𝛕)
𝛔𝐱 ±𝜏
NORMAL STRESSES 𝛔𝒚 ±𝜏
Axial Stress Flexural Stress Combined Stresses
𝑃 𝑀𝑐 Major Principal Stress Angle of Friction
𝜎 = 𝜎 = 𝜎 = 𝜎 +𝜎
𝐴 𝐼 σ = 𝑥̅ + 𝑃𝑜𝑙 𝜎 , 𝜎 𝜃=𝑌

SHEAR STRESSES
Minor Principal Stress Normal Stress of Plane
Shear Stress Torsional Stress Combined Stresses
𝑇𝑝 σ = 𝑥̅ − 𝑃𝑜𝑙 𝜎 , 𝜎 𝜎 = 𝑥̅ + 𝑃𝑜𝑙 𝜎 , 𝜎 cos (𝑟𝑌 + 2𝜃)
𝑉𝑄
𝜏 = 𝜏 = 𝜏 = 𝜏 +𝜏
𝐼𝑏 𝐽
Maximum Shear Stress Shear Stress of Plane
τ =𝑥 𝜏 = 𝑃𝑜𝑙 𝜎 , 𝜎 sin (𝑟𝑌 + 2𝜃)
DESIGN PHILOSOPHIES
PRINCIPLES OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

LOAD AND RESISTANCE FACTOR DESIGN ALLOWABLE STRENGTH DESIGN

Load Combination Primary Load Load Combination

1 1.4D 𝐷 1 D+F

2 1.2D + 1.6𝐿 + 0.5(𝐿 𝑜𝑟 𝑅) 𝐿 2 D+H+F+T+L

3 1.2D + 1.6(𝐿 𝑜𝑟 𝑅) + (1.0𝐿 𝑜𝑟 0.5𝑊) 𝐿 𝑜𝑟 𝑅 3 D + H + F + (L or R)

4 1.2D + 1.0W + 1.0L + 0.5(𝐿 𝑜𝑟 𝑅) 𝑊 4 D + H + F + 0.75[L + T + (𝐿 𝑜𝑟 𝑅)]

𝐸
5 1.2𝐷 + 1.0𝐸 + 1.0𝐿 𝐸 5 𝐷 + 𝐻 + 𝐹 0.6𝑊 𝑜𝑟
1.4
𝐸
6 0.9𝐷 + 1.0𝑊 𝑊 6 0.6𝐷 + +𝐻
1.4

7 0.9𝐷 + 1.0𝐸 𝐸 7 0.6𝐷 + 𝑊 + 𝐻

RESISTANCE FACTORS DESIGN RELATIONSHIPS

FOR STEEL DESIGN LRFD RELATIONSHIP ASD

TYPE 𝝓 NOTES 𝑅 = 𝜙𝑅 1.5 𝑅
Ω = 𝑅 =
ϕ Ω
𝜙 = 0.90 Yielding

TENSION
𝜙 = 0.75 Rupture VARIABLES
MEMBER

𝜙 = 0.75 Block Shear 𝑅 = Ultimate Capacity

𝑅 = Nominal Capacity
COMPRESSION 𝜙 = Reduction Factor
𝜙 = 0.90 Buckling
MEMBERS Ω = Factor of Safety
𝐷 = Dead Load
𝜙 = 0.90 Flexure 𝐿 = Live Load
BEAMS 𝐿 = Roof Live Load
𝜙 = 0.90 Shear 𝑅 = Rain Load
𝑊 = Wind Load
𝐸 = Earthquake Load
FOR REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN 𝐹 = Fluid Load
TYPE 𝝓 NOTES 𝑇 = Temperature Load
TENSION
CONTROLLED 𝜙 = 0.90 Flexure, Tension
SECTION

COMPRESSION 𝜙 = 0.75 Spiral

CONTROLLED
SECTIONS 𝜙 = 0.65 Tied

Between Tension
and
TRANSITION 𝜙 = 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒
Compression
Controlled
SHEAR AND
𝜙 = 0.75
TORSION
BEARING ON
𝜙 = 0.65
CONCRETE
STRUT AND TIE
𝜙 = 0.75
MODELS
STEEL DESIGN 1
PRINCIPLES OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

TENSION MEMBERS FLEXURAL MEMBERS

CONCENTRICALLY LOADED CONNECTIONS

Bearing 𝑷𝒏 = 𝑭 𝒑 𝑨 𝒑

Shear 𝑃 =𝐹𝐴

Gross Section Yielding 𝑃 =𝐹𝐴

The nominal flexural strength 𝑀 shall be the lower value

Net Section Failure 𝑃 =𝐹𝐴 obtained according to the limit states of Lateral Torsional
Buckling (LTB) and Compression Flange Local Buckling (FLB).
0.6𝐹 𝐴
Block Shear Rupture 𝑃 =𝑈 𝐹 𝐴 + 𝑚𝑖𝑛
0.6𝐹 𝐴
LIMITING ELEMENTS
LENGTH
Strength of Fillet Welds 𝑃 = 𝐹 (0.707𝑡𝐿)
𝑬 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝒃𝒇 𝟏𝟑𝟕𝟗𝟎𝟎 𝑨𝒇
𝐋𝐩 = 𝟏. 𝟕𝟔 𝒓𝒚 𝐋𝐜 = 𝐋𝐮 =
𝑭𝒚 𝑭𝒚 𝑭𝒚 𝒅

𝟐
𝑬 𝑱𝒄 𝟎. 𝟕 𝑭𝒚 𝑺𝒙 𝒉𝒐
𝐋𝐫 = 𝟏. 𝟗𝟓 𝒓𝒕𝒔 𝟏 + 𝟏 + 𝟔. 𝟕𝟔
𝟎. 𝟕𝑭𝒚 𝑺𝒙 𝒉𝒐 𝑬 𝑱𝒄
WIDTH-THICKNESS RATIO
𝝀 𝜆 𝜆
𝑏 𝐸 𝐸
𝐴 Gross Area 𝐴 = (𝑤)𝑡 FLANGE 0.38 1.0
2𝑡 𝐹 𝐹
𝑠
𝐴 Net Area 𝐴 = 𝑤 − 𝑛(𝑑 ) + ∑ 𝑡 𝑑 − 2𝑘 𝐸 𝐸
4𝑔 WEB 3.76 5.7
𝑡 𝐹 𝐹
𝐴 Effective Net Area 𝐴 = 𝑈𝐴
LATERAL TORSIONAL BUCKLING
CONDITION 𝑴𝒏 ≤ 𝑴𝒑
Shear Lag Factor L ≤ L 𝑀 =𝑀 =𝐹𝑍
Case 1: Flat Plates Case 2: Angle Plates 𝐿 −𝐿
𝑥̅ L <L ≤L 𝑀 = 𝐶 𝑀 − 𝑀 − 0.7𝐹 𝑆
𝑈=1 𝑈 = 1− 𝐿 −𝐿
𝑙
L >L 𝑀 =𝐹 𝑆
ECCENTRICALLY LOADED CONNECTIONS [Mode 2] LTB MODIFICATION FACTOR
12.5𝑀̇
𝐶 = 𝑅 ≤ 3.0
2.5𝑀 + 3𝑀 + 4𝑀 + 3𝑀
CRITICAL BUCKLING STRESS
𝐶 𝜋 𝐸 𝐽𝑐 𝐿
𝐹 = 1 + 0.078
𝐿 𝑆 ℎ 𝑟
𝑟

FLANGE LOCAL BUCKLING

CONDITION 𝑴𝒏 ≤ 𝑴𝒑
𝛌≤ 𝛌 𝑀 =𝑀 =𝐹𝑍
𝛌−𝛌
𝛌 <𝛌≤𝛌 𝑀 = 𝑀 − 𝑀 − 0.7𝐹 𝑆
𝛌 −𝛌
0.9𝐸𝑆 4
𝛌>𝛌 𝑀 =
𝜆 ℎ/𝑡

MEMBERS WITH UNSTIFFENED OR STIFFENED WEBS

Nominal Shear Stress Nominal Shear Strength
𝑣 = 0.6𝐹 𝐶 𝑉 = 𝑣 (𝐴 )

𝑷𝒙 𝑷𝒚 STEEL IN CONCRETE SLABS

Shear Load 𝑹𝑺𝒙 = 𝑹𝑺𝒚 = Effective Width
𝒏 𝒏
(𝑃𝑒)𝑦 (𝑃𝑒)𝑥
Torsional Load 𝑅 = 𝑅 = 𝐿/4
𝐽 𝐽
𝑏 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑆
Maximum Load 𝑅 = (𝑅 +𝑅 ) + 𝑅 +𝑅 𝑆/2

𝑃∠𝜃 𝑇(−𝑦 + 𝑥𝑖)

𝑅 = + Horizontal Shear Force
𝑛 𝐽
Concrete Shear
Tensile Yielding
Crushing Connectors
Polar Moment of Inertia [Mode 3 – 2] 𝑉 = 0.85 𝑓𝑐 𝐴 𝑉 =𝐴 𝑓 𝑉 = ∑𝑄
X Y FREQ (𝑵𝒃 𝒐𝒓 𝑳)
𝒙𝟏 𝑦 𝑁 COMPOSITE STEEL BEAMS
𝒙𝟐 𝑦 𝑁 Shear Connectors
𝑅𝐼
For Bolted Connection For Welded Connection 𝑉=
𝑆𝑄
∑𝐿 Wherein:
𝐽(𝑚𝑚 /𝑚𝑚 ) = ∑𝑥 + ∑𝑦 𝐽(𝑚𝑚 /𝑚𝑚) = ∑(𝜎 +𝜎 ) +
12 𝑅 = Capacity of Connector
𝐼 = Inertia of Section
𝑆 = Spacing of Connector
𝑄 = First Moment of Area
STEEL DESIGN 2
PRINCIPLES OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

COMPRESSION MEMBERS DESIGN OF PURLINS

Loadings
Surface Load (𝑘𝑃𝑎) Self-Weight
𝑊 = 𝐷𝐿(𝑠) 𝑊 = 𝐿𝐿(𝑠) 𝑊 = 𝐶 𝑊𝐿(𝑠) 𝑊

All Loads Pass the Centroid

The nominal compressive strength 𝑃 shall be determined based
on the limit state of flexural buckling. 𝑀 𝑀
𝑓 = 𝑓 =
𝑆 𝑆
FLEXURAL BUCKLING
All Loads Pass the Flange
Effective Length
Factor 𝑀 𝑀
𝑓 = 𝑓 =
𝑆 0.50𝑆

Theoretical Value 0.5 0.7 1

Design Value 0.65 0.8 1 Interaction Value
𝑓 𝑓
Slenderness Ratio Radius of Gyration 𝐼𝑉 = + ≤ 1.0
𝐹 𝐹
𝑘𝐿 𝐼
𝑆𝑅 = 𝑟=
𝑟 𝐴 Influence of Sag Rods
Elastic Critical Buckling Stress Euler’s Critical Buckling Load 𝑴𝒙 𝑴𝒚
𝜋 𝐸 𝑤 𝐿 𝑤𝐿
𝐹 = 𝑃 =𝐹𝐴 NO SAG ROD
𝑆𝑅 8 8
Flexural Buckling Stress 1 SAG ROD 𝑤 𝐿 𝑤𝐿
Short Column Long Column (MIDSPAN) 8 32
𝐹 = [0.658 ] 𝐹 𝐹 = 0.877 𝐹 2 SAG RODS 𝑤 𝐿 𝑤𝐿
(MIDDLE THIRDS) 9 90
Nominal Compressive Strength

𝑃 =𝐹 𝐴
PLASTIC ANALYSIS
COMBINED AXIAL AND BENDING
Case 1: ≥ 0.2
𝑃 8 𝑀 𝑀
𝐼𝑉 = + + ≤ 1.0
𝑃 9 𝑀 𝑀
Case 2: < 0.2
𝑃 𝑀 𝑀
𝐼𝑉 = + + ≤ 1.0
2𝑃 𝑀 𝑀
Wherein:
𝑃 = Actual Axial Compressive Strength
Yield Moment Plastic Moment
𝑃 = Capacity for Axial Compressive Strength
𝑀 = Actual Flexural Strength 𝑀 =𝐹𝑆 𝑀 =𝐹𝑍
𝑀 = Capacity for Flexural Strength
Elastic Section Modulus Plastic Section Modulus
FRAMES 𝐼
𝑆 = 𝑍 = ∑𝐴𝑦
Unbraced Frames 𝑥̅
Shape Factor
β ≥ 1.0 𝑀 𝑍
𝑃 = 𝑃 +β 𝑃 𝑆𝐹 = =
β ≥ 1.0 𝑀 𝑆
𝑀 = β 𝑀 +β 𝑀
𝐶 = 0.85

Amplification Factor
No Translation Lateral Translation COLLAPSE MECHANISM
𝐶 1
β = ≥ 1.0 β = ≥ 1.0 Location of Plastic Hinges
𝑃 ∑𝑃
1−𝛼
𝑃 1−𝛼 1. Point of Action of Concentrated Loads
∑𝑃
2. Fixed Supports
3. Point of Maximum Bending Moment (0.414𝐿)
Braced Frames
Number of Plastic Hinges
β ≥ 1.0 𝑃 =𝑃 Simply Supported Beams 1
β =0 𝑀 =β 𝑀 Transform both sides to
Continuous Beams
propped beam
Column Curvature Coefficient Propped Beam 2
Fully Restrained Beams 3

Virtual Work Equation

𝑦
∑𝑃 𝑦 + ∑𝑤 𝐿 = ∑𝑀 (𝜃)
2
𝑀 Note: For every plastic hinge, there is a Plastic Moment
𝐶 = 0.6 − 0.4 𝐶 = 0.85 𝐶 = 1.0
𝑀
REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN 1
PRINCIPLES OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

WORKING STRESS DESIGN DEFLECTION

SINGLY REINFORCED BEAM IMMEDIATE DEFLECTION

𝜹𝑰 = 𝜹𝑫𝑳 𝑳𝑳
Where: 𝛿 =𝛿 −𝛿

Effective Moment of Inertia

𝑀 𝑀
𝐼 = 𝐼 + 1− 𝐼
𝑀 𝑀

For Cantilever Beams:

𝜃𝐸 𝐼 𝛿𝐸 𝐼
𝑀𝐿 𝑀𝐿
Moment At End
1 2
𝑀𝐿 𝑀𝐿
Point Load at End
2 3
𝑀𝐿 𝑀𝐿
Rectangular Load
3 4
𝑀𝐿 𝑀𝐿
Triangular Load
4 5

TIME-DEPENDENT DEFLECTION

𝜹𝑻 = 𝜹𝑳𝑳 + 𝝀 𝜹𝑫𝑳 + 𝝀𝑺𝑳 𝜹𝑺𝑳

Where:𝛿 =𝛿 −𝛿

Sustainable Load Time-Dependent

DOUBLY REINFORCED BEAM
Duration Factor (ξ)
3 months 1.0
Creep Factor
ξ 6 months 1.2
𝜆= 12 months 1.4
1 + 50𝜌′
60 or more months 2.0

TYPES OF DESIGN

BALANCED Steel yield simultaneously as concrete

reaches 0.003 compressive strain
UNDERREINFORCED The preferred design type wherein
steel yields first
OVERREINFORCED Crushing of concrete occurs

PRESTRESSED CONCRETE

Modulus of Elasticity
For Concrete For Steel
𝐸 = 4700 𝑓 𝐸 = 200,000 𝑁/𝑚𝑚

Modulus of Rupture Cracking Moment

𝑓 = 0.62𝜆 𝑓 𝑓𝐼
𝑀 =
𝑦
Modular Ratio Cracked Moment of Inertia
𝐸 𝑓 𝑏𝑥 PRESTRESS LOAD
𝑛= = 𝐼 = + 𝑛𝐴 (𝑑 − 𝑥) Axial Force Bending Stress Bending Stress
𝐸 𝑓 3
𝑃 𝑃𝑒𝑐 𝑃𝑒 6𝑃𝑒 𝑀𝑐 𝑀 6𝑀
𝜎 =− 𝜎 = = = 𝜎 = = =
Allowable Stress 𝐴 𝐼 𝑆 𝑏𝑑 𝐼 𝑆 𝑏𝑑
Concrete Steel
𝑓 = 0.45𝑓 𝑓 = 0.50 𝑓
CONCRETE MIX DESIGN
Flexural Stress
Concrete Tension Steel Compression Steel ABSOLUTE VOLUME BULK VOLUME
𝑀𝑐 𝑓 𝑀𝑦 𝑓 𝑀𝑦
𝑓 = = =
𝐼 𝑛 𝐼 2𝑛 𝐼

Steps:
1. Solve for 𝑨𝒔 .
2. Solve for the Modular Ratio 𝒏. 𝑊 𝑚(𝑟) 𝑉 𝛾 (𝑟)
3. Locate N.A. by 𝑸𝑻 = 𝑸𝑩 . 𝑉= = 𝑉=
𝐺𝛾 𝐺𝜌 𝐺𝛾
4. Solve for Cracked Moment of Inertia 𝑰𝒄𝒓 .
5. Determine the actual flexural stresses of each material. TOTAL VOLUME PROPERTIES OF WATER
𝑉 = 𝑉 +𝑉 +𝑉 +𝑉 𝜸𝒘 9.81 𝑘𝑁/𝑚 62.4 𝑝𝑐𝑓
𝝆𝒘 1000 𝑘𝑔/𝑚 1.94 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔𝑠/𝑓𝑡
REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN 2
PRINCIPLES OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

ULTIMATE STRENGTH DESIGN DESIGN OF BEAMS

REDUCTION FACTOR MODE OF DESIGN 𝒂 𝒂
𝑴𝒏 = 𝑪 𝒅 − =𝑻 𝒅−
SINGLY 𝟐 𝟐
REINFORCED
RECTANGULAR
BEAM

𝒂
𝑴𝒏 = 𝑪 𝒅 − + 𝑪𝒔 [𝒅 − 𝒅 ]
𝟐
𝒂
DOUBLY 𝑴𝒏 = 𝑻𝟏 𝒅 − + 𝑻𝟐 [𝒅 − 𝒅 ]
𝟐
REINFORCED
Steel in Tension Steel in Compression RECTANGULAR
Stress Stress BEAM
600(𝑑 − 𝑐) 600(𝑐 − 𝑑′)
f = f =
𝑐 𝑐
Strain Strain
0.003(𝑑 − 𝑐) 0.003(𝑑 − 𝑐)
ε = ε = 𝒕 𝒂
𝑐 𝑐 𝑴𝒏 = 𝑪𝟏 𝒅 − + 𝑪𝟐 𝒅 −
𝟐 𝟐
DEPTH OF NEUTRAL AXIS
T-BEAMS
600𝑑 0.003𝑑 600𝑑 3
𝑐= 𝑐= 𝑐 = 𝑐 = 𝑑
600 + 𝑓 0.003 + ε 600 + 𝑓 7

STEEL RATIO Effective Overhang Width

1.4 0.25 𝑓 Interior x Exterior x
Minimum 𝜌 = 𝑜𝑟
𝑓𝑦 𝑓 8𝑡 6𝑡
0.85𝑓 𝛽 𝑐 𝐴 1 1
𝜌= Actual 𝜌= 𝑠 𝑠
𝑓𝑦 𝑑 𝑏𝑑 2 2
1 1
0.85𝑓 𝛽 3 𝑙 𝑙
Maximum ρ = 8 12
𝑓𝑦 7

Values of 𝜷 SHEAR REINFORCEMENTS

Depth of 0.85 𝑓 ≤ 28 Modified Moment
Compression 4ℎ − 𝑑
0.05
Block 0.85 − (𝑓 − 28) 28 < 𝑓 < 56 𝑀 =𝑀 −𝑁
7 8
𝒂 = 𝜷𝒄 Ultimate Shear Capacity
0.65 𝑓 ≥ 56
𝑉 = 𝜙(𝑉 + 𝑉 )
Shear Strength of Concrete, 𝑽𝒄

DESIGN OF COLUMNS 0.17𝜆 𝑓 𝑏 𝑑

AXIAL CAPACITY 𝑉𝑑
0.16𝜆 𝑓 + 17𝜌 𝑏 𝑑
DETAILED

Theoretical (𝑃 ) 𝑃 = 0.85𝑓 𝐴 − 𝐴 +𝐴 𝑓 No Axial Force 𝑀

Tied Column Spiral Column 0.16𝜆 𝑓 + 17𝜌 𝑏 𝑑

0.29𝜆 𝑓 𝑏 𝑑
𝑁
0.17 1 + 𝜆 𝑓𝑏 𝑑
14𝐴
𝑉𝑑
Axial 0.16𝜆 𝑓 + 17𝜌 𝑏 𝑑
DETAILED

Nominal (𝑃 ) 0.80𝑃 0.85𝑃 Compression 𝑀

Ultimate (𝑃 ) 0.65𝑃 0.75𝑃 0.29𝑁

0.29𝜆 𝑓 𝑏 𝑑 1 +
𝐴
16𝑑 25𝑚𝑚 < 𝑠 < 75𝑚𝑚
𝐴 𝑓
𝑁
𝜌 = 0.45 −1 Axial Tension 0.17 1 + 𝜆 𝑓𝑏 𝑑≥0
Spacing 48𝑑 ,
𝐴 𝑓 3.5𝐴
𝑉
𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝜌 = Shear Strength of Steel, 𝑽𝒔
𝑉
𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛 𝑨𝒗 𝒇𝒚𝒕 𝒅
𝑽𝒔 =
𝒔𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍
Minimum Bars 4 bars 6 bars
𝐴 Spacing of Shear Reinforcement
Number of Bars 𝑁=𝜋
(𝑑 ) Increase Dimension
4
0.67 𝑓 𝑏 𝑑
ECCENTRICALLY LOADED COLUMN 300 𝑚𝑚
𝑉 𝑠 =
𝑑/4
0.33 𝑓 𝑏 𝑑 600 𝑚𝑚
𝑠 =
𝑑/2
𝑏
⎧0.062 𝑓 ′
𝐴 ⎪ 𝑓
=
𝑠 ⎨ 𝑏
𝑉 𝑉 ⎪ 0.35
⎩ 𝑓
Balanced Load Balanced Moment 𝜙 2
𝑃 = ∑𝐶 − ∑𝑇 𝑃 (𝑒 + 𝑥) = ∑𝐶𝑥 − ∑𝑇𝑥
No Stirrups
REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN 3
PRINCIPLES OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

DESIGN FOR TORSION DESIGN OF ONE-WAY SLABS

Breadth to Length Ratio
One-Way Slab:
𝑆
𝑚 = < 0.50
𝐿
Wherein:
S = clear short span
L = clear long span

Minimum Thickness, 𝒉 Modification Factors

Ultimate Shear Ultimate Torque Cantilever 𝑙/10 𝑓
𝑚 = 0.4 +
Simply Supported 𝑙/20 700
𝑉 =𝑅−𝑊 𝑑 𝑇 = 𝑇 − 𝑇𝑑
One-end Continuous 𝑙/24 1.65 − 0.003𝑤
𝑚 =
Strength of Concrete Strength of Steel Both end Continuous 𝑙/28 1.09

𝑉 𝑇𝑃
𝜏 = 𝜏 = REINFORCEMENTS
𝑏 𝑑 1.7 𝐴
Ultimate Developed Strength Main Bars
Required Area
𝜏= 𝜏 +𝜏 1000
𝐴 = (𝐴 )
𝑠
Maximum Spacing
Cracking Torque 450 𝑚𝑚
𝑠 =
𝐴 3ℎ
𝑇 = 0.33 𝑓 Temperature Bars
𝑃
Minimum Area Maximum Spacing
Threshold Torque
𝑓 < 420 𝐴 , = 0.0020𝐴
1 0.0017𝑥420
𝑇 = 𝑇 𝐴 450 𝑚𝑚
4 𝑠 =
𝑓 ≥ 420 𝐴 , = 𝑓 5ℎ
Torsional Moment 𝐴 = 𝑥𝑦 𝐴 =𝑥 𝑦 0.0014𝐴
𝑇 = 𝜙𝑇 𝑃 = 2(𝑥 + 𝑦) 𝑃 = 2(𝑥 + 𝑦 )
ACI MOMENT COEFFICIENTS
REINFORCEMENTS
Stirrups Moment
𝐴 𝐴 𝐴 𝑀 = 𝐶𝑤 𝑙
= +2
𝑠 𝑠 𝑠

Due to Shear Due to Torsion

𝐴 𝑉 𝐴 𝑇 Shear
= = 𝑉 = 𝐶𝑤 𝑙
𝑠 𝑓 𝑑 𝑠 1.7𝑓 𝐴 cot 𝜃

Maximum Spacing of Stirrups

300 𝑚𝑚
𝑠 =
𝑃 /8

Longitudinal Reinforcements
𝐴 𝑓
𝐴 =𝑃 Negative Moment uses average of adjacent clear spans.
𝑠 𝑓

DESIGN OF FOOTINGS
Minimum Area of Longitudinal Bars
𝑓 𝐴 𝑓 DESIGN CRITERIA
⎧ 0.42𝐴 − 𝑃
⎪ 𝑓 𝑠 𝑓 Dimension Thickness Flexure Bars Dowels
𝐴, = 𝑞 ≤𝑞 𝑉 ≤ 𝜙𝑉 𝑀 ≤ 𝜙𝑀 𝑃 ≤ 𝜙𝐵
⎨ 𝑓 0.175𝑏 𝑓
⎪0.42𝐴 − 𝑃
⎩ 𝑓 𝑓 𝑓 PRESSURE IN FOOTINGS
Allowable Net Soil Pressure Gross Soil Pressure
𝑃
𝑞 = 𝑞 − ∑𝛾ℎ 𝑞 =
𝐴

Moment Wide Beam Shear (One-Way) Punching Shear (Two-Way)

Concrete Masonry Steel No Piles With Piles No Piles With Piles

Ultimate Capacity Nominal Capacity

𝑎
𝑀 = 𝑞 𝐴 𝑥̅ 𝑀 = [𝐶 𝑜𝑟 𝑇] 𝑑 − 𝑉 =𝑞 𝐴 𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅 = 3𝑅 𝑉 =𝑞 𝐴 𝑉 =𝑃 −𝑅
2
Bearing
Bearing of Concrete Nominal Wide Beam Shear Stress Nominal Punching Shear Stress
For Column For Footing 𝑉 𝑉
𝑉 = 𝑉 =
𝐵 = 0.85𝑓 𝐴 𝐵 = 0.85𝑓 𝐴 (2) 𝜙𝑏𝑑 𝜙𝑏 𝑑

Bearing of Steel Ultimate Capacity One-Way Shear Strength Capacity Two-Way Shear Strength Capacity
𝐵 =𝐴 𝑓 𝐵 = 𝜙[𝐵 + 𝐵 ] 𝑉 = 0.17𝜆 𝑓 𝑉 = 0.33𝜆 𝑓
OTHER TOPICS
PRINCIPLES OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING BEARING PLATES

STORY DRIFT AND LATERAL DISPLACEMENT ANALYSIS OF BEARING PLATES

Column Stiffness BEAMS COLUMNS
𝑃
𝑘=
𝛿
Angular Frequency
𝑘
𝑓=
𝑚
Natural Period of Vibration
2𝜋
𝑇=
𝑓

STRUCTURAL PERIOD FRAME 𝑪𝑻

Steel 0.0853
𝑇 = 𝐶 (ℎ ) /
Concrete 0.0731
Others 0.0488 DESIGN CRITERIAS
NSCP 2001 2015
BASE SHEAR Maximum Minimum

CONCRETE
CRUSHING
𝐶 𝐼
𝑉= 𝑊 𝑉 = 0.11𝐶 𝐼𝑊
𝑅𝑇 𝑓 = 0.35𝑓 ′ 𝑃 = 0.85𝑓 𝐴
2.5𝐶 𝐼
Simplified: 𝑉 = 𝑊 0.8𝑍𝑁 𝐼
𝑅 𝑉 = 𝑊
3.0𝐶 ( )
𝑅
𝑉= 𝑊
𝑅

LATERAL FORCE
FLEXURAL
YIELDING

3𝑓
Structural Non-Structural Components 𝑡=ℓ 2𝑓
𝐹 𝑡=ℓ
𝑎 𝐶 𝐼 3ℎ 𝐹
𝑉−𝐹 𝐹 = 1+ 𝑊
𝐹 = (𝑤 ℎ ) 𝑅 ℎ
∑𝑤ℎ
Simplified: Maximum Minimum Near from the Support
3.0𝐶 𝑅
YIELDING

𝐹 = 𝑊 𝐹 = 4𝐶 𝐼 𝑊 𝐹 = 0.7𝐶 𝐼 𝑊 𝑓 =
𝑅 (𝑁 + 2.5𝑘)𝑡
WEB

𝑓 = 0.66𝐹
Away from the Support
𝑅
𝑓 =
(𝑁 + 5𝑘)𝑡
DEVELOPMENT LENGTHS
𝑓 = and 𝐹 = 0.75 𝐹 𝑓 = and 𝐹 = 𝜙 𝐹

TENSION COMPRESSION

a. 𝐿 =
.
𝑑 ALIGNMENT CHARTS
𝑓𝑑
STRAIGHT
𝐿 =
1.1 𝑓 ′
𝑐 +𝐾 b. 𝐿 = 0.043𝑓 𝜓 𝑑
𝑑 𝐼 𝐼 Girder
+
c. 𝐿 = 200𝑚𝑚 𝐿 𝐿
𝐺= Footing
𝐼
+
𝐼 Inhibited Unhibited
𝐿 𝐿
Pinned 1.5 0.5 10
Fixed 2.0 0.67 1