Earthquake

An earthquake is the shaking or trembling of the earth's surface. It is a natural event caused due to
the release of energy from the interior of the earth, which generates waves that travel in all
directions.

ANATOMY OF AN EARTHQUAKE:
● Fault: The release of energy occurs
along a sharp break or fracture in
the crustal rocks known as a fault.
● Hypocenter/ Focus: The
location/point below the earth’s
surface where the earthquake starts is
called the hypocenter/focus.
● Epicentre: The location directly on
the earth’s surface, directly above the
focus is called the epicenter.
○ The seismic waves generated
by the earthquake are first
experienced at the epicentre.
○ The impact of an earthquake
is felt most at the epicentre.
● Seismic Waves: The energy released
travels in the form of waves known
as seismic waves.

TYPES OF EARTHQUAKE:
Earthquake Types based on the location of the Foci:
● Shallow Earthquakes: Earthquakes with foci located at depths less than 70 km are called
shallow earthquakes or crustal earthquakes.
● Intermediate Earthquake: An intermediate earthquake has its focus at depths between 70
to 300 km.
● Deep earthquakes: Thay have foci at depths from 300 to 700 km.

● Aftershocks: Moderate earthquakes of shallow focus may be followed by many small-sized

earthquakes known as aftershocks.
● Foreshock: A mild earthquake that may precede a major earthquake is known as a foreshock.
● Earthquake Swarms: A sequence of small earthquakes with no identifiable mainshock is
called earthquake swarms.

EARTHQUAKE MEASUREMENT:

Sesimograph: The release energy in the form of seismic waves, is measured using a device called a
seismograph installed on the ground throughout the world.
Seismometer: The seismograph has a ground motion detection sensor called the seismometer.

An earthquake can be measured either in terms of magnitude or intensity.

 ● Magnitude: It measures the size of an earthquake in terms of the amount of energy
released during the quake.
● Intensity: It measures the strength of an earthquake and is measured in terms of the
damage caused by the earthquake.

Types of scales:
Richter Scale: Measurement of Magnitude
o Developed by: Charles F. Richter in 1935.
o Type of Scale: The scale is open-ended
o How measured?
o lt determines the magnitude of an earthquake by using the logarithm of the amplitude (height)
of the largest seismic wave recorded on the seismograph.
o The magnitude is expressed in absolute numbers, 0-10. Each whole number represents a 10-
fold increase in the earthquake's magnitude.
o Limitation: It cannot measure large earthquakes appropriately. Therefore, the moment
magnitude scale is used to measure medium to large earthquakes.

Mercalli Scale: Measurement of Intensity:

o Developed by: ltalian geologist Giuseppi Mercalli in 1902.
o Scale: The range of intensity scale is from l to Xll.

CAUSES OF EARTHQUAKE:
Earthquakes occur when there is a disruption in the earth's crust that can be caused by both natural
factors and anthropogenic factors.
Natural Factors:
● Vulcanicity: Explosive gases escape upwards and push the earth's surface from below with
great force causing severe earth tremors of high magnitude.
○ Examples: Earthquakes due to Krakatoa volcanic eruptions in 1883, eruption of
Nevado Del Ruz in Columbia causing earthquakes in 1985.

● Faulting: Underground rocks break along a fault causing Earthquakes.

○ When two blocks of rock or plates rub against each other, their movement is slowed
down due to friction.
○ Immense pressure is built up over long periods of time, that on reaching the
threshold, causes breaking of rocks along a fault.
○ The pressure is released in the form of seismic waves causing earthquakes.
○ Examples: 1906 Earthquake due to the San Andreas Fault of California, 1934
Earthquake of Bihar, 1975 earthquake in Guatemala due to the movement along the
Motagua Fault.

● Plate Tectonics: Earthquakes can occur along all three plate boundaries - convergent, divergent
and transform boundaries.
○ Divergent Boundaries:
○ Along a mid-oceanic ridge, where plates are moving away from each other, shallow
focus earthquakes of moderate-intensity occur.
○ Magma comes out of fissures along the mid-oceanic ridge and cools down forming a
new oceanic crust.
○ When a new crust is formed, it contracts by up to 3% of its own volume causing
earthquakes.
○ Convergent boundaries:
 ■ Very deep and high magnitude earthquakes occur along convergent or
destructive plate boundaries.
■ The pressure built up ln the subduction zone, is released in the form of
earthquakes.
■ The earthquakes occur in an inclined manner and extend upto an average
depth of 300-400km.
■ Such inclined earthquake focus zones are called Benioff Zone. Example, the
Good Friday earthquake of 1964 occurred due to the subduction of the
Pacific Plate under the North American plate.
○ Transform Boundaries:
■ Shallow focus earthquakes occur when two plates slide past each other.
Example: earthquakes at the San Andreas Fault in California.

Anthropogenic Causes: Major anthropogenic causes are:

● Drilling activities,
● Deep underground mining,
● Blasting of rocks by dynamites,
● Nuclear explosion tests
● storage of massive volumes of water in big reservoirs
○ Example: Koyna Earthquake of 1967 in Maharashtra due to the Koyna reservoir
constructed in 1962.
○ The earthquakes caused by the hydrostatic pressure of reservoirs are called
"reservoir-induced earthquakes".
GLOBAL DISTRIBUTION OF EARTHQUAKES:
Around 90% of earthquakes occur along the plate boundaries. Earthquakes are mainly distributed in
three belts or zones:

● The Circum-Pacific Zone:

○ Earthquakes occur along the eastern and western margins of the Pacific Ocean.
○ lt extends for around 40,000 kilometres and accounts for 65% of the total
earthquakes in the world.
○ The Pacific Plate that is thinner and denser meets several other plates in this region,
such as Juan de Fuca, Cocos, lndian-Australian, Nazca, North American, and
Philippine Plates and is subducted under these plates.
○ As a result of subduction, energy which in the form of frictional pressure is built up
and released in the form of earthquakes.
○ This region is also a region of active volcanoes.

● Mid-Atlantic Belt:
○ lt extends along the mid-oceanic ridges and islands near the ridges of the Atlantic
Ocean.
○ Main cause of earthquakes here is seafloor spreading.
○ Earthquakes here are of moderate to mild intensity with a shallow focus.
○ The Rift Valley of East Africa and the Red Sea are considered an extension of this
belt.

● Mid-Continental Belt:
○ This belt includes the epicentres in folded mountains of Alpine ranges,
Mediterranean Sea, Northern and eastern Africa, and Himalayan ranges up to
Myanmar's hills.
○ Main cause of earthquakes here is plate convergence.
○ The lndian and African plates are subducted below the Eurasian plate, causing
earthquakes.
● Intra-Plate Earthquakes:
○ Shallow focus earthquakes may occur in regions away from the plate boundaries.
○ They are called intra-plate earthquakes as they occur within the plates, not on the
plate boundaries.
○ The stress inside the plate is due to fractures created along ancient fault-lines or rift
zones. Eg: earthquakes in the Western United States and Peninsular lndia. An
intra-plate earth-quake occurred in Latur, lndia in 1993.
DISTRIBUTION OF EARTHQUAKES IN INDIA:
The Seismic Zonation Map of India has been prepared by the Bureau of lndian Standards (BlS). It
divides lndia into different zones of varying earthquake intensities.
● The zonation is based on past earthquakes experienced and the presence of active faults that
pose a potential threat in the future.
● There are four seismic zones. Zone V is the most hazardous zone, while Zone ll is the least.

Zones Regions

Zone V Parts of Kashmir, the Western and Central

Himalayas, North and Middle Bihar, the
NorthEast lndian region, the Rann of Kutch
and the Andaman and Nicobar
 Zone IV Parts of Jammu & Kashmir and Himachal
Pradesh, Delhi, Sikkim, northern parts of Uttar
Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal, parts of
Gujarat and small portions of Maharashtra
near the west coast and Rajasthan.

Zone-III Kerala, Goa, Lakshadweep, and the remaining

parts of Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, and West
Bengal, parts of Punjab, Rajasthan, Madhya
Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh,
Maharashtra, Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil
Nadu, and Karnataka

Zone II Covers the remaining parts of the country

CONSEQUENCES OF EARTHQUAKES:
● Landslides:
○ Earthquakes in young fold mountains like the Alps, Himalayas, Rockies, Andes result
in landslides which damage human property, transport, and communication.
○ Example: 1970 Peru earthquake
● Deformation of ground surface:
 ○ Earthquakes result in the deformation of the earth's surface because of rising,
subsidence, and faulting activity.
○ Example: 1964 Alaska earthquake caused ground surface displacement up to 10-15
meters.

Tsunamis:
The seismic waves travelling through the ocean or seawater may result in high sea waves called
tsunamis. The tsunami waves are long and have a wavelength of about 200-300 km.
Meaning: Japanese word: 'tsu' meaning harbor and 'nami' meaning wave.
Causes of Tsunmai:
● Earthquakes: Most tsunamis are caused by earthquakes on converging tectonic plate
boundaries.
○ According to the Global Historical Tsunami Database, since 1900, over 80% of
tsunamis were generated by earthquakes.
○ Example: 2004 lndian Ocean Tsunami caused by Sumatran-Andaman Earthquake
(9.1 on the Richter scale).
● Other causes: landslides and volcanic activity.
Process:
● When there is an earthquake, a large and sudden ocean floor displacement occurs, displacing
a large volume of water above.
● ln deep water, the waves spread out rapidly at 1000 km/h in all directions away from the
source.
● The height of these waves is low in deep waters and is generally not visible. As they
approach the land, the speed decreases while the height of the wave increases. Thus, they
become visible.
● The tsunami waves strike the coast at around 100km/h and are largely destructive.
Volcanoes
Volcano is a rift or a fissure from which molten rock called magma and other substances like gases
and ashes erupt onto the earth's surface.
● The term "Volcano" comes from the island Vulcano off the southwestern coast of ltaly.
● The transfer of magma from the earth's interior onto the surface of the earth is called
"Vulcanicity" or volcanic activity.

CAUSES OF VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS

● Heating of the Earth’s Interior: A volcanic eruption occurs when molten rocks (magma) rise
to the earth's surface.
o Magma is formed due to the melting of rocks in the earth's lithosphere. The rocks melt in the
lithosphere due to intense heat.
o This heat inside the earth comes from two sources:
o Heat leftover from the collisions of large and small particles that created Earth
 o Heat generated by radioactive decay (disintegration of radioactive materials present
within the earth).
● Plate Tectonics: The melting of rocks can be explained through plate tectonics.
o Convergence/Subduction:
▪ When heavier oceanic plate subducts under, the lighter continental plate, due to
collision, the oceanic plate further sinks into the mantle.
▪ Under high temperature and pressure, the rocks get melted and this molten rock
or the magma is lighter than the surrounding rocks and thus rises up.
▪ This magma collects in the magma chamber deep down below the surface
and on enough accumulation, it finds its way up to the surface through vents
causing violent eruptions.
o Divergence:
▪ Volcanic eruption also occurs when the plates move away from each other.
▪ During plate divergence, volcanoes erupt along the cracks on the ocean floor
causing the magma to rise.
▪ Magma reaches the surface to become lava which then cools down and solidifies
to form a new crust along the edges of the cracks.
● Steam Formation:
o As water percolates through the ground, it may meet the hot magma beneath the surface that
creates steam which gets collected in the rock structure.
o Due to immense pressure, the steam along with molten materials gushes out with an
explosion.

DISTRIBUTION OF VOLCANOES:
Most of the world's volcanoes are found along plate boundaries both on land and in the oceans.
● 15% of volcanoes are found along the divergent plate boundaries
● 80% of them are found along the convergent plate boundaries.
There are three major belts or areas of volcanoes in the world
● Circum-Pacific Belt:
o Also known as the Pacific Ring of Fire
o The zone comprises of the volcanoes of eastern and western coastal areas, the
island arcs along the east-Asian coast, and other small volcanic islands in the
Pacific Ocean.
● Volcanoes here are found on the margins of Pacific, Juan de Fuca, Cocos, lndian-Australian,
Nazca, North American, and Philippine Plates.
● Eg: Fujiyama of Japan, Kadovar in Papua New Guinea, and Mayon in the Philippines.

● Mid-Continental Belt:
o Includes the volcanoes of Alpine Mountain chains, those in the Mediterranean Sea,
and volcanoes of the East African Rift Valley. Example: Kilimanjaro, Meru, etc.
o Eruptions occur due to the collision of the Eurasian, lndo-Australian, and African
plates.
o Example: Stromboli, Etna, etc.
● Mid-Atlantic Ridge Belt:
o Volcanoes are found along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge.
o Here, the North-American and Eurasian plates move away from each other, and a
fissure-type eruption occurs.
o The most active volcano area is located in lceland.
● Intra-Plate Volcanoes:
o Volcanoes are found in the inner parts of the plates, away from the tectonic plate
boundaries. Eg: The Hawaii islands in the Pacific Ocean.
 o They are supposedly volcanoes that were formed near the mid-oceanic ridges. They
gradually migrated from the place of their origin due to seafloor spreading.
o They are associated with hotspots below the mantle.

Hotspot: A hotspot is an area above the mantle plume.

● Mantle Plume: It is an area under the crust where magma is hotter than the surrounding
magma.
● Volcanic activity occurs above this plume due to very high heat caused by the extra hot
magma, which causes melting and thinning of the crust.
● The lava produced by the hotspots is alkaline and the crust thus formed is called Ocean
Island Basalt.
● These hotspots may also result in the formation of large volcanic provinces. For example, in
the late Cretaceous, the Reunion Hotspot created the Deccan Traps as the lndian Plate drifted
over it.

PRODUCTS OF VOLCANIC ERUPTION

Three kinds of materials get ejected during a volcanic eruption - gases, lava and some solid fragments.
● Gases: They mainly come out from the magma and from rocks and subsurface water heated by
contact with magma..
● Fragmented materials: The rock fragments thrown out during an eruption are called pyroclastic
materials or tephra.
o Volcanic Blocks: Pyroclastic materials of more than 32mm in diameter
o Lapilli or cinders, or scoria: Pyroclastic materials of size 4 to 32 mm in diameter.
o Volacnic Ash: Pyroclastic materials of size between .25 to 4 mm in diameter
o Volcanic Dust: Pyroclastic materials of size less than .25mm in diameter
o Tuft: It is formed when the volcanic ash gets compacted to form a rock.
● Liquid lava: It is the molten rock that reaches the earth's surface through volcanic vents.
o Andesitic: When the lava contains a higher percentage of silica,
o Basic: When the lava contains lower percentages of silica -The cooling of basic lava
results in the formation of basalt.

TYPES OF VOLCANIC ERUPTION:

Based on the nature of the opening through which magma comes out, volcanic eruptions can be
classified into two types:
● Fissure Eruption and
● Central Eruption

Fissure Eruption or Icelandic Eruption:

● Takes place along a fissure or a series of fissures.
● There is no explosive activity.
● lt involves an outpouring of lava from long fissures.
● Doesn't form large volcanic cones.
● Formation of lava plateaus and plains. Example: Columbia plateau of the USA (eruption
took place during the Miocene epoch).
Central Eruption:
● Eruption occurs through a central vent or mouth.
● Rock fragments, ash and lava are ejected that collect around the mouth forming cone-like
structures.
● There is a variation in nature and intensity of the eruption because of the amount and
pressure of gases, lava's viscosity, etc.
○ When the lava is basic and less viscous, eruptions are peaceful.
 ○ When the lava is acidic and viscous, eruptions are violent and explosive.
Types of Central Eruption
Type Characteristic Feature Example
Hawaiian Type ● Basic lava and gas are ejected Mauna Loa and Kilauea of
● Explosive activity is rare, and Hawaiian lslands.
eruption is calm.
Strombolian Type ● Named after the Strombili Volcano Stromboli Vocano
("Lighthouse of the
Mediterranean") of Lipari lsland in
the Mediterranean Sea.
● Eruption is of moderate intensity
and is rhythmic or continuous.
● Basaltic lava containing gas bubbles,
and pyroclastic materials are ejected.
Vulcanian Type ● Moderately explosive and eject a lot Mt. Vulcano of Lipari lsland
of gas and ash.
● Ash that is emitted and distributed by
the wind is called an ash shower.
● Ash-laden clouds formed after the
eruption are dark and assume a
cauliflower shape.
Pelean Type ● Named after Mt. Pele of West lndes, Mount Pelée on the Caribbean
which in 1902 destroyed a town of island of Martinique
located on the slope.
● Eruption occurs when a large
quantity of gas, ash, and pyroclastic
materials are ejected.
● Materials flow down the slope at
high speed.
● Forms an avalanche of gas, ash and
rock fragments called Nuees
Ardentes.
Plinian Type ● Named after Pliny the Younger, Mount St. Helens
who witnessed eruption of Mount
Vesuvius in ltaly in 79AD.
● Lava is highly viscous; very violent
eruption takes place.
● Occurs when the pressure of gases
is so high that it breaks the lava
plug near the volcano's vent.
● Ash and gases rushes out the vent.
● Produces a tall column of ash.

VOLCANIC LANDFORMS
Volcanic activity results in the formation of different types of landforms either below or on the earth's
surface. These landforms are classified into two types:
● Extrusive volcanic landforms
● Intrusive Volcanic landforms
Extrusive Volcanic Landforms:
These are formed due to the solidification of lava on the earth's surface along with the accumulation
of pyroclastic materials, dust, and ashes.

LANDFORMS OF CENTRAL ERUPTION:

Landform Characteristic Feature Example

Cinder Cones ● Low-height mounds of volcanic ● Cones of Mt Jorullo of
dust, ashes, and pyroclastic Mexico.
materials accumulated near the
vent.
Shield Volcano ● Formed by piling up lava upon one ● Mauna Loa in Hawaii-
another and the vent. largest shield volcano.
● Widespread and gentle sloping.
● Shaped like a shield with a convex
slope.
Composite or Strato ● Steep-sided conical-shaped ● Fujiyama, Cotopaxi, and
Volcano volcanoes formed by the hardening Vesuvius
of acidic lava, ash, and pyroclastic
materials.
● New layer of lava and materials are
added to the volcano giving it a
stratified structure after every
eruption.
Crater ● Basin or funnel-shaped depression. ● Crater Lake in Oregon, and
● Formed at the mouth of the Lake Toba in lndonesia.
volcanic vent.
● When volcanic ash and rock
fragments get ejected, they may
build a ring around the vent and
form a crater.
● Sometimes a crater of an extinct
volcano may get filled with water,
forming crater lakes.
Caldera ● Large shallow cavity larger than a Caldera on Mt. Krakatoa.
crater.
● Formed when a violent volcanic
eruption removes the top of a
former cone.
LANDFORMS OF FISSURE ERUPTION:
Fissure eruption generally produces lava plateaus and lava plains.
● They are formed of highly fluid basaltic lava.
● The lava from the fissures accumulates in thick layers to form plateaus and plains.
● Examples: Columbia River Plateau of the USA, the Parana plateau of South Africa, the
Yellowstone Plateau of the USA, Deccan Trap of lndia.

Intrusive Volcanic Landforms:

Intrusive volcanic landforms are formed due to the solidification of magma inside the earth.

● All igneous masses formed when molten material solidifies beneath the earth's surface are
called plutonic.
● These landforms vary largely in shape and size.
● The important intrusive volcanic landforms are Dyke, sills, Laccolith, Lopolith, Phacolith, and
Batholith.
o Dyke is discordant - formed perpendicular to the rockbed.
 o Sills, Laccolith, Lopolith, Phacolith, and Batholith are concordant i.e. they are at par with
the horizontal beds of rocks.

Intrusive Landform Characteristic Feature Example

Dyke ● Vertical or highly inclined ● Dykes in Chotonagpur
sheet of igneous rock that Plateau
cuts through rock.
● Formed when magma from
the earth's interior forces
itself up through an
aperture.
● Composed of dolerites.
Sill ● Sheet of igneous rock ● Tabular mass of quartz
formed horizontally trachyte found near the
between two layers of summit of Engineer
sedimentary rocks. Mountain near Silverton,
● Formed when magma Colorado.
forces its way up between
two layers of horizontally
bedded rocks and is cooled
and solidified.

Laccolith ● Large mound of igneous ● Mt. Holmes in

rock with the lower surface Yellowstone National
flat and upper surface Park, USA.
arched up in the form of a
dome.
Lopolith ● Large saucer-shaped mass ● Bushveld lgneous Complex
of igneous rock. of South Africa.
● Produced by rising magma
in a region where rock beds
have collapsed.
Phacolith ● Lens-shaped masses of ● Phacoliths seen in the
igneous rocks. foothills of the Himalayas
● They occupy the crests of and the Alps.
anticlines and troughs of
synclines in a folded
structure.
Batholith ● Dome-shaped mass of ● Wicklow Mountain of
igneous rock whose sides lreland
plunge deep beneath the
surface.
● Formed mainly of granite.
● They are revealed on the
earth's surface after the
overlying rocks are worn
out due to weathering and
erosion.
IMPACT OF VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS:
Volcanic eruptions have both positive and negative impacts.

Positive Impact:
● Formation of fertile soil: Lava and ash are deposited after volcanic eruptions which add nutrients
to the soil and create fertile soil suitable for agriculture.
● Scope for geothermal energy: The extreme heat near the volcano provides an opportunity to
generate geothermal energy.
● Promotion of Tourism: Unique topographic features produced by volcanic activity attract tourists
and bring revenue to the economy.

Negative Impact:
● Loss of Human Life and Property: According to WHO, volcanic activities affected 6.2 million
people between 1998-and 2017.
● Lahars: When ash and mud from volcanic eruptions mix with rainwater or snow meltwater,
mudflows called lahars are created. They are very destructive. Mount Pinatubo in the
Philippines exploded and caused destructive lahars in 1991.
● Change in Climate: Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines when erupted, fine ash and gases went up
to the stratosphere and volcanic clouds were formed. The sulfur dioxide in this cloud combined
with water and formed sulfuric acid droplets. These droplets blocked sunlight from reaching the
Earth resulting in temperatures cooling in some regions by 0.5 degrees Celsius.

Minerals
A mineral is an inorganic natural compound. It has distinctive chemical and physical properties,
composition, and atomic structure.

FORMATION OF MINERALS
● Magma is the primary source of minerals. Magma reaches the earth's surface through volcanic
eruptions. As it reaches the surface, it crystallizes to form minerals.
● Evaporation of a liquid solution- For example, minerals such as salt and gypsum are formed
by the evaporation of saltwater. These minerals are called evaporites.
TYPES OF MINERALS
Minerals are classified based on their chemical composition.
● Silicate Minerals: These minerals are composed of silicon and oxygen.
○ Examples: quartz, feldspar, mica, olivine etc.
● Carbonate minerals: These are minerals that contain carbonate ions.
○ Example: Calcite
● Sulphide Minerals: These are minerals containing sulphide or disulphides.
○ Example: Pyrites, iron sulphides
● Metallic Minerals: These minerals have metal content.
○ Example: Iron, manganese, copper, etc.

Rocks
Rocks are aggregates of one or more minerals. They are shaped and transformed by different
geomorphic agents such as wind, water, etc. and are also transformed under extreme pressure and
heat.

TYPES OF ROCKS
Based on their mode of formation or origin, rocks are classified into three different types- igneous,
sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks.
IGNEOUS ROCKS:

Origin:
● Primary rocks or parent rocks as they are the first to form.
● These rocks are formed due to cooling, solidification and crystallization of molten magma.
● The magma as it moves upward from gaps and fractures on the earth’s surface, it gradually
cools down and solidifies, thus forming rocks.
Types of Igneous Rocks:

Intrusive Igneous Rocks:

When magma solidifies below the earth's surface, it forms intrusive igneous rocks.
Sub-types:

Plutonic Rocks Hypabyssal Rocks

● They are formed due to the cooling of
magma deep inside the earth.
● They are coarse-grained rocks because the
magma cools slowly.
● Example, granite.
● They are formed due to the cooling and
solidification of magma in cracks, pores,
crevices, and hollow places just beneath the
earth's surface.
● They can be of different forms: batholith,
laccoliths, phacoliths, lopoliths, dykes, and
sills.

Extrusive Igneous Rocks:

The cooling and solidification of magma at the earth's surface results in extrusive igneous rocks. For
example, basalt, gabbro etc. These rocks are fine-grained as the lava cools rapidly.

Characteristics of igneous rocks:

● Do not have any stratification i.e., they do not have layers.
● Usually granular and crystalline.
● Primarily composed of silicate minerals.
● Generally hard, and less porous
● Least affected by chemical weathering.
● Do not contain any fossils as they are formed directly from very hot magma.
● Significance: Minerals like iron ore, gold, silver, zinc, lead cop- per, aluminium, etc., are
generally found in igneous rocks.

SEDIMENTARY ROCKS:
Continuous weathering and erosion cause rocks to break into particles called sediments which are
then transported and deposited by geomorphic agents like air, water, or glacial ice – a process called
sedimentation.
● The process of sedimentation and accumulation is aided by currents, gravity, organic activity
etc. and the rocks formed this process are called sedimentary rocks.
● Examples: limestone, chalk, clay, sandstone, shale etc.

Characteristics of sedimentary rocks:

● Stratified-layered structure.
● Contain fossils embedded between different layers.
● Non-crystalline in nature.
● Permeable and porous.
● Found over the largest surface area of the earth- around 75%.
● Significance: Resources like coal, petroleum, and natural gas are contained in sedimentary rocks.

Classification of Sedimentary Rocks:

Sedimentary rocks are classified into three types based on their mode of formation. These include
● Mechanically Formed (Clastic Rocks): These are formed due to the accumulation of rock
fragments cemented together.
o Example: Sandstone, conglomerate, mudstone, shale, claystone.
● Chemically formed: These are formed by chemical precipitation from seawater or salty inland
lakes.
o Example: Limestone, Evaporites etc.
● Organically formed: These are formed from organic material i.e., from the remains of dead plants
and animals.
o Example: Coal.

METAMORPHIC ROCKS
Metamorphic Rocks are altered rocks that are formed when pre-existing igneous or sedimentary rocks
are transformed under high temperature, pressure, or chemical action.
● Meaning: Metamorphic (Greek word "meta- morpho" meaning "changing form").
● Metamorphism implies the process of transformation. The process of metamorphism is classified
based on the driving force of transformation - heat or pressure.
o Thermal Metamorphism: When original rocks get transformed due to intense temperature
and pressure.
o Molten magma enters the fissures in rocks and bakes the adjoining rocks in its
contact zone (contact metamorphism). Example: limestone gets changed into
marble.
o Dynamic Metamorphism: When the original rocks get altered under intense pressure. It is
associated with the mountain-building process, so, also called Tectonic metamorphism.
Example: slate gets altered into schist.

Characteristics of metamorphic rocks:

● Hard and therefore resistant to erosion and weathering.
● Do not contain any fossils.
● Show lineation or foliation.
o Lineation is the arrangement of rocks, grains or minerals in layers or lines.
o Rocks may be foliated such as slates, gneiss etc., or non-foliated such as marbles,
quartzites etc.
● Some metamorphic rocks are banded rocks i.e.; they show banding.
o Banding is the arrangement of minerals or mate- rials in alternative thick and thin layers
appearing in dark and light shades.
● Significance: Metamorphic rocks supply building materials such as marbles and slates

Name of the Rock Type of Rock Name of the Meta-

morphic Rock
Limestone Sedimentary Rock Marble
Dolomite Sedimentary Rock Marble
Sandstone Sedimentary Rock Quartzite
Shale Sedimentary Rock Slate
Granite lgneous Rock Gneiss
Slate Metamorphic Rock Schist/ Phyllite
Phyllite Metamorphic Rock Schist

ROCK CYCLE
The process of creation and transformation of rocks found on the earth' surface is called Rock cycle.

Process:
● Igneous rocks are formed when magma cools down and make crystals. They can form on the
surface as extrusive igneous rocks or below the earth's surface as intrusive igneous rocks
● All types of rocks are exposed to the earth's surface due to mountain building process.
● Once all these rocks are exposed, they are worn down by weathering and various agents of
erosion such as water, wind, glacier etc.
● These eroded materials are then transported and deposited to form sediments. Layers of sediments
get compressed and cemented to form sedimentary rocks.
● Due to plate tectonic forces different kinds of igneous and sedimentary rocks are uplifted or
buried deeper within the crust.
● During these processes, the rocks are subjected to tremendous pressure and heat and gets altered
into metamorphic rocks.
● The igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rocks may be subducted deeper inside the mantle.
These rocks then melt to form magma which is the primary source of igneous rocks. So, the rock
cycle goes on and never stops.