SCIENCE NOTES

THREE- YEAR JUNIOUR

SECONDARY SCHOOL
SYLLABUS

FORM ONE

NOTES

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THE INTERACTION OF SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY

Science is a way of finding out how things happen so that we can understand the world around us.

It is made up of 3 basic sciences;4

BIOLOGY;is the study of living thing [plants and animals.

CHEMISTRY;the study of changes that happen to matter.
PHYSICS;deals with the study of matter and energy.

TECHNOLOGY;can be described as making machines ,objects and systems to meet people’s needs.

CHARACTERISTICS OF TECHNOLOGY

*Involves design.
*Involves making /producing.
*It is concerned with values.

THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

SCIENCE TECHNOLOGY
Pursues knowledge and understanding for Make objects and devices to meet
its own sake. people needs.

Involves discovery through careful Involves design, invention and production

experimentation
Tries to be as value free as possible. It is driven by society and its needs

IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY ON SOCIETY

Below are some examples of changes brought about by technology:

 Communication – technologies such televisions, radios, cell phones, internet, have made it easier, cheaper
and faster to communicate all over the world. Most people are informed because information is accessible
(easy to get).
 Transport – cars, trains, air crafts e.t.c have made it easier for people to travel around the world quicker.
 Medical – medical practitioners are now able to diagnose and treat diseases e.g. the use of scanners, x-rays,
respiratory machines e.t.c
 Jobs - have been created to manufacture the different technologies for examples people are employed
to make cars computers, tractors pens and pencils.

Although technology has a lot of benefits for our society , it has also brought things that are not desirable
.Some of these include the following

Jobs are lost as new technology means that some jobs that people did by hands are done by a machine
example farmers are able to plough large fields in a short time using tractors .
.
Some technologies create waste such as used oil , plastic bags ,empty cans ,bottles and board boxes. People
do not always dispose of the waste properly and a result, the environment becomes polluted.

Technology is used to design new weapons such as guns, land mines and bombs that people use to fight
and kill each others.
When technology fails it may cause serious accident leading to death of many people.

Continued use and reliance an technology can make us dependent on it and thus be

THE INFLUENCE OF SOCIETY ON TECHNOLOGY

Although society is changed or influenced by technology ,it also influence the development of new technology .The
need ,interest, preference , cultural and environment of society have a big influence in the development of
technology . Below are examples of how society influence technology

*The need for people to communicate with the others any where and at any time led to the development of mobile
phones, internet and technology.

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*New situation such as discovery of HIV/AIDS has result in the development of new technology used to test a
persons HIV status.

*The need by society for quicker, smaller and more powerful technology has led to the use of memory sticks and
card, powerful laptop computers, very small cell phones and small digital cameras.

Countries often compete against each other to be best in a particular field. Often they can gain an advantage over
their opponents by developing new technology. For example, the crimes of some countries compete to develop the
best and most powerful weapons so that they conquer their enemies when there is war.
When now technology is very expensive or of poor quality, people will not buy it. This force producer to come up
with cheaper and better quality technology that people can afford

ENVIROMENTAL ISSUES RELATED TO TECHNOLOGY

There are some environmental issues related to the manufacture and we of technology such as;

POLLUTION

Pollution is when waste products, chemical and material are found in our environment when it should not be there.

Technology creates waste such as used plastics, oil and metal. If the waste is not disposed of properly, it can pollute
the air, land and water.

Cars produce smoke though their exhaust system which pollute the air and can be dangerous to our health

Technology such as fertilizers can damage the environment if they are not used properly .The run off of some
fertilizers results in excessive nutrients in lakes, rivers and dams. This promotes the growth of algae and creates
conditions that kill under water vegetation and fish.

Pesticides do not only kill unwanted pest but also kill other animals that are useful to us such as bees
, Runoff of pesticides into water source can also kill fish and animals that live in the water.

Some technologies pollute the atmosphere. This contributes to changes to our climates for example
smoke released from various industries as well as gives released cars leading to global warming.

Deforestation

Manufacturing materials such as chairs tables and toilet paper need us to cut down trees to obtain the
wood that is needed. The cutting down of trees to provide the materials to make the technologies
leave the soil bare promoting soil erosion

HEALTH ISSUES RELATED TO TECHNOLOGY

Technology important positive influence on our healthy .Many of us would be crippled, very ill or even dead if it
were not for improvement in our health include:

*X-ray technology allows us to see inside the human body so that we can identify broken bones.
*the development of vaccine technology has meant that diseases that used to cause death and illness no longer affect
us.

*The development of drugs such as antibiotics and painkillers has meant that many diseases can be cured or made
more bearable.

Technology that puts people to sleep during surgical operations (anesthetics) has meant that operations can now be
carried out safely and painlessly.

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 DOING SCIENCE

The process scientific investigation

The first step in nearly all scientific investigations is to ask a question.

The question is usually about something that the scientist has observed and wants to know more about,
eg What is happening?
Why has it happened?
How does it happen?

A scientific question is one that is measurable or very clear and specific.

A non- scientific question is general, not measurable, and can mean many different things,
eg How big is the pond?
Questions form a hypothesis.

Hypothesis is the possible/explanation to a scientific question, intelligent guess.

eg why did some things float in water and others sinks?
Try the simple investigation
# Fairs test / experiment

Fair test is an experiment in which only one factor is changed. This means that the results of the
experiment are unquestionable / valid.
# controlling variables are things that can be changed and may affect the final result.

Independent variable is the variable that you are interested in that will be changed in an investigation.
All the other possible variables must stay the same. If more than one variable changes, then you do not
know which variable has caused the effect.

Dependent variable is the variable that you think will be affected by the change in the independent
variable.

Control group is something that is used to compare your experimental group to.
Without a control, you cannot tell whether or not a change has happened in your experimental group.

Experimental group is the group in which you made a change to the independent variable that you are
interested in.

Refer to Tebogo’s experiment in Diamond science ‘A FRESH START ’BOOK1PAGE 16 TO 17

SCIENCE PROCESS SKILLS

Observing experimenting Inferring Communicating Predicting

Comparing Interpreting Predicting
Classifying Analyzing Controlling variables
Solving problems making hypotheses

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Unit 2: PROCESS OF SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION

Question

Hypothesis

Experimentatio
n

Conclusion

Communication
1. QUESTIONING

 Scientific investigation starts with scientific questions from the identified problem.
 The scientific questions must be clear, specific and measurable.
 In the diagram below a scientist realized that plants in Plot B are growing better than those in
Plot A.

 He asked the scientific question:

’’Why plants in Plot B grow taller than those in Plot A?’’

2. HYPOTHESISING

 Hypothesis is a possible answer or explanation to a scientific question.

 For the above plots he hypothesized that

‘’Plants in Plot B grow taller than those in Plot A because the owner added compost manure
to their soil’’

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 3. EXPERIMENTING

 After hypothesis, an experiment or investigation is planned and carried to prove the

hypothesis correct or incorrect.

 From the above hypothesis it is predicted that:

’’ if compost manure is added to the soil it will make bean plants grow taller than
those on the soil without manure’’

 Possible VARIABLES( factors that may be changed and may affect end results of the
experiment) for the investigation are listed eg

1. Amount of water to be used when watering

2. Amount of light to the plants
3. Type of seeds used
4. Time frame allowed for growth
5. Whether the soil has compost or not

 The INDEPENDENT VARIABLE (factor we are interested in and will be changed) is

identified ie
‘’ whether compost will be added to the soil or not’’

 Other variables remain constant or unchanged.

 The DEPENDENT VARIABLE (factor affected by change on the independent

variable is also stated ie

‘’height of the bean plants’’

 Seeds planted in the soil with compost will be the EXPERIMENTAL GROUP (where
a change in the independent variable has been done)

 Seeds planted in the soil without the compost will be the CONTROL GROUP(one
that will be compared to the experimental group)

 After planning an investigation is conducted

CONDUCTING A SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION/EXPERIMENT

 State the AIM eg
‘’The aim of the experiment is to find out whether bean plants grow taller in soil with
compost or soil without compost’’

 List APPAPARATUS (equipment to be used during the experiment) eg

 compost
 plant pots
 sandy soil
 ruler bean seeds
 water
 measuring cylinder

 Outline the METHODOLOGY (step by step activities to be carried).

Read page 19-20 on the text book)
 During the experiments observations are made and recorded.

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 After stated time frame, the bean plants will be measured and their results recorded on a table eg

Time( in weeks) 1 2 3 4 5
Bean A height (without compost) 6 9 12 18 20
Bean B height( with compost) 10 15 20 25 35

 From a table , the results can be converted to graphs or charts eg

(a) Bar chart on weekly Heights of Bean A and Bean B

(b) Pie chart on heights of bean A and Bean B

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 ( c) Line graph on heights of bean A and Bean B.

Weeks

4. CONCLUSION
 Records from observations, tables, graphs or charts will be analysed and a decision/
conclusion will be made.
 For an example; from the above graphs, Bean B grew taller than Bean A, so the
conclusion will be
‘’Compost helps plants grow taller’’
 This means our hypothesis was correct. In some situations the hypothesis can be
incorrect.

5. COMMUNICATION

 Lastly, the findings are reported to other interested people in details.

 Report is important because other people may repeat the experiment or ask questions
in relation to the findings.
WORKING SAFELY IN THE LABORATORY

Working in the laboratory can be dangerous if the right steps are not, taken to avoid accidents and
injuries.
Safety means being protected against harm which could be caused by hazards around us. Hazards are
things around us that could cause damage to us if they are not used safely, eg sharp tools.

Common hazards in the laboratory

 Open flames from burners which can cause burns if people are not aware of them
 Poisonous and corrosive chemicals that can, cause burns or even death if, not used
appropriately.
 Electricity and appliances, which can cause electric shocks if, not set-up or used properly.

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  Glass equipments and apparatus if not handled or used properly the glass breaks(broken glasses)
 Wet/slippery/polished fool.
 Flammable gases used in the laboratory (gas leakage or gases not tightly closed after use they
could cause fire when lighting the matchstick)

Classification common laboratory hazards

 Biological hazards – are dangers to health that may be caused by contact with animals /
Plants can cause allergies.
Bad reaction of the body to substances that may be in the plant / on the animal’s skin. Some animals can
carry diseases / even plants are poisonous.

 Chemical hazards – Chemical that may be poisonous / may burn / damage your skin / Clothing eg
dangerous chemicals include common acids such as sulphuric acid, hydrochloric acid etc.

 Physical hazards – This type of hazard may be encountered when you are working with high
voltage (very powerful) electricity sources and with high energy radiation sources as X – rays.

SAFETY SYMBOLS

Safety symbols
Hazardous substances in the laboratory normally carry safety symbols are shown below.

SAFATY GUIDELINES
1. You mast not ran in the lab but move carefully
If, you run, you can trip and fall and spill chemicals that may harm people, you can also knock into others who are
doing experiments and this can cause harm to them.

2. You must not eat , taste or drink anything in the lab unless your teacher instructs you to do so.
The lab how many chemicals that may be poisonous and dangerous which could contaminate your food or
drink.

3. Listen to all instructions the teacher gives you and carry them out correctly. This will ensure that you perform the
action correctly.

4. Do not enter the lab until your teacher tells you to do so.

5. Always wear protective plastic goggles to protect you eyes against dangerous chemical, fumes or explosions busy
with an experiment.

6.Don’t inhale directly to smell any gas or other chemicals .You must waft the smell to your nose with your
hand.

7. Don’t point the open end of a test tube you are heating to anyone .So that if the liquid does shoot out of the tube,
it does not heart you or those around you.

8. Don’t pour unused chemicals back into stock bottle.

9. Don’t ouch any apparatus or chemicals unless your teacher told you to do so.

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SAFE LABORATORY TECHNIQUES

Although it is very important to follow the safety guidelines in the lab to reduce the risk of accident and injuries
,it is important for you to know the correct safety techniques to use when working in the lab. Some of the safety
methods or techniques are:

.Always wear good protective’s gloves when you have to handle hot things such as burners, tripod, gauze a hot
container.

If you are heating a liquid in a test tube, then you should always use tongs 0r a damp. You should also
point the mouth of the test tube away from yourself and others so that if the liquid does shoot out of the
tube, it does not hit you or those around you
If you are instructed to smell something in a tube or a container, then waft the fume coming from the
container towards your nose using your hand. Never place your nose. in or near the end of a container to see
how things smell because the fumes may be toxic or very unpleasant, if taken in large quantities.

If you heat a flammable liquid such as methylated splits, alcohol, never heat the container over a flame or
burner because liquid will evaporate and the flames will flow on to the flame and catch fire. The container
with a flammable liquid must be placed inside a beaker with water.

Liquid must be placed inside a beaker of water which can be heated slowly.

If you are asked to heat something in a beaker over a burner ,then a tripod and gauze should always be used .This
makes a stable plat form for the beaker to rest on.

Always add a concentrated acid e.g concentrated sulphuric acid to water, never add water to a concentrated acid.
This is because small amount of water added to a concentrated acid in a tube may cause a large amount of heat to be
produced and this can cause the content of the tube to shoot out of the test tube.

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Scalars and vector
Scalar -A physical quantity which has no direction.eg time, temperature, volume density e.t.c

Vector- A physical quantity with has size [magnitude] and direction.eg acceleration, velocity, force e.t.c

Resultant vector
This is the overall results of the vectors acting on an object. Vectors can be added to a subtracted from each other
.The overall effect on an object such as the speed that an object moves in, depends on the magnitude and direction
affecting it, so in order to calculate resultant vector you can;
Add the magnitude of vectors together if both vectors are acting in both exactly the same direction e.g.

32
32m 12m +12
44

SUBTRACT the magnitude of the vector from each other .If the vectors are acting in the opposite direction e.g

10km/h
10 km/h – 5km/h = 5km/h
5km/h

CLASSIFYING QUANTITIES INTO SCALAR AND VECTOR QUALITY

Scalar Vector quantity

Temperature Acceleration [the rate at which speed of something is
Length increasing and in what direction]
Volume Velocity [the speed at which something is moving and
Area the direction its moving
Density
Time Force
Speed Wind speed/velocity
Width

MEASURING LENGTH
Length is the distance between two points. The standard units [51] of length is known as meter and its symbol is the
letter (m)
Other units are used depending on how big or small something is. Below are some of the units of length which are
used to describe large or small distance between two points. The symbol used for these units are shown in the
brackets.

1metre = 1000 millimeters [mm]

1 meter= 100 centimeters [cm]
1 kilometer =1000 meters[m]

CONVERTING NON STANDARD UNITS INTO MEASUREMENTS INTO METRES

IMPERIAL SYSTEM UNIT LENGTH USING THE METRIC SYSTEM

1 inch…………………….. 2.54 cm
1 foot ……………………. 30.48 [cm]
1yard …………………… 0.9144 m
1mile ……………………. 1.6 km

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SOURCES OF ERROR WHEN MEASURING LENGTH
 If the zero [0] point of scale is not lined properly with one end of the object that is being measured then the
length measurement could be shorter or longer than it should be
 Always zero the instrument
 If the ruler is not placed straight and lined up along the object that is being measured , then the
measurement will be longer than it should be
 Ensure that the measuring instrument is placed on a flat surface
 If the ruler you are using is thick, then you may not get a different measurement depending on what you are
looking for from when reading the scale on a ruler. This is known as parallax error and it could make the
measurement too long or short.

AREA

DETERMINING THE AREA OF A REGULAR SHAPE

Area is a measure of the size of the surface of something. The units of area are always in a squared unit. The standard
unit for area is square metre ( m2).

How to find area: length x width e.g.

5m x 3m = 15m2

Area of: a circle π × r2

Triangle 1

MEASURING VOLUME
*The amount of space occupied by an object.
*for regular figures like cubes,cuboids volume is dertermine by

MEASURING VOLUME

LENGTH=6M WIDTH=2M HEIGHT=4M

The SI unit for volume is cubic is cubic metre [m3] and other units commonly used in cubic centimeter.

For a liquid, a measuring cylinder is used.when using a measuring cylinder you must pay attention to the following;
*You must know the volume shown by the smaller divisions.Different sizes of measuring cylinders use different
divisions.

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The water that has been displaced will be the volume of the object.

MASS
Mass is the amount of matter contained in an object. The standard unit of mass is kilograms (Kg). Because this fairly
large amount, we also use the gram (g). 1000g = 1Kg

ISTRUMENTS USED TO MEASURE BALANCE

- Bathroom scale
- Spring balance
- Top pan balance
- Lever arm balance
- Triple beam balance

Sources of error in the measurement of mass

- Identify sources of error in the measurement of mass such as:

- the instrument must be calibrated
- It must be zeroed
- Items must be put in the center of the instrument.

DENSITY
Density is the mass per cubic meter of the material. The density of the material always stays the same.
Different materials have different densities.

DENSITY = MASS / VOLUME

VOLUME = MASS / DENSITY

MASS = DENSITY X VOLUME

UNITS
- Kilogram per cubic meter
- Gram per cubic centimeter
N.B. the density of water is 1g/cmThe density of liquids can be measured using an instrument called the hydrometer.
It consists of a glass tube with a scale on the side and weighed at the bottom with lead shot. The hydrometer floats in
the liquid. If the liquid is more the hydrometer does not sink very deep. If the liquid is less dense it sinks much
deeper.

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BUOYANCE AND DENSITY

It is the density of a material which controls whether it will float or sink. An object will float in a liquid if its density
is less than that of the liquid in which it is placed. Buoyance is the upward force acting on an object & that it is the
density of a material which controls the floating.

TEMPERATURE
Temperature is the degree of how hot or cold an object is. The instrument used to measure temperature is called
a thermometer. A thermometer is a narrow tube inside a glass wall. At one end of the tube is a thin – walled
bulb which contains a liquid. This liquid is usually mercury or coloured alcohol. The space above the liquid is
filled with a gas, normally nitrogen.

UNIT
The standard unit of temperature is Degree Celsius.

There are other scales such as Fahrenheit (oF) and the kelvin (K).

To change Celsius scale to kelvin you add 273to the celsious scale.
e.g. 30 oc to kelvin is (30 +273 = 303K)

Kelvin to Celsious we subtract 273K from kelvin temperature.

To convert celsious to Fahrenheit, multiply temperature by 1.8 and add 32. That is oF= (1.8 × oC) +32
Fahrenheit to celsious we subtract 32 from temperature and multiply by 0.56; oC= (oF -32)×0.56

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CLINICAL AND LAB THERMOMETER

CLINICAL LABORATORY
Has a constriction (bend) it does not have a constriction
It takes body temperature It takes temperature of the liquids

PLACES
a. Between buttocks
b. Under armpits
c. Under the tongue

The narrow bend near the bulb stops the mercury from falling back into the bulb before you have had time to read the
temperature. After reading the temperature you shake the thermometer so that mercury goes back into the bulb. The
normal body temperature of a healthy person is about 37 degree Celsius. For a sick person, the temperature may be
much higher or lower than 37 degree Celsius. .

TIME
There are many ways of measuring time.

The standard unit of time is seconds (sec).

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 PENDULUM
Pendulum is a mass on the end of a string. The number of times the pendulum swings can be used to measure
time. One swing is the movement of the pendulum from one place out to one side, then the other, and back to
the same place again.

UNITS
- Seconds
- Minutes
- Hours
- Days
- Weeks
- Months
- Years
- Decade
- Century

INSTUMENTS USED
- Clocks
- Watches
- Cell phones
- Computers
- Sirens

EARLY (OLD) INSTRUMENTS

- Shadows
- Moon
- Sundial
- Hour glass

CONVERSION OF UNITS

1minute = 60 seconds
1 hour = 60 minutes
1 year = 365 or 366 days
1 day = 24 hours
1 week = 7 days
1 month = 30 or 31 days
1 year = 12 months
1 decade = 10 years
1 century = 100 years

LIVING MATTER

CHARACTERISTICS OF LIVING THINGS

We call living things ORGANIMS. Plants and animals are all living organisms. If something is alive it will carry out
all seven life processes and these are:

1. Feeding
Plants make their own food through the process of photosynthesis while animals eat plants and other animals.

2. Respiration
Getting energy out of the food you eat is called respiration. All living organisms respire because they need energy.

3. Movement
Plants move slowly when they grow. Roots move down into the soil & stems move towards light. Animals move
their whole body from place to place.

4. Growth
Plants carry on growing all their lives while animals grow until they reach a certain stage.

5. Excretion
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Plants excrete through their leaves e.g. transpiring or removing oxygen as a waste gas. Animals breathe out waste
carbon dioxide. Other waste substances leave the body in urine and in sweat.

6. Sensitivity
Living things react to their environment. Plants move their leaves to face light, their flowers open in the morning and
close at night. Animals have different sense organs.

7. Reproduction
Plants make seeds that grow into new plants. Animals lay eggs and some give birth to live babies.

CLASSIFYING ANIMALS

One very clear feature that is used to classify animals is whether the animal has a backbone. An animal either has a
backbone or it does not. Most animals have a structure supporting or protecting the whole body, or may be just parts
of it. This structure is called a SKELETON.

There are two types of skeleton.

- An endoskeleton is found inside the body. It is made up of bones. An animal that has an endoskeleton has
a backbone or vertebral column. Animals with a backbone are called VERTEBRATES.
- An exoskeleton is found outside the body. Insects have an exoskeleton. It is hard and is called the
CUTICLE.

VERTEBRATES
The vertebrates are classified into five main groups.

MAMMALS
- have young ones that are born alive
- have milk – producing mammary glands (called breasts in humans) and suckle their young
- have bodies covered with hair or fur
- Are warm blooded – their body temperature stays almost the same even though the temperature of the
environment changes.

BIRDS
- reproduce by laying eggs that are fertilized inside the female
- have bodies covered with feathers and wings
- are warm blooded
- can usually fly

REPTILES
- reproduce by laying eggs, on land, that are fertilized inside the female
- have bodies that are rough and covered with scales
- breathe air through lungs
- are cold blooded – their body temperature changes with the temperature of the environment, so when it
gets hot their body temperature also rises, and when it gets cold their body temperature falls.

AMPHIBIANS
- reproduce by the female laying eggs, in water, which are immediately fertilized by the male
- have bodies with smooth, moist skin
- are cold blooded
- live on land and in water

FISH
- reproduce by the female laying eggs, in water, which are immediately fertilized by the male
- have bodies covered with scales
- are cold blooded
- live only in water
INVERTERBRATES
Animals without a backbone are called INVERTEBRATES. Two examples of invertebrates are:
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ARTHROPODS
Have hard exoskeletons and jointed legs. This main group is
split into smaller groups such as insects, arachnids and
myriapods.
a) Insects – have bodies divided into three segments – the
head, the thorax and the abdomen. They have six legs and,
often, two pairs of wings. E.g. flies and locusts.
b) Arachnids – have bodies that are usually divided into two
parts – the head and the abdomen. They have eight legs. E.g.
spiders, scorpions and ticks.
c) Myriapods – have many legs and bodies made up of lots of
segments (parts). E.g. centipedes and millipedes.
MOLLUSCS
The bodies of molluscs have clear regions, though they are
quite different from the insects.
The head, the foot and the shell. When they are threatened,
molluscs move into their shell for protection. Some molluscs
have an internal shell, which we cannot see. E.g. snails, slugs
and octopuses. Other main groups of invertebrates include –
roundworms, flatworms, starfish and jellyfish.

CLASSIFYING PLANTS
Plants are classified as seed - bearing plants (produce seeds) and non – seed bearing plants (do not produce seeds.

SEED – BEARING PLANTS NON – SEED BEARING PLANTS

These can be further divided into two broad groups.
- FLOWERING PLANTS – which produce seeds in
flowers
Inside seeds there are cotyledons which store food. Plants
with seeds that have two cotyledons are called
DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS OR DICOTS. Plants
with seeds that have one cotyledon are called
MONOCOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS OR MONOCOTS.
Examples of monocots are: grass and wheat. Examples of
dicots are: hibiscus and most of the other brightly coloured
flowering plants.
- CONIFERS – these are plants which produce seeds in
cones. E.g. Christmas trees that people plant in their
compounds.
These plants do not produce seeds, but they reproduce by
making structures a bit like seeds called SPORES. The different
types of non – seed bearing plants include algae, mosses and
ferns.
- ALGAE – are very simple plants which have no
proper roots, stems or leaves. Examples of algae can
often be seen in stagnant or slow – moving water in
ponds, ditches or rivers.
- FERNS – have roots, underground stems and large
well developed leaves. They have veins which
transport materials around the plant. Examples of
ferns include stag’s horn fern.

SUMMARY OF LIVING THINGS CLASSIFICATION

ORGANISM

PLANTS ANIMALS

FLOWERING NON FLOWERING VERTEBRATES

INVETEBRATES

MONOCOTS DICOTS ALGAE MAMMALS BIRDS FISH

REPTILES AMPHIBIANS ANTHROPOD SMOLLUCS

CELLS

All living things are made up of building blocks called cells. The CELL is the basic unit of life. Animals and plants
made up of only one cell are called UNICELLULAR or SINGLE – CELLED ORGANISMS, and those made up of
many cells are called MULTICELLULAR ORGANISMS. All cells have basic structure.

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ANIMAL CELLS

There are many different types of animal cell, but they all share the same basic structure. Microscopes are special
instruments that can be used to observe very small objects which cannot be seen with the naked eye. Microscopes are
used to make things look bigger.
Animal cells have: SPECIALISED ANIMAL CELLS PLANT CELLS
- no definite shape Plant cells share the same basic structure
cytoplasm which may be different from the cell to
- membrane cell depending on the job of the cell in the
- nucleus plant.
- vacuole
Plant cells have:
- a definite shape
- cytoplasm inside the membrane
- membrane
- vacuole
- nucleus
- chloroplast
- cell wall

FUNCTIONS OF THE PARTS OF A CELL

- NUCLEUS – controls the reactions or activities taking place in the cell
- CYTOPLASM – substances can dissolve in the cytoplasm. The cytoplasm also gives the cell its shape by
pushing out against the cell membrane.
- CELL MEMBRANE – is selectively permeable. This means it allows some things to pass through it, but
not others. It controls the movement of substances into and out of the cell. It also encloses the cell’s
contents.
- CELL WALL – it gives plant cells a rigid structure (shape) and is freely permeable to most substances – it
allows them all to pass through it.
- CHLOROPLASTS – contain a green pigment called chlorophyll. This enables plants to make their food
by process of photosynthesis.
- VACUOLE – It contains food such as starch, which has been produced by photosynthesis.

SPECIALISED PLANT CELLS

Plant cells may be specialized to do particular jobs within the plant.

- Conducting cells – transport food and water, together with dissolved salts, throughout the plant. These
include xylem cells and phloem cells.
- Palisade cells – are found in the leaves. They have a very large number of chloroplasts because most of the
plant’s photosynthesis takes place in these cells.

18
 - Guard cells – are found in leaves. They have some chloroplasts. Their job is to open and close the
stomata, the tiny pores that allow gases to pass in and out of the leaf. The inside walls of the guard cells
are thicker and tougher than the outside walls. When water passes into the guard cell from the surrounding
plant leaf cells, the outer wall of the guard cell stretches more than its inner wall and this makes the stoma
open.

PLANT AND ANIMAL SYSTEMS

UNCELLULAR & MULTT-CELLULAR ORGANISMS

A. Unicellular or single celled organisms

If an organism is made up of just one cell, then it is called a unicellular or a single celled organism. They cannot be
seen but they are everywhere around us, on our bodies, furniture, and gardens. Unicellular cause many diseases that
affect plants & animals. Examples of unicellular organisms are bacteria, amoeba, yeast, paramecium, etc.

B. Multi-cellular organisms
Multi-cellular organisms are living things that are made up of more than one cell. They are also made up of more
than one type of cell. Examples are trees, baboons, people, etc.

The table below summaries the differences

Uni-cellular organisms Multi -cellular organisms

They are made up of one cell They are made up of more than one cell
The cells may be grouped together but the group contains The groups of cells made up of more than one cell type
one cell type
The cells do not co-operate with each other The cells co-operate with each other
They are microscopic Some are microscopic although most can be seen with
the naked eye

TISSUES, ORGANS AND SYSTEMS

TISSUES ORGANS
A tissue is a group of similar cells working together to carry Organs are structures in the body which are made up of
out a certain function. several sorts of tissues grouped together to carry out a
Examples of tissues in animals include: special function.
- muscle tissue Examples of animal organs include:
- the outer layer of skin (epidermis) - heart
- bone - lungs
- the lining of the alimentary canals - stomach
- intestines
Examples of tissues in plants include: - eyes
- leaf epidermis - ears
- xylem tissue
- phloem tissue Examples of plant organs include:
- roots
- flowers
- leaves
- stem

SYSTEMS
A system is a group of organs working together for a common goal. Examples of systems include:

SYSTEMS FUNCTION ORGANS INVOLVED

SKELETAL The skeletal system provides support for the body. It Bones, cartilage,
protects internal organs and provides attachment sites for tendons and ligaments.
the organs and muscles.
MUSCULAR Provides movement. Muscles work in pairs to move limbs, Skeletal, muscles
it also controls movement of materials through some

19
 organs such as intestines, and the heart, and the
circulatory system.
CIRCULATORY It transports nutrients, gases (such as oxygen), waste and Heart, blood vessels
hormones around the body.
NERVOUS Carries electrical impulses around the body. Brain, spinal cord,
nerves
RESPIRATORY Is to carry out gaseous exchange between the body and the Lung, nose
environment
DIGESTIVE Is responsible for breaking down the food and absorption Mouth, esophagus,
of nutrients in the body stomach, intestines
EXCRETORY Filters out waste material, poisons and excess water in the Kidneys, bladder
body
ENDOCRINE Sends hormones around the body Glands
REPRODUCTIVE Produces cells which allows organisms to reproduce Animals: ovaries, penis,
vagina, testes, etc
Plants: pollen anthers,
stamens, etc
TRANSPORT Move nutrients and water around the plant Roots, xylem, phloem,
stem
GAS EXCHANGE Allows gaseous exchange between the leaves and the Leaves
environment

PHOTOSYNTHESIS

Photo means light and synthesis means together

Photosynthesis is a process whereby plants, some bacteria, and some protistans make their own food in the presence
of sunlight and chlorophyll to produce oxygen and sugar.

The photosynthetic process uses water and releases the oxygen that we absolutely must have to stay alive. Oh yes, we
need the food as well!

We can write the overall reaction of this process as:

Sunlight
Water + carbon dioxide carbohydrates + oxygen
Chlorophyll

And can be symbolized as: 6H2O + 6CO2 ----------> C6H12O6+ 6O2

Most of us don't speak chemicalese, so the above chemical equation translates as:Six molecules of water plus six
molecules of carbon dioxide produce one molecule of sugar plus six molecules of oxygen

Leaves and Leaf Structure

20
Plants are the only photosynthetic organisms to have leaves (and not all plants have leaves). A leaf may be viewed as
a solar collector crammed full of photosynthetic cells. The raw materials of photosynthesis, water and carbon
dioxide, enter the cells of the leaf, and the products of photosynthesis, sugar and oxygen, leave the leaf.

Cross section of a leaf, showing the anatomical features important to the study of photosynthesis: stoma, guard cell,
mesophyll cells, and vein.

Water enters the root and is transported up to the leaves through specialized plant cells known as xylem. Land plants
must guard against drying out (desiccation) and so have evolved specialized structures known as stomata to allow gas
to enter and leave the leaf. Carbon dioxide cannot pass through the protective waxy layer covering the leaf (cuticle),
but it can enter the leaf through an opening (the stoma; plural = stomata; Greek for hole) flanked by two guard cells.
Likewise, oxygen produced during photosynthesis can only pass out of the leaf through the opened stomata.
Unfortunately for the plant, while these gases are moving between the inside and outside of the leaf, a great deal
water is also lost.

IMPORTANCE OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS

- Produces oxygen needed by living organisms to survive

- Produces food eaten by living things
- Controls the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere

RESPIRATION:Respiration is the process whereby oxygen and glucose are used to produce energy, water and
carbon dioxide.

WORD EQUATION FOR RESPIRATION

Oxygen + glucose carbon dioxide + water + energy

REPIRATION AND BREATHING

Often people confuse breathing and respiration. Respiration refers to how the cells of the body use oxygen and +
Respiration and photosynthesis are the opposite of each other. During the day when there is light, both
photosynthesis and respiration take place but during the night plants respire more. So, during the day plants produce
oxygen and during the night plants produce carbon dioxide. The relationship between the two is that photosynthesis
uses the products of respiration, and respiration also uses the products of photosynthesis.

Differences between respiration and photosynthesis

Photosynthesis Respiration
It only occurs in plants It happens in all cells types
It takes place in chloroplasts and chlorophyll It takes place in the mitochondria
It traps and store light energy It releases energy
It produces oxygen and glucose It uses oxygen and glucose
It uses water and carbon Produces water, carbon dioxide and energy
21
Effects of deforestation

Scientists have shown that deforestation has a number of other effects on the environment such as:

Deforestation

Loss of shade loss of habitat burning less water

released

Soils dry out animals have nowhere to live less rain

Increased soil animals become extinct carbon dioxide drought and

desert
erosion Is released into the formation
happens
atmosphere

TRANSPORT IN PLANTS

Together, the xylem and phloem are known as the vascular system of the plant. The differences between the xylem
and the phloem are shown below:

PHLOEM XYLEM
It transports glucose Ti transports water and minerals
Fluid can flow in either direction although flow is Fluids flow in one direction only, from the roots to the
usually from leaves to the roots leaves
The cells are living Its cells are dead

TRANSPIRATION
This is the loss of water from the leaf through stomata.

SIGNIFICANCE OF TRANSPIRATION
- It helps in the absorption and upward movement of water and minerals from roots to the leaves
- It also helps in the temperature regulation
- It protects the plant from heat injury

22
CONDITIONS THAT AFFECT THE RATE OF TRANSPIRATION

1. LIGHT – plants transpire more rapidly in the light than in the dark. This is mainly because light stimulates
the opening of the stomata which means more water is going to be lost. Light also speeds up the rate of
transpiration by warming the leaf.
2. TEMPERATURE – plants transpire faster at high temperatures
3. HUMIDITY – When the air surrounding a leaf is dry is said to have a low humidity. If the humidity is low,
then diffusion of water out of the leaf through the stomata happens more easily and the rate of transpiration
increases. If the humidity is high, then water cannot leave the leaf so easily.
4. WIND – when there is no wind, the air surrounding a leaf becomes more humid because the water vapour
released by the leaf is not blown away and the rate of transpiration will be decreased. When a breeze is
present, the humid air is carried away and replaced by a drier air, and the rate of loss of water increases.

NUTRIENT CYCLES

The carbon cycle

Animals take in carbon compounds by eating plant material or other animals. Plants take in carbon in the form of
carbon dioxide during photosynthesis to form carbohydrates. Therefore photosynthesis removes carbon dioxide from
the atmosphere. Other processes such as combustion and respiration produce carbon dioxide and release it to the
atmosphere.
All animals and plants on the earth die and decay. During decomposition, carbon dioxide is produced and released
into the atmosphere. The cycle continues as shown below.

NITROGENCYCLE
This is another very important element. Plants absorb it in the form of nitrates and use it in the form of proteins.
When animals eat plants they take in this protein and change into animal protein. Below is a summary of ways in
which nitrogen is absorbed from the atmosphere and released back into the atmosphere.

23
NATURAL RESOURCES
Natural resources - These are things which were not made by human beings and they can be put to good use.

Examples of important natural resources

- people
- water
- minerals (e.g. diamond, copper, nickel, soda-ash etc)
- wildlife
- soil
- energy (e.g. wood, coal, sun)

Importance of Conserving Natural Resources to Local and National Economy

Natural Resource
Minerals - provide jobs, source of income, source of foreign exchange
Wildlife Source of income since tourists pay for viewing them, source of employment, source of food
Water Used in construction, watering plants and animals, transport, dissolving substances
Soil Used in buildings, used to support plants growth, habitat for some animals
Energy Source of heat, source of electricity which is used for different purposes like moving cars, trains,
tractors ideal for life
People Source of labour, manpower skills, produce what the country need for food, produce different
commodities to have enough money to import and export certain necessities.

Ways of Conserving Natural Resources

Natural Ways of conserving the natural resource

Resource
Water Repair water pipes, fixing leakages, use right amount of water for any purpose, have storage tanks
and rain gutters to store rain water, construction of dams. Recycling water
Minerals People ploughing enough food to avoid hand outs from government in drought times, breeding and
selling cattle to BMC as an alternative source of renewable sources since minerals are not renewable,
recycling cans N.B reliance on agriculture and self-sufficiency avoid over dependence on mineral
resources.
Wildlife Having wildlife reserve or parks, having anti-poaching units, hunting licenses, setting hunting
periods, recycling paper.
Soil Avoid deforestation, avoid over stocking and over grazing, ploughing furrows across the slopes of
hills, recycling glass
Energy Servicing machines regularly to avoid energy waste, using alternative sources of energy, not wasting
electricity e.g. keeping light off in rooms which are not used and using electricity saving bulbs, not
leaving heaters on for prolonged times
People Practice high standards of proper health care, personal hygiene, providing basic needs (food,
clothing and housing)

General ways of conserving resources

- effective implementation of legislative (laws)

- having national parks and game reserves
- recycling of materials
- use of alternative energy sources ( e.g. wind and solar energy)
- improved education and training e.g. awareness on effects of water shortage will lead to sensible use of
water
- proper health care
- proper disposal of sewage and refuse
- family planning
- practicing afforestration

Recycling
This is re-using materials which were used before.

24
Benefits of re-cycling

- Saves use of natural resources, therefore it is a way of conserving natural resources

- It avoids environmental pollution damage
- It save money spent on refuse disposal by authorities
Some materials that can be re-cycled

- Plastic
- Metals
- Glass

N.B plants and animals are decomposed to re-cycle nutrients in them.

MATTER
Matter is anything that has mass and takes up space.
PROPERTIES OF MATTER
- Matter has mass
- Matter occupies space
- Matter is made up of tiny particles
- Matter exists in three states
- One state of matter can be converted to another state depending on its temperature

WHAT MAKES UP MATTER?

1) Atom- this is the smallest particle of matter that can take part in a chemical reaction or the smallest particle
of matter that can exist on its own.
- It can not be seen with a naked eye. Its diameter is about ten-millionth of a centimeter (1/10 000
000 cm). This means that ten million atoms can be fitted together on a line of 1cm long.
- It is made up of three particles called protons, neutrons and electrons.
General structure of an atom Shell

Electron

Neutrons

Protons Nucleus

Particle Position Charge

Protons Nucleus Positive ( + ) charge
Electrons Shells Negative ( - ) charge
Neutrons Nucleus Neutral charge ( 0 )

N.B- electrons are found in shells, which orbit around the nucleus of an atom.
The number of protons is equal to the number electrons, which is called the atomic number.
Number Protons = Number of Electrons (e-) = Atomic Number (Z)

Since protons and electron are equal in number and oppositely charged, their charges cancel each other and the atom
is left neutral. So, an atom is a neutrally charged particle, that is, it does not have a charge.

25
 STATES OF MATTER
There are three states of matter
- Solids
- Liquids
- Gases
SOLIDS – In solids, the particles are LIQUIDS - In liquids, the particles GASES - In gases, the particles are very far apart and
closely and neatly packed. The are still close together. However are free to move about. This is why gases expand to
particles are so closely packed together liquid particles are free to move fill their containers. It is because gas particles move
that they cannot move freely. They can about within the liquid. This is why freely that we can smell gases, such as a gas leak.
only vibrate at fixed positions. This is liquids have a fixed volume but not a
why solids have fixed volume and a fixed shape.
fixed shape.

- have no fixed shapes – they flow to take up

-have fixed shapes -have no fixed shapes – they take the
the whole container
-are generally hard shape of their containers
- cannot be detected by touching them
-have high densities -are generally wet to the touch
- have low densities
-cannot easily be -have high densities
- are easily compressed
compressed(squeezed) -cannot easily be compressed
- expand a lot when you heat them
-do not expand much when you heat -expand a bit when you heat them
-diffuse(mix and spread) quickly
them -diffuse(mix and spread) slowly
MATTER CHANGING STATE

SUBLIMATION

MELTING EVAPORATION

FREEZING CONDESATION

SUBLIMATION

DIFFUSION

Diffusion is the movement of particles from an area where they are in high concentration to an area where they
are in low concentration until evenly distributed. This happens when two substances which are in contact mix
together because of the movement of their particles. Gases diffuse faster than liquids because there are greater
spaces between the particles in a gas, and the particles are moving faster. Solids only diffuse very slowly. Gases
(fastest) – Liquid – solid (slowest).

DIFFUSION IN EVERYDAY LIFE

- Oxygen dissolved in our blood moves into our cells by diffusion
- Micro – organisms take up food from their environment by diffusion
- Carbon dioxide diffuse into the stomata of leaf during photosynthesis

THE SCIENCE OF WATER

 It is colourless
 It is odourless (it has no smell)
 It is tasteless
 The boiling point of water is 1000C at sea level. (Water boils at about 980C in Botswana because of the
higher altitude.)
 Water freezes at 00C.
 Many substances can be dissolved in water. This means water is solvent.
 Water is a good evaporative coolant- as sweat evaporates from the body the water in it leaves s cooling
effect. That is why sweating cools the body down.

26
  Water has good heat conductivity- heat applied to water spreads quickly to other areas of the water. This is
why our bodies do not get hot in some areas but stay cold in others.
 Water gains heat slowly and lose it slowly.

CHEMICAL TEST FOR WATER

The standard test for water is to use cobalt chloride paper.

TEST: Insert cobalt chloride paper in to the liquid that you want to test for water.
POSITIVE TEST: Cobalt chloride paper turns from blue to pink if there is water present.
NOTE:
The test paper that has turned pink can be heated to evaporate the water molecules. This will turn the paper back to
blue.

CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS OF A WATER MOLECULE

A water molecule is made up of one atom oxygen and two hydrogen atoms. The two atoms of hydrogen are bonded
by strong forces to the oxygen atom. Groups of these molecules form liquid called water.
Water symbol: H2O

ANOMALOUS EXPANSION OF WATER

Liquids expand when they are heated and contract when they are cooled. However, there’s one liquid which behaves
differently from others. This liquid is water.

When water is cooled, it will contract, but only until it reaches a temperature of 4 0C. As it cools further and the
temperature continues to drop, the water begins to expand. This is why bottles filled with water, sealed and then
frozen often break. And also ice trays filled with water and put in to freezer, the level of ice is always higher than the
level of water. This means that water in a solid state has its particles far apart from each other. As a result, solid
water (ice) has a lower density than liquid water. This not a common feature of matter. It is always expected that
solids should have a higher density than liquids. This unique behaviour of water is known as anomalous expansion of
water.

EFFECTS OF THE ANOMALOUS EXPANSION OF WATER

Water expands when it freezes and as a result becomes less dense than water. This explains why ice floats on the
surface of water.
 Water that freezes in household pipes can expand and split the pipes. When the weather becomes
warmer the ice in the pipe melts and pipe leaks water. These water leaks can flood a house.
 Water that freezes in small cracks in rocks can expand and crack the rock. This is an important natural
mechanism of erosion because it gradually breaks down the rock into smaller and smaller pieces.

THE IMPORTANCE OF ANOMALOUS EXPANSION OF WATER TO THE LIVES OF MARINE

ANIMALS

27
Ice floats on water because it is less dense than water. The ice acts as an insulator (something that prevents changes
in temperature from happening) and stops sea water underneath from freezing. This leaves water available for
animals to swim in.

If ice was denser, this would mean that as the seas froze in the Arctic and Antarctic, the ice would sink to the bottom
of the ocean, if there are any animals caught between the bottom of the ocean and the sinking ice, and then they
would become trapped and be killed.

Acids and bases

PH- this is the degree of alkalinity or acidity

PH scale- this is a scale of numbers used to measure the acidity or alkalinity. It ranges from 1(very acidic) to 14(very
basic). A substance that has a pH value of 7 is neutral, that it is neither basic nor acidic. Different colours accompany
the pH values.

Acid- this is a substance that dissolves in water to give a pH of less than 7.

-this is a proton donor

Examples of acids

- hydrochloric acid
- sulphiric acid
- nitric acid
- citric acid
- acetic acid
- tartaric acid
Properties of acids

- have pH less than 7

- they dissolve in water
- they have a sour taste
- they turn blue litmus paper red
- they neutralize a base to produce salt and water only
- they react with carbonates to produce carbon dioxide gas, a salt and water
- they react with reactive metals to produce salt and water only.

Base- this is a substance that has a pH of more than 7. They neutralize acids to form salt and water only.

Some bases are soluble in water while others are not. Those that dissolve in water are called alkalis. All alkalis are
bases but not all bases are alkalis.

Example of bases

-Sodium hydroxide (caustic soda)

-Potassium hydroxide (caustic potash)
-Ammonia

28
-Ammonium hydroxide
-Calcium hydroxide (lime)
-Calcium oxide
-Magnesium hydroxide
-Magnesium oxide
-Copper oxide
-Zinc oxide
-Iron oxide
Examples of alkalis
- Calcium hydroxide
- Sodium hydroxide
- Potassium hydroxide
- Calcium hydroxide
- Magnesium hydroxide
- Ammonium hydroxide
General properties of bases

 Bases react with acids to neutralize them.

PROPERTIES SHOWN BY ALKALIS ONLY

 Alkalis are soluble in water

 They have a greater pH than 7
 They have bitter test
 They feel slippery when they are between fingers
 Alkalis turn red litmus blue

ACID ALKALI INDICATOR

An acid alkali indicator changes colour according to whether a substance is an acid or an alkali. Indicators are made
from naturally occurring substance, especially plant material such as flowers, coloured leaves (not green) beetroots &
carrots. The commonly used indicators are the:

- LITMUS PAPER
Litmus paper is produced from lichen (a simple plant). It exists in colour blue & red.
Acidic Alkaline Neutral
Red litmus paper Remains red Turns Remains red
Blue litmus paper Turns red Remains blue Remains blue
Phenolphthalein Colourless Pink Colourless

UNIVERSAL INDICATOR
Is a mixture of several substances and turns a range of colours depending on the pH of a substance

pH value Colour of the indicator Strength

1
2 Red Strong acid
3
4 Pink
5 Orange Weak acid
6 Yellow
7 Green Neutral
8 Turquoise
9 Blue Weak alkali
10 Dark blue
11
12 Violet Strong alkali
13
14

How to prepare an indicator

You will need two beakers, a funnel, some filter paper, heating apparatus and a beetroot cut into cubes.
29
  Put the beetroot into a beaker. Add enough water to cover the beetroot.
 Boil the mixture until the water has absorbed the colour of the beetroot.
 Filter the mixture and allow it to cool
 Keep the liquid to use as an indicator

STORAGE OF CHEMIICALS
Chemical can be dangerous. It is therefore very important that all chemicals are stored properly. Many casualties
caused by chemical poisoning can easily avoided if chemicals are stored properly. Here are some important things to
remember about storing chemicals, especially in the home.
 Chemicals must be stored in their original containers to avoid confusion.
 Chemicals should be stored on high shelves out of the reach of children
 Chemicals should be locked in cupboards, and their use supervised by a responsible adult.
WHAT TO DO IF AN ACCIDENT HAPPENS WITH CHEMICALS
Accidents sometimes happen with dangerous chemicals both in the laboratory and at home no matter how carefully
you read the instructions or follow the safety procedures.

1. Treating poisoning- poisoning happens when a chemical is accidentally swallowed, absorbed through the
skin or breathed in. Follow the steps below to deal with the poisoning:
 Poisoning on the skin: remove all contaminated clothing and flood the skin with water for 10 minutes.
Then wash affected area gently with soap and water then rinse thoroughly.
 Poison by inhalation: immediately get the person to fresh air. Avoid breathing fumes. Open all doors and
windows wide. If the victim is not breathing, then apply artificial respiration.
 Poison by swallowing: unless the victim is unconscious , having a fit or cannot swallow, give him or her
milk or water immediately. Then call professional help about whether to make the victim vomit or not.
N.B : YOU SHOULD TAKE INFORMATION ON THE KIND OF POISON THAT CAUSED THE ACCIDENT.

2. Treating chemical burns – chemical burns are also the result of accidents with chemicals in the laboratory.
You should deal with accidents that cause chemical burns in the following ways:
 Make sure the cause of the burn has been removed. Try not to come into contact with it yourself.
If the chemical is dry, brush it off. Avoid brushing it into your eyes. Remove any contaminated
clothing or jewellery.
 Wash the chemical off the skin surface with running water for 15 minutes or more.
 Wrap the burnt area with a dry sterile dressing or clean cloth.
Minor chemical burns will generally heal without further treatment. However, if there is an overall body reaction, get
medical help immediately. In severe cases, do no leave the victim alone. Watch for other reaction while calling for
professional help.

REPRODUCTION

Reproduction is process whereby organisms produce new or younger versions of themselves. This happens when the
male and female sex cell fuse to produce a zygote.

THE MALE AND FEMALE SEX CELLS

The sex cells produced by the male reproductive system are known as the spermatozoa cells. The sperm cells are
very small, about 0.04mm in length and about 0.002mm wide. They look like small tadpoles. The female sex cell is
known as the ovum (plural is ova). The ovum is 50 times larger than a sperm cell.

30
Male sex cells Female sex cells
-the male sex cell is the sperm -The female sex cell is the ovum
-millions of sex cells are produced in and released at a -only one ovum is produced and released at a time
time -they are large, round cells
-they are small cells that look like tadpoles -they cannot move by themselves
-they can move on their own

PARTS OF MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM AND THEIR FUNCTION

The male sexual organs are outside.

The system is made up of the testes,
penis, scrotum, epididymis, sperm
ducts, urethra and gland ( prostate
glands, seminal vesicles and Cowper’s
glands). Together these glands are
called accessory glands.

ORGAN FUNCTION
Testes They produce sperm and male sex hormone called testosterone.
Epididymis Stores sperms once they have been made in the testes.
Scrotum It acts as a sack to hold the testes and to protect them. It also helps to keep the testes at
the right temperature because its cooler than the body temperature.
Penis This is an organ used to transfer sperm from male and it into the female’s vagina. It is
also used for urinating.
Urethra This is a which carries urine and the sperms through the penis
Sperm duct Carries sperms from the testes to the urethra
Accessory glands Makes the seminal fluids which enables the sperms to swim.

THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

ORGAN FUNCTION
Ovaries They produce the ovum and two of the female sex hormones, oestrogen and
progesterone.
Uterus This is a place where the fertilized ovum develops into a foetus.
Oviducts (fallopian tubes) Tubes that transports ovum from the ovaries to the uterus, fertlisation also
takes place here.
Cervix Closes off the uterus during pregnancy
Vagina This is where semen is deposited during sexual intercourse. Also acts as a
birth canal.
Vulva This is the outer part of the vagina that is on the outside of the body.

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CHANGES THAT OCCUR AT PUBERTY
When babies are born, they weigh between 3 – 4 Kg and they are about 50 cm tall. Over the course of the next few
years they grow and develop rapidly until about 11 years. About 10 – 14 years on average, puberty begins. During
puberty the body develops to adulthood. Puberty is controlled by hormones.
CHANGES THAT OCCUR IN GIRLS AT PUBERTY
On average, girls enter between the ages of 11 and 12. Once a girl enters, her ovaries begin to produce ova which can
be fertilized by the sperm.
The characteristics or changes occurring in girls at puberty

-They grow taller and their hands & feet become

longer. This is known as a growth spout.
-the face changes with the jaw and nose becoming
more prominent.
-hair grows under the armpits and around genital
parts.
-hips become wider
-breasts grow bigger
-pimples may develop
-menstruation begins
-they become interested in boys

CHANGES IN BOYS
Boys enter puberty at the ages 12 to 14 years on average.
Boys also start to produce sperm, and they can impregnant a girl.

-there is rapid increase in height and bulk

-the boy become muscular
-hair grow around genital parts and they
also grow beard
-the genitals grow bigger
-there may be mood swings and
aggression
-boys become interested in girls
-pimples may develop

The menstrual cycle

Puberty in females is associated
with the maturation of the females
reproductive system and the girl
begins to produce eggs (ova).
Usually the ovum is produced at a
time and this happens
approximately 28 days although this
time may vary slightly from one
person to another- this period is as
the menstrual cycle.

MENOPAUSE
Women are fertile from puberty until about the ages of 45 to 55 when the menstrual cycle become irregular and
eventually stops permanently. When this happens it is known as menopause.

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HORMONES THAT BRING ABOUT CHANGES AT PUBERTY
These hormones are oestrogen, progesterone (found in females) and testosterone (found in males). These hormones
have different functions and these are:

OESTROGEN – produced in ovaries PROGESTERONE – produced in TESTOSTERONE - produced by testis

-stimulates development of secondary
characteristics in girls
-stimulates the maturation of the ovum
during the menstrual cycle
-brings about mood and behavioural
changes that happen at puberty.
ovaries
-stimulates the thickening of the uterus
wall so that it it is ready to receive the
zygote if fertilization occurs.
-maintains the uterus in pregnancy
-stimulates the development of secondary
sexual characteristics in boys
-stimulates sperm formation and development
-responsible for changes in aggression, mood
and behavior that happens to boys during
puberty

METHODS OF BIRTH CONTROL/CONTRACEPTIVES

Contraceptives: An agent or device intended to prevent conception. Contraception is the birth control by the use of
devices (diaphragm or intrauterine device or condom) or drugs or surgery. Contraceptives are used for family
planning as they prevent pregnancy. They help couples decide whether or not to have children and some of them are
used to prevent STDs even though their main job is to prevent conception. Contraceptives can be divided into four
groups;

1. Natural
2. Hormonal/chemical
3. Physical/mechaical
4. Surgical methods

1. Natural methods

Method advantages Disadvantages

Abstinence: no sexual intercourse at  100% effective against pregnancy o No disadvantage
all. and STDs

Withdraw (Coitus interruptus);
penis withdrawn from the vagina
before ejaculation
 Purely natural and does not depend
on artificial devices.
o Highly unreliable as there is a pre-ejaculation fluid
which can be secreted and contains sperms and it
is not easy for the man to withdraw his penis as he
will be at the peak of pleasure.
o There is high pregnancy risk.
o STDs are spread with this method.

Rhythm (safe period): sexual
intercourse done only during the safe
periods and avoided during fertile
periods (when fertilization is likely to
lead to pregnancy). Uses the mucus,
calendar and temperature method.
 Acceptable in most religions. o It is unreliable because keeping track of ovulation
 Can be effective against pregnancy if can be difficult as it can change any time and it is
the dates are noted well. difficult t be certain about the safe period length.
o Encourages the spread of STDs

Prolonged breastfeeding (cultural  Very effective against pregnancy. o No disadvantage

method)  100% effective against STDs

33
 2. Hormonal/chemical methods

Method advantages Disadvantages

Pill e.g. RU486: two kinds mini-pill
(contains progesterone which causes
changes in the uterus lining
preventing implantation) and
combined pill (contains Oestrogen
and progesterone and this prevents
ovulation)
 Easy to use. o Does to prevent STDs.
 Reversible o Must be taken daily.
 Does not interfere with sexual o Have side effects to women’s health; breast
activity. swelling, cervical cancer, nausea, diarrhoea and
 99% safe at preventing ovulation weight gain.
and pregnancy.
 Can be administered by individuals

Spermicides: kills sperms, must be  Kill sperms. o Must be applied before every sexual activity.
applied inside the vagina as far up as  Effective when used with the o It is messy.
possible ten minutes before sexual diaphragm o Unreliable when used alone.
intercourse.  Serves as a lubricant for the o Does not prevent STDs.
vagina. o Has to be used with the diaphragm.
 Easy to be used/applied.
Injection (Depo-Provera): injected  Reversible. o Can lead to sterility.
into the body every 3 months. Stops  99% effective against pregnancy. o Administered by a doctor.
ovulation by preventing formation of o Causes abnormalities in the period.
ova in the ovaries. o Can lead to heavy menstrual bleeding.
o Have side effects like; dizziness, weight gain.
o Does not protect against STDs.
Morning-after pill: Used after  Effective against pregnancy if o Only prescribed by a doctor in case of risk it is not
intercourse has taken place. Contains taken before 3 days of sexual act. for regular use.
hormones which cause lining of the o Therefore not easily accessible.
uterus to be shed. It is to be taken
48-72 hours after sexual intercourse
especially if pregnancy poses a risk.

3. Physical/mechanical/barrier Methods

Method advantages Disadvantages

Condom sheath (male: thin rubber
covering fitted on an erect penis. Has
a bulb to collect sperms after
ejaculation. Femidom/female
condom: thin sheath which lines the
vagina prevents entry of sperms.
 99 % effective in preventing
pregnancy and STDs
 Easily available, accessible
 No need for medical assistance
needed.
 Can be used with Spermicides
o Allergy of the lubricant or latex.
o Improper use can result leading to the spread of
STDs.
o There is a possibility of bursting in case of too
mush friction during sexual act

Diaphragm/cap: it is a dome shaped  Fairly effective (98%) in blocking o High risk of infections.
piece of rubber with a piece of metal the sperms. o Has to be used with other methods e.g.
worn by women fitted on the cervix  Does not have any side effects. Spermicides.
opening to prevent sperms from o Possibility of discomfort if not inserted properly.
reaching the uterus. o In rare cases may lead to irritation to the penis or
vagina.
o Has to inserted by a physician
o Correct size must be fitted
Intra-Uterine Device (IUD)/Loop:  Reliable for women who already o Has to be inserted by a qualified doctor.
small objects (spiral, loop, ring) has children and those who do not o There is need for pelvic examination to determine
made of steel or plastic which is live far from the health facilities the size of the cervix.
inserted by a physician into the  Stops implantation. o Can cause excessive bleeding.
uterus. Fitted by straightening in a  Reversible. o Do not protect against STDs.
tube like instrument, pushing this  Long term contraception
through the cervix then pushing the
IUD out at the tube’s end. The IUD
interferes with implantation of the
embryo)

34
 4. Surgical methods
Method advantages Disadvantages
Vasectomy and Laparatomy  Permanent and 100 % effective. o Does not prevent STDs
(tubal ligation): in men sperm duct  Safe and simple out patient o Irreversible
is cut and tied to prevent sperms operation. o Has to be done at a hospital.
from passing to the urethra. In  Sexual characteristics are not o Pains can be experienced after surgery.
women (laparatomy) oviduct cut and affected as the individual can still o Not suitable for young people but for people who
tied to prevent the sperms from ejaculate (men) already have children
reaching the egg in the oviduct.

SEXUAL TRANSMITTED DISEASES

Sexual intercourse involves very intimate contact between human beings, such contact can lead to STDs. Sexually
transmitted diseases are those diseases that can be passed on from one person to the other through sexual contact. It is
important to note that the chance of getting STDs is increased by having sexual intercourse with many partners. All
STDs are very dangerous when if not treated.

STDs include; Gonorrhoea, syphilis, AIDS/HIV, Genital herpes and warts, Candida, Chlamydia, Chanchroid,
Vaginal Thrush, hepatitis B.

STD & Cause Transmission Symptoms Effects Treatment Control

1. Gonorrhoea  Unprotected Symptoms appear 4  Can lead to use of  Infected person should
caused by a bacteria sexual days after infection. blockage of antibiotics refrain from intercourse.
(Neisseria intercourse o In men, there is a the urethra e.g.  Using a condom every time
gonorrhoeae) with an yellowish discharge in men. penicillin, when having sexual
infected of pus due to  Can lead to tetracyclin intercourse.
person, inflammation of the sterility  Discouraging multiple sexual
urethra.  Can cause partners (being faithful)
o Burning sensation blindness in  Abstaining
when urinating. newly born
o Narrowing of the babies.
urethra may lead to  Bladder may
difficulty in be affected
urinating. (cystitis).
o Sore throat  Infections of
o Rectal infection in the sperm
both males and duct and
females. prostrate
o In Women, no signs gland may
at the early stages , lead to
o In the later stages the sterility.
infection may spread
from the urethra and
vagina to the uterus
and fallopian tubes
leading to sterility.
2. Syphilis caused  Unprotected o Stage 1/Primary: after  Insanity if use of  Same as of gonorrhoea
by bacteria sexual 1-3 weeks of the central antibiotics
Treponema pallidum intercourse infection, painless nervous such as
which is a  During sore/chancre appears system tetracycline
spirochatae pregnancy on the penis and becomes and
(from mother vagina or cervix. A affected. Pennicillin
to child) lump/ulcer develops  Bacteria
on the penis or causes
vulva. The signs inflammatio
disappear without n
leaving a scar. everywhere
o Secondary stage/stage in the body.
2: about 2-6 months  Can lead to
35
 non-itchy skin rash paralysis
develops, sores on  The bacteria
the mouth, throat and can pass
genitals. Lymph through the
glands become placenta and
swollen. Symptoms affect the
disappear again unborn
o Tertiary stage/stage 3: baby.
occurs after 2-4
years, damage to
internal organs
occurs, the liver,
heart, spinal cord
and brain (paralysis
result after this),
insanity and death
result.
3. Acquired Immune  Unprotected o Prolonged and  death There is  Abstinence
Deficiency sexual unexplained  insanity can currently no  Condom use
Syndrome (AIDS)/ intercourse tiredness. result treatment or  Being faithful
HIV (Human  During birth. o Swollen glands  There can be cure for this  Avoid infection and sharing
Immunodeficiency  Breast (lymph nodes) a severe disease. needles
Virus feeding o Fever lasting for weight loss. But there are 
Acquired: obtained  Sharing more than ten days. some AZT
from somewhere sharp objects o Chills and ARV
Immune: defense (syringes or o Excessive sweating drugs that
against infection needles) with especially at night. are used to
Deficiency: Lack of an infected o Mouth lesions suppress the
Syndrome: many person including yeast virus
symptoms  Exchange of lesions and painful increasing
fluids like, swollen gums. the lifespan
Caused by a vaginal o Sore throat. of the
retrovirus HIV fluids, blood, o Cough and patient but
semen tuberculosis this has to
o Shortness of breath be given
o Changes in bowel after
habits including undergoing
constipation. an HIV test.
o Frequent diarrhoea
o Opportunistic
infection (such as
pneumonia, Candida)
o Tumour (Kaposi
sarcoma)
o Skin rashes and skin
cancer
o Severe weight loss
o headache

ENERGY FORMS AND ENERGY SOURCES

Fossil fuels: these are the remains of dead plants and animals that have been buried underground for millions of
years. Examples of fossil fuels include; coal, natural gas, petrol, diesel and oil.

IMPORTANCE OF FOSSIL FUELS

They are a source of energy e.g.
- heat energy
- used to heat water that turns turbines to produce electricity
- used as a fuel in transport

36
RENEWABLE AND NON – RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES

RENEWABLE SOURCES – these are sources that can RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES – these are
be replaced sources that cannot be replaced once they are used up.
Biomass (wood, dung, etc) Oil
The sun (solar energy) Coal
Moving water(hydroelectric energy) Gas
The heat of the earth(geothermal energy) Energy from radioactive material( nuclear energy)

ALTENATIVE ENERGY SOURCES AND THEIR AVAILABILITY IN BOTSWANA

Form of energy Formation Availability in Botswana

Solar Created from heat and light of the sun. Available
Hydroelectric Produced when running or falling water is used to turn Not available
turbines.
Wind When blow, it is used to turn large propellers which Available
turbines to turn.
Biomass Produced when bacteria and chemical process change Available
waste matter to fuel.
Nuclear Is generated when atoms undergo fusion.fusion takes Not available
place when the nucleus of an atom splits,during this
process a large amount of energy is released.
Geothermal Generated when heat from beneath the earth’s surface is Not available
used to turn turbines.

ENERGY SOURCES IN THE HOME

Energy is the ability to do work.

Sources of Chemical Energy in the Home

- food: e.g. rice, mealie meal

- fuels: e.g. paraffin, petrol

SOURCES OF HEAT AND LIGHT ENERGY IN THE HOME

 From chemical energy – this is released from burning fuels such as: oil, paraffin, gas, dung and wood.
 From electrical energy

Availability of Energy Sources

37
Source Availability Financial Cost Environmental Cost
Coal Scarce Cheap Produce carbon monoxide and smoke that pollutes
the environment
Wood Available Free Produce carbon monoxide and smoke that pollutes
the environment
Paraffin Scarce Expensive Produce carbon monoxide and smoke that pollutes
the environment
Electricity Scarce Expensive Environment friendly
Dung Available Free Produce carbon monoxide and smoke that pollutes
the environment
Solar cells Scarce Cheap Environment friendly
Methane gas Scarce Expensive Produce carbon monoxide and smoke that pollutes
the environment

Using energy sources safely

Safety precautions when using electricity

1) keep electricity wires insulated. This avoids electrocution and short circuits which may cause fire.
2) Avoid touching electric cables
3) Avoid overloading electric cables
4) Do not use electricity on damp surfaces since water conduct electricity to an extent
5) Electric appliances must be repaired by an electrician
6) Do not poke anything either than correctly wired plug into mains sockets

Caution!
ELECTRICITY KILLS! ALWAYS CONSIDER YOUR SAFETY WHEN USING
ELECTRICITY!

Diagnosing Faults in Electric Appliances

Before taking a faulty appliance to an electrician for possible repair, follow the following steps:

1) check if the plug is pushed into the socket firmly

2) check if the power is switched off
3) check if the appliance is switched off
4) if it uses a bulb, check if the bulb is not burnt
5) if it is still not on, open the plug and check for tight and proper connection
6) if all wires are connected firmly and properly, check if the fuse is not blown out. If it is burnt, replace it
with a fuse of the same rating. Never replace a fuse with a wire!
7) If it is still not on, check where the cord get into the appliance, the wires must be connected according to
Live, Neutral and Earth as coded.
8) If it is still not on, take it for repair by a qualified electrician.

It must be replaced by a fuse of the same rating.

A circuit breaker (strip switch)

It switches off more quicker than the reaction of a fuse. This protects users against electric shock. It can be switched
on after a fault is attended successfully, other wise it will keep on tripping to break the circuit until the fault is
successful attended.

Dangers of burning fuels

Fuels produce a gas called carbon monoxide which is poisonous. It makes the blood to fail to carry oxygen, hence
people are suffocated to death.

Good ventilation must be undertaken whenever fuels are burnt to let poisonous gases out and fresh air circulate into
the building.

Safety Precautions when Burning Fuels

- Always avoid leakage of fuels, when they leak, they may catch fire.
38
 - Apparatus must be fixed securely so that they do not topple over eg stoves, heaters, lamps
- When there is methane gas leak, close the source immediately, open all windows and doors.
- Always have good ventilation when burning fuels
- Fuels produce carbon monoxide when they burn where oxygen is in short supply. This gas let people get
drowsy, fall asleep and die very quickly.

The greenhouse effect is a process by which thermal radiation from a planetary surface is absorbed by atmospheric
greenhouse gases, and is re-radiated in all directions. Since part of this re-radiation is back towards the surface,
energy is transferred to the surface and the lower atmosphere. As a result, the temperature there is higher than it
would be if direct heating by solar radiation were the only warming mechanism.

SOUND ENERGY
 Sound is made when something vibrates
 We hear sound because vibrations travel through air to our ears and make the eardrum vibrate
 Sound cannot travel through a vacuum because sound needs a medium to travel through

39
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PITCH & FREQUENCY OF VIBRATIONS

Pitch can be as the number as the highness or lowness of a note. Frequency can be defined as the number of
vibrations of a sound per second. When frequency is high, pitch is high. That is when there are many vibrations of
sound wave per second, pitch produced by the waves becomes high.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LOUDNESS OF SOUND TO AMPLITUDE OF VIBRATIONS

Amplitude can be defined as the maximum displacement from the rest position on a wave.

THE REFLECTION OF SOUND

Sound waves that are moving in a particular direction can be reflected by obstacles such as big walls and cliffs. The
reflected sound is known as an echo. Echoes can be useful, e.g. they are used to find the depth of the ocean.
Sometimes an echo is a nuisance. Architects have to design rooms carefully to reduce the disturbance caused by
echoes.

THE RELATIVE SPEED OF SOUND IN DIFFERENT MEDIA

Sound takes time to travel from one place to another. The speed of sound is not the same everywhere because it
depends on the material that the sound is travelling through. Generally sound travels faster where particles are
closely packed than in materials where particles are further apart. The table below illustrates the speed of sound in
each of the mediums.

STATE OF MATTER SPEED OF SOUND WAVE

Solid 5000 m/s
Liquid 1483 m/s
Gas 330 m/s

LONGITUDINAL AND TRANSVERSE WAVES

Waves are disturbances caused by the movement of some forms of energy from one place to another.

LONGITUDINAL WAVES TRANSVERSE WAVES

A wave in which particles of the medium move parallel ( A wave in which particles of the medium move in a
in the same direction) to the movement of the, e.g. sound direction perpendicular (at a 90 degrees angle) to the
wave direction in which the wave moves.

40
WAVELENGTH
This is the shortest distance between two identical points on a wave. In the diagram below the wavelength of the
wave is the distance between A and B.

FREQUENCY
The number of vibrations per second,

AMPLITUDE
This is the maximum displacement from the rest position. The crest of a wave is the point of high pressure on a
wave. The trough of a wave is the point of low pressure on a wave.

HOW WE HEAR
We receive information from our surroundings through our sense of hearing. Our ears are designed to detect sound
waves. Ears transfer the energy of the sound waves to special cells, which then send signals to the brain. The brain
interprets these signals as sound.

THE FUNCTIONS OF THE PARTS OF THE EAR

The ear is subdivided into outer, middle and portions, each playing a different role in hearing. The outer ear consists
of the ear flap and ear canal. The middle ear is made up of the eardrum, hammer, anvil, and stirrup. The inner ear is
made up of the cochlea and the oval window. When we hear, sound waves are captured by the outer ear, changed into
electrical impulses and sent to the brain.

41
EAR PART FUNCTION
Ear flap Collects sound waves in the air
Ear canal Channels sound waves to the middle ear
Ear drum Vibrates when sound waves reach it
Hammer, anvil Three connected bones that are set into motion at the same frequency as the vibrating ear drum
and stirrup
Oval window Transfers vibrations to the fluid in the cochlea in the inner ear
Cochlea A fluid filled tube lined with hair cells which move when the fluid vibrates
Hair cells Transmits electrical signals to the auditory nerves
Auditory nerve Transmits electrical signals to the brain

THE EUSTACHIAN TUBE

The Eustachian tube runs from the middle ear to the pharynx, which is the part of the neck and the throat behind the
mouth and nasal cavity. The function of the Eustachian tube is to protect and drain the middle ear and allow
movement of air in and out of the middle ear.

EAR DEFECTS AND HEARING IMPAIRMENT

Hearing impairment is a term used to describe the complete or partial loss of hearing in one or both ears.

THE DIFFERENT DEGREES OF HEARING IMPAIRMENT

The table below shows the different degrees of hearing impairment that can happen.
DEGREE OF HEARING DESCRIPTION
IMPAIRMENT
MILD The person may not even be aware of their inability to hear certain sounds.
MODERATE The person will have some difficulty in hearing, e.g. in background noise, but not in
every situation. Many people with mild to moderate hearing impairment blame others,
saying people are always mumbling.
SEVERE The person will have considerable difficulty in following speech and in hearing
environmental sounds. Their own speech may not be affected by their hearing
disability.
PROFOUND The person’s range of hearing is extremely limited. They may hear low toned sounds at
a much higher than normal volume, but are not able to hear enough to follow speech
and will not hear most environmental sounds such as a telephone or alarm. They may
use sign language or have difficulty monitoring the volume and pitch of their own
voice when speaking.

CAUSES OF HEARING IMPAIRMENT AND DEAFNESS

Listed are some of the causes of hearing impairment.

- Deafness can be inherited
- Infections in a woman during pregnancy
- The use of certain drugs during pregnancy
- Jaundice (when a baby becomes a yellow colour) in a newborn baby.
42
- Infectious diseases such as meningitis, measles, mumps, & chronic ear infections
- Head injury or injury to the ear.
- Wax or foreign bodies blocking the ear canal
- Excessive noise e.g. noise machinery, gun fire or explosions

SIGNS OF HEARING IMPAIRMENT

PREVENTING HEARING IMPAIRMENT

- Wear protective gear

People who work in an environment where loud sounds are common( such as heavy industries, mines, road works,
air ports etc) should wear ear muffs.

- Immunize children against infectious diseases

Immunization will reduce the occurrence of hearing impairment

- Avoid use of certain drugs, particularly during pregnancy

- Treat chronic illnesses such as ear infections, especially in young children.

SAFE AND HEALTHY CARE FOR EARS

- Clean ears carefully

- Wipe the outer ear gently with a wash cloth or tissue
- Have your hearing checked occasionally
- Always wear a helmet when you ride a bicycle or skate board
- See a doctor if you a sore ear

PERSONAL HYGIENE - CARING FOR TEETH

TOOTH STRUCTURE

ENAMEL: This is the toughest bone covering the tooth.

DENTINE: This is softer than the enamel but it is still tougher than the other tooth parts.
Pulp cavity: This is very soft and sensitive.
Blood vessels: They supply oxygen and food substances to the tooth. They also take waste material and
deoxygenated blood (blood without oxygen) out of the body.

43
RELATING THE SHAPE OF THE TOOTH TO ITS FUNCTION

Teeth are used to tear, cut and grind the food into smaller pieces that can be easily swallowed and digested. An adult
mouth contains 32 teeth; 16 in the upper jaw and 16 in the lower jaw. These teeth are divided into 3 main types, that
is the:

1 INCISORS
These are sharp and chisel-shaped and therefore well suited for cutting food into small pieces. They are found in the
front of the upper and lower jaw.

2 CANINES
These teeth are used for tearing food and they are sharp, pointy, cone shaped teeth.

3 MOLARS AND PRE-MOLARS

These are the large teeth found towards the back of the mouth on the upper and the lower jaws. They have large, flat
crowns with points that are used to grind up food into smaller pieces before swallowing.

TOOTH DECAY AND GUM DISEASES

Tooth decay: This is a process by which the tooth rots. The decayed tooth is very painful. There is no cure for
decayed tooth; the tooth is rather removed to cease (stop) the pains.

HOW TOOTH DECAY TAKE PLACE

 Food substances are trapped on the teeth (in the cusps)

 The bacteria feed on the food particles. As bacteria feed, an acid will be produced as a by-product
 The acid will start to corrode the enamel. The enamel will get softer.
 The cavity (holes) will be formed in the tooth.
 Food particles will be trapped in the cavities. This supply bacteria with more food, hence they will multiply
and produce more acid.
 The acid will continue to corrode the enamel until it reaches the dentine. There will be mild (little) pain in
the tooth.
 Acid continues to corrode the dentine until it reaches the pulp cavity. When the pulp cavity is reached there
will be severe pain in the tooth.
 The acid will then corrode the blood vessels. Then the blood vessels will burst and blood will be seen
dripping through the gums. This condition may lead to scurvy.

PREVENTION OF TOOTH DECAY AND DISEASES

*Clean the teeth after meals using toothpaste and toothbrush

-The toothpaste contains some alkali, which neutralises some acid (acid +alkali = neutralisation)
- The tooth brush removes food remains, so avoiding plaque formation

*Do not use the tooth for the purpose they were not made for e.g. do not use your teeth to open bottles.
 Visit your dentist for regular teethe check up and advice.

44
COMMUNICABE DISEASES

Communicable diseases are diseases which are caused by micro-organisms and can be transferred from one person to
another. They are also called contagious or infectious diseases.
Non communicable diseases are caused by some problem in the body i.e. (develop within a person) and cannot be
passed on to others. Examples are: cancer, anaemia, diabetes, Pneumonia, goiter, multiple sclerosis etc.

Examples of communicable diseases and their CAUSATIVE AGENT

BACTERIAL DISEASES VIRAL DISEASES FUNGAL PROTOZOAL

DISEASES DISEASES
Tuberculosis, Whooping cough, Diphtheria, Influenza Mumps Ringworm Bilharzia
Typhoid Rubella Measles Athlete foot Malaria
Syphilis, Polio, Cholera, Gonorrhea Hepatitis B Chicken pox Thrush Intestinal infection
HIV/ AIDS

Spreading of communicable diseases

Germs can be spread from the source to other people in many ways, such as the following:
(i) Food: Food may be contaminated by germs e.g. house flies. It could be by faeces through careless
handling- spreading gastric fever and diarrhea.
(ii) Water: Can carry many germs such as those causing cholera and typhoid. The water is usually
contaminated by faeces.
(iii) Air: When people sneeze or cough they expel air containing small droplets of moisture from their
lungs with great force. The droplets carry germs which are then inhaled by other people and can cause
infections. Diseases spread in this way include influenza, tuberculosis etc.
(iv) Direct contact: Germs can be spread through direct contact when two people touch one another, e.g.
sexually transmitted diseases which may be spread through sexual intercourse.
(v) Vectors: A vector is an organism that picks up germs from one organism and then carries to another
e.g. house fly, or mosquito which carry malaria

Preventing or controlling communicable diseases

(i) Proper water purification will prevent spread of water borne diseases e.g. cholera
(ii) Proper sanitation means that carriers (flies) cannot pick up germs to spread diseases.
(iii) Good personal hygiene, e.g. regular washing will decrease germs on one’s body.
(iv) Timely vaccination will enable people to develop immunity or at least increased resistance, to diseases
(v) Proper nutrition increases resistance to diseases
(vi) Isolating the infected and treating them to kill germs.
(vii) The correct handling of food should be stressed
(viii) Avoid contact with infected people including other people’s combs, towels etc. This includes sexual
contact. Sexually transmitted diseases can be prevented by using condoms, abstaining from sex.

45
 LIFE CYCLE- THE HOUSE FLY

Adult house flies lay their eggs on waste food and faeces. These eggs hatch to form larvae (or maggot) that feed on
rotten food or human waste. The larva forms a pupa. When a male adult fly leaves the pupa case it mates with female
fly producing eggs.

Control of house flies

(i) Destroy their breeding places by removing dung, covering faeces, etc.
(ii) Use fly traps to catch and kill them
(iii) Covering all cooked food
(iv) Spray their feeding and breeding places with insecticides

THE ANOPHELES (MALARIA) MOSQUITO

Mosquitoes and flies are insects. The differences in the life cycle is mosquito larva are aquatic (they live in water)
and also the larvae have breathing tubes called spiracles on their bodies which are open to the atmosphere whereas
the larvae themselves are under water. The pupae also have breathing tubes called siphons which are also open to the
atmosphere while the pupae themselves are under water.

LIFE CYCLE OF A MOSQUITO

Control of mosquito and

malaria

(i) Destroy all places where mosquitoes may breed. Drain wet areas and build houses away from open
water.
(ii) Spray open water ponds with eco-friendly pesticides
(iii) Cover surface water with a thin layer of oil. This cuts off the air supply to the larvae and they
suffocate.

46
 (iv) Keep people with malaria in isolation so that mosquitoes cannot suck their blood and transmit malaria
to healthy people.
(v) Use mosquito nets
(vi) Use mosquito repellants
(vii) Put fly screens on doors and windows and keep them shut so that mosquitoes cannot get in.

BILHARZIA

This disease is caused by parasitic flat worm called a fluke. Embryo (incomplete) fluke enter human beings by means
of snail found in ponds and rivers. When infected people urinate into the river the eggs pass out and hatch. The larvae
of the flukes pass into pond snails. Embryo flukes swim away from the snails and may enter the skin of humans who
stand or bath in the water. The adult fluke grow inside the human blood system and cause tiredness and fever
symptoms of bilharzia. When an infected person urinates in the water, the cycle begins again.

CONTROL
(i) killing snails that live in open water
(ii) improved hygiene (using toilets)
(iii) preventing swimming in infected water
(iv) people need to be educated on the dangers of bilharzia and how to avoid infection
(v) bilharzia can be cured by proper treatment by a medical doctor or a clinic

FOOD POISONING

Food Poisoning: This is a situation where by bacteria, fungus or virus multiply in

food and make it unsafe to eat.

Symptoms of food Poisoning

 vomiting
 stomach ache/ stomach cramps
 diarrhea
 dizziness
 convulsions
 nausea
 Prevention of food Poisoning

 pre cook the food well

 store food safely
 always handle food with clean hands and clean utensils
 always cover the body hair when handling food

Best Conditions for Microbial Growth

Microbes( fungus, bacteria, virus) grow best when:

1) it is warm
2) the environment is moist

47
FOOD PRESERVATION AND STORAGE

Preservation: Ways of keeping food safe for a long period (time)

Storage: This is a place for keeping the food safe for consumption (eating).

The following are ways of preserving and storing food:

1) Canning: The food is boiled at very high temperatures, then quickly cooled and kept sealed (tightly
closed) in a container.
2) Refrigeration: This is keeping the food cold so that the activity (multiplying) of the germs (microbes) is
slowed.
3) Drying: This is the removal of water from the food so that microbes stop multiplying, eg biltong.
4) Salting: It provide environment which is not suitable for the microbes to develop.
5) Adding of Salt: This provide an environment which is not suitable for the growth of microbes.
6) Bottling: The bottle is sterilised and then food preservatives added to make the food last longer.
7) Pasteurisation: This is a process of boiling milk to temperature of 70oC and then quickly cooling it to 100
. The milk is then quickly stored in an air tight (sealed) container.
8) Boiling: This is a process of heating food to very high temperatures. This is a short lived preservative
method
9) Pickling: This is the storage of food in some chemicals, eg vinegar (weak acid)is used to preserve and
store beetroots & onions
10. Freezing: The food is cooled to very low temperatures. This highly reduces the activity of the
microbes.
11. Radiation: This is passing sealed food through a radioactive material so that microbes are killed.

NB: Food must not be stored for too long otherwise it can be poisoned and cause illness when eaten. Do not eat
sealed food which have exceeded the expiry date since it might be poisoned!

DIGESTION

PARTS OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

Digestion is the breaking

- down of food into smaller particles that can be easily pass into the blood stream.
Rectum: This is where solid undigested materials (faeces) are temporarily stored just before removed from the body
. The removal of solid undigested materials from the body is called defecation.
Anus: It opens to let the faeces out. Its opening and closing is controlled by sphincter (ring of muscles).

NB A single tube that runs from the mouth to the anus is called the alimentary canal.

48
 ENZYMES
Enzyme: This is a biological catalyst that speeds up the chemical reactions in the body.
Functions of enzymes

 speed up chemical reactions

 responsible for digestion to take place

End products of Nutrients after a Chemical Reaction

ENZYME PRODUCED BY ACTS ON REACTION TAKES TO PRODUCE ….

… …. PLACE IN ….
Carbohydrase Salivary glands Starch Mouth Sugar
Protease Gastric gland Protein Stomach Amino acids
Lipase Pancrease Fat Small intestines Fatty acids and
glycerol

THE ABSORPTION OF NUTRIENTS INTO THE BLOOD STREAM

The absorption of the end products of digestion takes place in the ileum and jejunum. The inside wall of the jejunum and is highly folded increasing the surface area.
These folds are known as villi( singular- villus).
The villi contain a lot of capillaries. The water soluble end-products of digestion (glucose, amino acids, minerals and most vitamins) are absorbed into the blood in the
capillaries by diffusion. The villi also contain small vessels known as lymph vessels.

These contain fluid called lymph which is similar to blood but not exactly the same. Fatty acids, lipids and some vitamins are not water soluble and so these are not
absorbed by diffusion directly into the blood. Instead, these substances are absorbed into the lymph vessel. The fluid in the lymph vessel eventually passes into the
blood stream.

FOOD TESTS
Types of nutrients
1) starch
2) glucose
3) proteins
4) fats/oils

Testing for Starch

- put food sample (e.g. sucrose grilled to powder) in Petri-dish
- add cold water to extract (get) starch
- put the solution in the test tube and boil it until the solution is clear
- let the solution cool, then add 3 - 4 drops of iodine.

Results: A dark blue (blue-black) colour will appear to show the presence of starch.
Testing for Proteins
- Extract the protein using water
- Put the solution in a test tube
- Add 20 (5mm) drops of sodium hydroxide and the another 20 drops (5mm) of copper
sulphate
Results: A purple colour indicates the presence of protein.

N.B Sodium hydroxide can be replaced with potassium hydroxide in the test for protein.

49
TESTING FOR GLUCOSE
- Heat food sample (e.g. glucose) with Benedict’s solution. Heat the food by placing it in a
beaker containing boiling water(water bath).

Results: The solution will change from clear blue to cloudy green, then yellow and finally red precipitate
(suspension).

TESTING FOR FAT IN FOOD

- use alcohol to extract fat from food
- filtrate the mixture
- pour the filtrate in water
Results: A cloudy white emulsion will (suspension) will appear. This shows presence of fat.

Fat can be Tested Using White Paper (Translucent Spot Test)

- rub a food sample on a piece of white paper

- let the paper face a bright light
Results: A translucent (partially transparent) spot is formed.

SUMMERY OF FOOD TESTS

FOOD TYPE COLOUR CHANGE
TEST

Starch Use iodine solution
Glucose Use Benedict’s solution
Protein Use dilute sodium and copper
sulphate (NB use 20 drops of
each)
Fat Use alcohol solution to extract
fat, and then mix with water
A dark blue (blue black) colour produced
Colour change from clear blue to cloudy green, then yellow
and finally a red precipitate( clear blue cloudy green
yellow green)
A purple colour is formed
A cloudy white emulsion (suspension) will be formed.

DRUGS

Drug: This is a chemical substance that has an effect on the body. It makes one to feel or behave differently.

Examples of drugs which are normally abused:

 Alcohol, Heroin ,Spirit based glues, Tar ,Cocaine, Nicotine, Marijuana, Caffeine, Lysergenic Acid (LCD),
Mandrax, Ectasydrug, Codeine, Morphine

Medicinal drugs : These are drugs which are used to cure certain diseases or suppress certain conditions.

Examples of medicinal drugs:

* Aspirin
* Penicillin
* Paracetamol

Dose: This is the amount of medicine to be taken at a given time.

Drugs which are normally Used and Abused:

1) Sedatives
2) Pain killers
3) Stimulants
4) Hallucinogens
5) Antibiotics

50
 1) SEDATIVES: These are drugs which affect the nervous system. They calm and cause one to sleep.

Examples of Sedatives:

 Sleeping pill
 Alcohol ( it is found in wine,beer,vodka,whisky,brandy etc )
 Marijuana ( it is also known as cannabis,dagga,hash,grass,pot etc ). It is either smoked or leaves eaten.
 Spirit based glue ( it is inhaled. It causes severe liver damage)

2) PAIN KILLERS: These are drugs used to kill or lessen pain.

Examples of Pain Killers:

 Heroin
 opium

N.B Medicine containing codeine or morphine are often used as pain killers.

How pain killers are taken into the body

* swallowing (orally)
 intra-mascular (inject in muscle)
 intra-venous (inject in veins)

3) STIMULANTS: These are drugs which help us to keep awake. They give extra strength and energy for a
while (short time).

Examples of Stimulants:

 Caffeine (found in coffee,tea,cola,chocolate, etc)

 Cocaine (found in leaves of cola plants; it is sniffed)
 Nicotine (found in tobbaco,cigarettes)
 Mandrax

4) HALLUCINOGENS: This are drugs which make people to see, hear and imagine things which do not
exist. They make people to feel at great peace. Some people will imagine a wonderful dream-like, though
the sometimes imagine terrible things. Those who imagine terrible things can harm others or themselves.

Examples of Hallucinogens

 Marijuana
 Lysergenic Acid (LCD)
 “Ecstasy drugs”

5) ANTIBIOTICS: These are drugs which are used to kill pathogens (e.g. bacteria)
Examples of Antibiotics:

 Penicillin
.

DANGERS OF MISUSE OF DRUGS (DRUG ABUSE)

Drug abuse: This is the use of drugs for non-medicinal purposes.

Effects of Drug Abuse:

 Strange behaviour: drugs affect the brain causing “highs”(being completely drunk)
 It damages the body leading to death (this is normally due to overdosing (taking too much drugs) The parts
which are worst affected are liver,brain,lungs and kidneys
 Family break down
 Financial hardships

51
  People will engage in crimina activities such as criminal activity,prostitution,drug selling; so that they get
money.
 Emotional and physical dependence on drugs may develop
 It causes people to have a slowed reaction time

MEDICINAL PLANTS IN MY LOCALITY

1) Sengaparile: used for strengthening the heart and blood
2) Monepenepe: used for strengthening blood

ALCOHOL: It is a depressant for the nervous system.

Alcohol is found in:
 Beer
 Wine
 Brandy
 Vodka
 Effects of Alcohol

 It damages the brain, lungs, liver and pancrease.

 It causes stomach ulcers
 It slows down reaction time which leads to accidents
 It causes vaso-dilation which leads to heat loss
 It cause change in behaviour
 It causes poor sight judgement
 It weakens the heart
 It leads to obesity
 It causes loss of appetite
 It leads to violence/ vandalism

EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL ON PREGNANCY

 It damages the foetus

 It lowers average birth weight (2.5 Kg)
 It may cause the baby to be born ill
 The mother might have a miscarriage
 The baby might be born deformed

Alcoholism: This is dependence on alcoholism

Alcoholic: This is a person who depend on alcohol

SMOKING TOBACCO

There are two types of tobacco smoking, which are:

1) Active smoking
2) Passive smoking

Active smoking: directly getting the smoke from the tobacco

Passive smoking: indirectly smoking the tobacco smoke from the immediate environment

N.B Smoking is addictive. This means smokers can be dependant on tobacco so much that if they do not smoke they
can not do anything. An addict will have head ache and shiver if he do not get the drug he is addicted to.

Contents of tobacco

 Carbon monoxide
 Tar
 Nicotine
 Hydrogen cyanide

52
Effects of smoking

 It damage lungs (it kills lung cells) which lead to a disease called EMPHYSEMA.
 It can lead to a disease called bronchitis
 It increases the chances/risk of getting a heart attack
 It leads to cancers e.g. lung cancer, mouth cancer and throat cancer
 It leads to ear infections

NB Both active smokers and passive smokers are equally affected by the effects of smoking.

Public protection against Passive Smoking

 Tobacco smoking is prohibited (not allowed) in all public areas eg public halls
 Tobacco smoking is prohibited in all public transport

Dose: This is the amount of medicine to be taken at a given time.

ALLERGIC REACTIONS TO DRUGS

Many people are allergic to things around them. Allergies to grass, cats, dogs, feathers, and pollen are common.
Usually people who are allergic to these sorts of things have a mild allergic reaction ( often known as hay fever)
when they come in contact with them. The symptoms are:
- Itchy ears and eyes
- Runny nose
- Tickly throat
- Sneezing
Mild allergic reactions are easily treated with drugs known as antihistamines.

In some people, allergies are more severe. When they are exposed to something they are sensitive to the following
symptoms are observed:
- Difficulty in breathing( asthma)
- A drop in blood pressure
- Unconsciousness
- Itchy rash all over the body
- Swelling of lips, face, and throat ( this can the person from breathing)
Drugs that are known to sometimes cause allergic reactions include penicillin, tetracycline (antibiotic), codeine and
drugs used to treat epilepsy.

BLOOD
This is a liquid substance which circulates around the body. In most cases (mammals) it is red in colour.

FUNCTIONS OF THE BODY

1) Transport: Blood transport substances around the body. Blood transport the following around the body:
*food nutrients substances
*water
*oxygen
*urea
*carbon dioxide
2) Controls body temperature:
*The blood vessels get near the skin when it is hot so that heat is lost from the body while when it is cold, the
blood vessel get deep into the flesh (away from the skin ) in order to conserve heat.
 Blood also circulate through areas which produce lot of heat ( eg armpits and pubic areas) and takes heat to
cooler parts hence maintaining a constant (37 degrees in human beings)
3) It defends the body against diseases: Blood contain some cells, eg white blood cells, which protect the body
against diseases.
COMPONENTS OF BLOOD

The components of blood refer to different parts which compose the blood. The components of blood are:
* Red Blood Cells (RBC)
* White Blood Cells
* Platelets
*Plasma

53
1) Red Blood Cells ( RBC )
 the are disc- shaped
 they do not have the nucleus
 it contains haemoglobin ( reddish pigment mainly made of iron)
 the main function of the red blood cell is to transport oxygen around the whole body. It is able to carry
oxygen because it contains haemoglobin which attracts oxygen.

2) White Blood Cells ( WBC )

 colourless
 it has nucleus
 it does not have fixed shape
 the main function of the white blood cell is to fight against diseases.

The Two Types of White Blood Cells

1) Polymorphs (Phagocytes)
2) Lymphocytes
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN LYMPHOCYTES AND POLYMORPHS (PHAGOCYTE)

White Blood Cells

LYMPHOCYTES POLYMORPHS ( PHAGOCYTE )

regular shaped nucleus _irregular shape
__it kills the pathogen ( disease causing micro- __it engulf and kill the pathogens
organisms) by producing antibodies

3) Platelets: They make sure that blood clots.

4) Plasma:
 a yellowish liquid on which substances are dissolved
 it transport all substances around the body
Examples of dissolved substances are:
_ dissolved food particles are
_ urea
_ carbon dioxide
_ oxygen traces
_ transport hormones

BLOOD GROUPS

There are four blood groups. The blood groups are:

i) A, B, AB and O

Terminologies:

Blood Transfusions: This is the transfer of blood from one person to another.
Donor: This is a person who gives out blood.
Recipient: This is a person who receives (being given) blood.
Compatibility: This is the ability of the blood groups to be safely transfused

THE TABLE BELOW SHOWS BLOOD GROUP COMPATABILITY

BLOOD GROUP DONATE RECEIVE FROM
A A & AB A & O
B B & AB B & O
AB AB only AB, O, A, B
O AB, A, B, O O only

54
 UNIVERSAL RECIPIENT: Group AB receives blood from all blood groups; hence it is called a universal
recipient.

UNIVERSAL DONOR: Group O donates blood to all blood groups; therefore, it is a universal donor.
CLOT : This is the drying of blood.

BLOOD CSREENING

Blood screening is the checking of compatibility and safeness of blood to be transfused.

Blood is screened for the following; Compatibility and Various diseases
1) Screening blood for compatibility: This is finding out whether blood is of a group that can safely be
combined without clotting.

2) Screening blood for HIV/ AIDS: This is checked because the diseases can be transmitted from one person
to another through blood transfusion.

3) Screening blood for hepatitis B: This is checked because the diseases can be transmitted from one person
to another through blood transfusion. The symptoms of the disease include yellowish eyes and nausea (
feeling like vomiting).

4) Screening blood for Syphilis: This is checked because the diseases can be transmitted from one person to
another through blood transfusion.

5) Screening blood for gonorrhoea: This is checked because the diseases can be transmitted from one person
to another through blood transfusion.

NB: Blood that is not compatible or has any of the above diseases is not will not be transfused.

BLOOD CIRCULATION
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM: The main organ in the circulatory system is the heart.

THE HEART STRUCTURE

The heart is divided into two main sides namely:

i) left side and right side

The heart is further divided into four chambers namely:

i) right atrium/ auricle, right ventricle, left atrium/auricle and left ventricle

Table below shows functions of the parts of the heart.

55
 LEFT SIDE OF THE HEART RIGHT SIDE OF THE HEART

Pulmonary vein: It brings oxygenated blood to the heart Vena Cava: It brings deoxygenated blood to the heart

Left auricle/ atrium: It contains blood before it is released to
the ventricle.
It contract a little to empty blood from it.
Valves ( bicuspid valves): It controls the flow of blood by
avoiding back flow
Left ventricle: It is responsible for pumping oxygenated blood
from the heart.
It contract to pump up blood and it relaxes to accommodate
incoming blood.
Aorta: It transport oxygenated blood to the whole body.
Right auricle/ atrium: It contains blood before it is released
into the ventricle.
It contract a little to empty blood from it
Valves ( tricuspid valves): They avoid back flow of blood
They close as the ventricle contract
Right ventricle: It contract and relax to pump deoxygenated
blood from the heart.
Pulmonary artery: It transport deoxygenated blood to the
lungs.
( NB Pulmonary artery is the only artery which contains
deoxygenated blood)

BLOOD VESSELS

There are 3 main kinds of blood vessels – arteries, veins and capillaries.
 Arteries carry blood away from the heart. They divide again and again, and eventually form very tiny
vessels called capillaries.
 The capillaries gradually join up with one another to form large vessels called veins.
 Veins carry blood towards the heart.

The comparison of blood vessels structure and functions

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The transfer of materials between capillaries and tissue fluid

As blood enters capillaries from arterioles (small arteries), it slows down. This allows substances in the plasma, as
well as O2 from red blood cells, to diffuse through the capillary wall into the surrounding tissues (the capillary wall
is thin and permeable).

Liquid in the plasma also passes out. This forms tissue fluid, bathing the cells. Waste products from the cells, e.g.
CO2, diffuse back through the capillary walls into the plasma. Some of the tissue fluid also passes back.
////////////////////
COMMON DISEASES OF THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

i) Heart attack
ii) Stroke
iii) High blood pressure (it’s a condition)
iv) Anemia

57
 1. HEART ATTACK
Heart attack is the failure of the heart to pump blood due to a blockage in the coronary artery.

Cause:
+
 Too much fat which blocks the artery, which leads to atherosclerosis.
 Blockage due to clots, which leads to coronary thrombosis
 Arteries can rapture or break, this is called aneurysm

HOW HEART ATTACK AFFECT THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

The blood will not be pumped around the body due to a blockage of the coronary artery.

Prevention of heart attack

 Avoiding eating fatty food

 Exercise regularly

2) ANAEMIA
Anaemia is the failure of the red blood cells to supply enough oxygen to the body.

Causes of Anaemia

 Lack of haemoglobin
 Having few red blood cells. Red blood cells are mainly lost during bleeding.
 The shape of the red blood cells changing to a sickle-shape.
Prevention of Anaemia

 Enriching the diet with iron. This improves haemoglobin formation.

 Avoid bleeding.

Cure for Anaemia

 Use iron tablets, also known as ferrous tablets.

3) STROKE: This is the blockage of the artery supplying brain with oxygenated blood.

Causes of Stroke

 Blockage of an artery supplying brain with oxygen.

Effects/ results of Stroke

 Sudden death
 Mental illness
 Paralysis
 Coma ( unconsciousness )

Breathing System
GASEOUS EXCHANGE IN MAN

Respiratory system plays an important role in gaseous exchange in Human beings. It involves inspiration/inhaling (breathing
in) and expiration/expiring (breathing out). Gaseous exchange is referred to external respiration because there is exchange of
gases with the environment and it involves breathing out CO2 and breathing in O2. Air is filtered through the cilia hairs found
in the nostrils and the mucus found in the nasal cavity which traps dust and bacteria.

Breathing is brought by the movement of the ribs and the diaphragm which alters/changes the volume of the chest cavity and
changes the pressure of the air in the lungs. Air breathed in is known as inspired or inhaled air and air breathed out is known as
exhaled/expired air.

58
Mechanisms of breathing

Breathing is the mechanism that pumps air into and out of the lungs of a mammal. It occurs in two phases; Inspiration and
expiration. Action of breathing occurs the following
-Intercoastal muscles (Intercoastal muscles: there are 2 types of intercoastal muscles; Internal and external intercoastal
muscles)
Inhalation/breathing in/inspiration Exhalation/breathing out/expiration
. Inspiration/breathing in: when one breathes in, the 1. Expiration/breathing out: when one breathes out
diaphragm contracts and flattens the diaphragm relaxes and domes upwards the
thorax

- External intercoastal muscles contract while the internal
intercoastal muscles relax.
-Ribcage/thorax moves up and outwards.
- Diaphragm muscles contract making it flat
- Air pressure in the lungs decreases resulting in air being
drawn into the lungs.
- Volume of the chest cavity increases.
- External intercoastal muscles relax while the internal
intercoastal muscles contract.
- Ribcage moves downwards and inward.
- Diaphragm muscles relax thus pushing it up
- Air pressure rises inside the lungs and air is expelled out.
- Volume of the chest cavity decreases.

Role of exchange surface of the alveoli in gaseous exchange

The alveoli are the functional units for the respiratory system. This is where gaseous exchange takes place. The alveolus
provides a respiratory surface area. The alveoli are formed through the branching of the bronchioles. They are sac like
structures and sometimes referred to as air sacs.

59
How alveoli are adapted for function

 There are many alveoli in the lungs which creates a large surface area for gas exchange.
 The wall/epithelium wall of the alveolus is one cell thin to allow easy diffusion of gases in and out of the alveolus.
 Alveolus secretes a solution called surfactant solution, which eases the wall tension hence minimizing lung
inflation efforts.
 The alveoli are elastic, to increase inspirational capacity.
 Alveoli are surrounded by a network of blood vessels (capillaries) which deliver deoxygenated blood from the
pulmonary artery and collect oxygenated blood from the alveoli.
 There is also a thin film of water to dissolve oxygen for them to diffuse faster into the blood stream/capillaries

What happens during the breathing process (summary)?

 During breathing, air rich in oxygen enters the alveoli from the bronchiole.
 Oxygen diffuses through the epithelium with the capillaries.
 Then transported through the pulmonary vein to the heart before being transported around the whole body.
 Carbon dioxide leaves the alveoli and is expelled out through the nose.
 The diffusion of gases is facilitated by the difference in the concentration gradient.

Comparing inspired and expired air

Inspired air Expired air

- Dry or less moist (depends on humidity). - Very moist
- Rich in oxygen - Less oxygen content
- Less carbon dioxide. - Rich in carbon dioxide.
-usually cool and below body temperature. - it is usually warm

Effect of physical activity on the breathing rate

Average breathing rate of a human being ranges between 12-16 breaths/minute. During exercise it increase and the increase is
brought about by the following
1. More oxygen is needed to release energy for the muscle contraction and relaxation.
2. Increased energy requirement result in increase in the rate of respiration which increases the demand for oxygen and
this increases breathing to meet the oxygen demand.
3. Blood circulation in and out of the lungs must take place faster therefore the pulse rate and heart beat increases.

RESPIRATORY DISEASES
The common respiratory diseases include the following;
1. Bronchitis
2. Lung cancer
3. Emphysema
4. Asthma

1. Bronchitis: it is the inflammation of the bronchial tubes.

Caused by Sulphur dioxide and cigarette smoke which damages the cilia and as a result mucus
accumulates in the lungs and has to be cleared through coughing.
This explains why heavy smokers tend to develop bad coughs.
The mucus collecting in the lungs provides an ideal breeding ground for micro-organisms resulting in
bronchitis.
Bronchitis can also be contracted after heavy cold.
There are two forms of bronchitis; acute (resulting after influenza and common cold and can be treated)
and chronic (caused by smoking and is very dangerous because it has complex symptoms).
Prevention by avoiding smoking and dusty areas and also by steam inhalation.

2. Lung cancer:
 Caused by tar that comes from cigarettes, high exposure to radiation, nicotine in cigars can also result in
uncontrolled cell division to form unspecialized cells known as tumour.
 The cells invade other parts (malignant) of the lung, reducing its capacity to exchange gases efficiently.
 Symptoms the condition does not have symptoms visible except common coughing in smokers.
 Treatment at early stages of the disease x-ray radiation can be used to destroy the tumour or by the surgical
removal of the lung
 Prevention quit smoking.
3. Emphysema:

60
  Caused cigarette smoking, irritants, asbestos carried by air into the lungs and old age (but irritants play a
minor role compared to cigarette smoking)
 The disease can lead to the destruction of the walls the alveolus which are thickened hence difficulties in
diffusion of substances. Lungs lose their elasticity and cannot expand in each breath. The cavities may be
formed in the lungs due to the broken alveoli, and then filled with contaminated mucus.
 Symptoms: there is shortness of breath, in severe cases death may occur as early as two years if not severe an
individual may carry the condition up to ten years.
 Treatment: no treatment or cure
 Prevention avoid smoking

4. Asthma:
 A condition where airflow through the bronchi and bronchioles is restricted.
 Symptoms include wheezing (being out of breath), difficulty in breathing and a feeling of tightness of the
chest.
 This can be caused by breathing in pollen; dust mites, hair from dogs and cats, eating certain foods such as
milk or nuts, poor air quality and inhaling fumes such as cars and also exercising.
 A spray is usually used to open up the bronchi and bronchioles to allow airflow.

Other diseases include; TB, Pleurisy, whooping cough, flu, laryngitis, pharyngitis.

Smoking and pregnancy

If an expectant mother is a smoker, this has an effect on the unborn baby. This results from nicotine and carbon monoxide
which is passed to the unborn child. The carbon monoxide reduces oxygen content of the blood and forms carbon dioxide

2CO + O2  2CO2

This has the following effects to the unborn baby;

-Reduced cell division due to insufficient oxygen supply to respiring cells and may lead to the baby having physical handicaps.
- Slow growth of the unborn baby.
- Low birth weight
- Low oxygen supply to brain cells which can to mental retardation.
- Mother may have a miscarriage/still birth.
- Child may be born with breathing problems
EXCRETION
Excretion is the way in which the body gets rid of non-useful chemicals and toxins that are produced by the processes that
place in the cells.
Egestion is the removal of undigested food as solid waste (feaces).
EXCRETORY ORGANS

Excretory organ Product of excretion

Lungs Urine ( contains unwanted water, minerals, and chemical waste especially urea)
Skin (sweat glands) Sweat contains small amount of urea
Kidneys Carbon dioxide exhaled from the lungs

COMMON PROBLEMS OF THE EXCRETORY SYSTEM

 URINARY TRACT INFECTIONS – these are infection of the bladder and urethra that are usually caused by
bacteria that also appear in the faeces known as E.coli. Serious UTIs may cause blockage of the excretory system
and this can be relieved by inserting a tube (a catheter) into the excretory system so that urine can flow freely until
the infection is treated.
 KIDNEY STONES – these are crystals of salts and minerals such as calcium that form in the urinary tract. Kidney
stones can also form after an infection. If kidney stones are large enough to block the kidney or ureter, they can
also cause severe abdominal pains. The stones usually pass through the excretory system on their own and pass out
in the urine but in some cases they may need to be removed by surgery.
 KIDNEY FAILURE – kidney failure is a term used to describe many different types of diseases that result in one
61
 or both kidneys not functioning properly. Some of the causes of kidney failure include:
- infection
- poisoning or an overdose of drugs
- a sudden drop in blood pressure (shock)
- heart failure
One treatment for kidney failure is to filter the toxins out of the blood artificially using a machine. This is known as
dialysis.
If the kidney do not function at all then the person will die unless they receive new kidney in a kidney transplant.

MAGNETISM

62
63
 ELECTRICAL ENERGY
Electricity: This is the flow of electrons. The SI unit for electric charge is coulomb(C). The coulomb was named
after the French physicist, Charles Augustin de Coulomb (1736 – 1806).

ELECTROSTATIC CHARGING
Static electricity is electricity which does not move. When we charge objects by friction, and they retain their charge,
the charged object is said to be static electricity. An object can become charged as a result of friction. Friction
between two objects causes electrons (carry electrical charges) to move from one object to another.
There are two types of charges, namely the negative charge and the positive charge. Objects that gain electrons
become negatively charged and those that lose electrons become positively charged.

Sources of electrical energy

- solar cells - geothermal power
- car batteries - hydroelectric power
- dynamos - wind power
- dry cells - nuclear power
- generators

Sources of energy in Botswana

- wood, electricity, petroleum products ( paraffin, diesel, petrol), coal, gas

HOW A BYCYCLE DYNAMO GENERATES ELECTRICITY

64
ENERGY CHANGES AT A POWER STATION
Energy: this is the ability to do work.

N.B. The law of energy conservation states that “energy” can not be created nor destroyed, it can only be converted
(changed) from one state to another”.

Power station: this is where electricity is being produced, using different energy changes.

The following are some of the power stations:

i) hydro-electric power station

ii) thermal power station
iii) petrol/diesel power station

Electrical conductors and electrical insulators

Electrical conductor
These are materials with low resistivity. It allows current to easily pass through it. Electrons easily pass through it.

Examples of electrical conductors

Silver, Copper,Constantan, Mercury, Graphite/Carbon, Iron, Aluminum

N.B most metals are good conductors of electricity.
Uses of electrical conductor

Used to conduct electricity in:

- cars
- houses
- national grid lines
- radios etc

Electrical insulator
This is a material with high electrical resistivity. They do not allow electricity to easily pass through them. Electrons
do not easily pass through them.

Examples of electrical insulators

- glass
- wood
- polythene
- quartz
65
 - sulphur
- rubber
- cork
- paper

Uses of electrical insulators

- they are used to avoid electric shock when working with electricity, e.g. plastic gloves for electricians,
screwdriver handles made of plastic, electrician pliers handles made of plastic.

Effects of electricity

Electricity has the following effects:

1) heating effect
2) magnetic effect
3) chemical effect

1) Heating effect of electricity

The heating effect is caused by high resistance of a conductor as electricity pass through it. During electric heating,
electrical energy is changed to heat energy.

Demonstrating effects of heat energy

- when the switch is on, the nichrome coil get hot, water get warmer and the temperature recorded will be
higher.
- When the switch is off, nichrome coil cools down, water get cooler and the temperature recorded is lower.
Conclusion
This shows that electrical energy is changed to heat energy, hence the heating effect of electricity.

Some applications/ uses of the heating effect of electricity

- electric heater
- electric kettle
- electric stove
- electric bulb
- fuse, strip switch
- electric toaster etc

2) The Magnetic Effect of Electricity

When ever current flows through a conductor, a magnetic field is formed.

Demonstrating magnetic effect of electricity

As the current flows the compass needle swings away and points at an angle. This proves that there is a magnetic
field since only a magnetic pole will repel a pole of a magnet.

Application/ uses of magnetic effect of electricity

- Electromagnet: this is a soft iron coiled with a conductor and electricity passes through it, it turns into a
magnet but if electricity is switched off, it loses its magnetism. An electro magnet is used as:
-lifting magnets
-telephone ear piece
-electric bell/buzzer
-magnetic switches

3)The Chemical Effect of Electricity

Applications of the Chemical Effect of Electricity

- mining of copper (electrolysis)

- electroplating
66
 - decomposing water into hydrogen gas and oxygen gas
- electrical cells (batteries)

Using electrical appliance

Apart from cells, another supply of electricity can be from mains. Mains electricity has sockets in which a plug is
inserted to get electricity to the mains.

Live, neutral and earth wires in an electric cable

Three –core electric cable contains three insulated (plastic coated) wires. The table below describes these wires:

COLOUR NAME FUNCTION

Brown Live wire Carries the electric current
Green and yellow Earth Gives a route for the current if the live wire touches the outer casing.
Blue Neutral Carries electricity from an outlet back to the service panel.

How to correctly wire a three pin plug

- Cut the outer insulation off the cable, about 2 cm. Make sure that you do not cut the insulation inside the
inner wires.
- Cut the wires such that the earth wire (green and yellow) is a little longer than the other two.
- Cut the insulation off the ends of each wire to leave about 5 mm of each wire uncovered. Twist the ends of
each copper wire together.
- Connect the wires to the pins of the plug as shown above.
- Grip the cable using the cable grip as shown above.
- Re-check your connections before you plug into the socket, or better still, ask for confirmation from the
other person, e.g. your teacher.

N.B
Wrong connections can lead to damage of equipment, electrocution and house fire.

Role of the earth wire

Its main purpose is for safety against electrocution. If the live wire accidentally touches the appliance body, huge
amount of current would pass from the live wire to the ground, through the earth wire, to the ground. This leaves the
appliance safe to touch.

Role of fuse

Its main function is to melt and break so as to break the circuit in case of the wires become too hot. This avoids fire.
A fuse contains a strip of metal that will easily melt when it is heated or overloaded with current.

Once broken, a fuse needs to be replaced with a new one of the same rating.

A fuse must not be rated too much below the current passing through the appliance since it will break during normal
working supply.

A fuse must not be rated too much above the current passing through the appliance since the since it will let too
much current flow hence it will not protect the appliance, that is, the appliance can be damaged even if that fuse is in
use.
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The table below shows some appliances and their correct fuse rating

Appliance Power (Watts) Normal Current (A) Correct Fuse (A)

Lamp 100 0.5 3
TV set 120 0.6 3
Hair Dryer 500 2.1 5
Toaster 1200 5 13
Kettle 2800 12 13

Role of the Strip Switch

A strip switch trips off if there is an overload of current flow so as to open the circuit. This is a safety device since it
avoids the damage of equipment and avoids fire due to overheating of electric cables.

Advantages of strip switch

- It can be switched back to complete the circuit unlike a fuse that need to be replaced every time it is blown
out!

Short Circuit
This is a situation whereby a large current flow by-passing large resistance through a conductor of low resistance.
This causes very high heat intensity and this can lead to flash of light with some harsh sound.

In the above experiment, you caused a short circuit by allowing too much current to flow through a copper wire.
There was little resistance in the copper wire than the bulb, so a large current passed through a copper wire, breaking
a strand of steel wool like it would be with the fuses.

Electrical Hazards
These are dangers people may be exposed to when they use electricity. These dangers are:

1) Damaged insulation
2) Overheating of cables
3) Damped conditions

1) Damaged insulation

Electrical wires in appliances are insulated so as to avoid electrical leakage. If the insulation gets damaged, the wires
may touch each other or the body of the appliance leading to short circuit. The wires get too hot and this can result in
a fire or electrocution or damage the appliance.

2) Overheating cables
This is caused by wires being too thin to carry the required current hence the cables get too hot and damaged/melts
the insulation resulting in a short circuit and fire. Overheating may be caused by using too many adapters on a single
plug socket.

3) Damp conditions

Since water conducts electricity, touching electrical appliances with damp hands may lead to electrocution or
electrical shock.

POWER CONSUMPTION - This is the use of electrical energy.

Electrical energy used is being paid for. You either receive a bill for electrical energy consumption or you buy it
before use.
Power
This is the rate at which energy is being transformed. Power can also de defined as the rate at which work is done.

S.I units is Watts (W)

Other units of Power

1 kW = 1000 W (1 kilo Watt)

1 MW = 1000 000 W (1 Mega Watt)
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Electrical Energy
This is the electrical power used within a given time.

S.I Units for Electrical Power is Watt-second

Watt-seconds are too small for realistic use of electrical energy. Other large units are used which are kilo Watt –
hour.

Electrical energy is what I normally referred to as electrical units.

Cost of Electricity
This is the charge for use of electrical energy.

Electrical appliances are normally rated e.g. a heater may be rated 3kW. This means that the heater will use 3 kW of
electrical energy every hour.

How many units (electrical energy) will it use in?

a) 2 hours
b) 3 hours
Solution
a) Units used (Electrical energy) = Power (kW) x Time (hours)
= 3 kW x 2 h
= 6 kWh
b) Units used (Electrical energy) = Power (kW) x Time (hours)
= 3 kW x 3 h
= 9 kWh

Cost of using electrical energy is calculated using the formulae below:

Cost = electrical energy used (units) x cost per unit

Examples

If the cost of electrical energy is P 0.75 per unit, calculate the cost of using a heater in the above example for times in
a, b ,c ,d ,e , f, and g.

How much would it cost to use equipment rated 9kW for:

Ai) 5 h
ii) a week
ii)8 hours every day for 31 days?
Solution

Ai) find out the total units used first

Units used (Electrical energy) = Power (kWh) x Time (hours)

= 9 kW x 5h
= 45 kWh

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 WHAT IS GEO-SCIENCE

Geo science is the study of the earth and its systems. It includes any of the sciences related to earth.

Everything in Earth's system can be placed into one of four major subsystems: land, water,
living things, or air. These four subsystems are called "spheres." Specifically, they are the
"lithosphere" (land), "hydrosphere" (water), "biosphere" (living things), and "atmosphere"
(air). Each of these four spheres can be further divided into sub-spheres.

Lithosphere
The lithosphere contains all of the cold, hard solid land of the planet's crust (surface), the
semi-solid land underneath the crust, and the liquid land near the center of the planet.

The solid, semi-solid, and liquid land of the lithosphere form layers that are physically and chemically different. If
someone were to cut through Earth to its center, these layers would be revealed like the layers of an onion (see
image above). The outermost layer of the lithosphere consists of loose soil rich in nutrients, oxygen, and silicon.
Beneath that layer lies a very thin, solid crust of oxygen and silicon. Next is a thick, semi-solid mantle of oxygen,
silicon, iron, and magnesium. Below that is a liquid outer core of nickel and iron. At the center of Earth is a solid
inner core of nickel and iron.

Hydrosphere
The hydrosphere contains all the solid, liquid, and gaseous water of the planet. **It ranges from 10 to 20
kilometers in thickness. The hydrosphere extends from Earth's surface downward several kilometers into the

70
lithosphere and upward about 12 kilometers into the atmosphere.

A small portion of the water in the hydrosphere is fresh (non-salty). This water flows as precipitation from the
atmosphere down to Earth's surface, as rivers and streams along Earth's surface, and as groundwater beneath
Earth's surface. Most of Earth's fresh water, however, is frozen.

Ninety-seven percent of Earth's water is salty. The salty water collects in deep valleys along Earth's surface. These
large collections of salty water are referred to as oceans. The image above depicts the different temperatures one
would find on oceans' surfaces. Water near the poles is very cold (shown in dark purple), while water near the
equator is very warm (shown in light blue). The differences in temperature cause water to change physical states.
Extremely low temperatures like those found at the poles cause water to freeze into a solid such as a polar icecap,
a glacier, or an iceberg. Extremely high temperatures like those found at the equator cause water to evaporate into
a gas.

**Note: Some scientists place frozen water--glaciers, icecaps, and icebergs--in its own sphere called the
"cryosphere."

Biosphere
The biosphere contains all the planet's living things. ***This sphere includes all of the microorganisms, plants,
and animals of Earth.

Within the biosphere, living things form ecological communities based on the physical surroundings of an area.
These communities are referred to as biomes. Deserts, grasslands, and tropical rainforests are three of the many
types of biomes that exist within the biosphere.

It is impossible to detect from space each individual organism within the biosphere. However, biomes can be seen
from space. For example, the image above distinguishes between lands covered with plants (shown in shades of
green) and those that are not (shown in brown).

***Note: Some scientists place humans in their own sphere called the "anthrosphere."

Atmosphere
The atmosphere contains all the air in Earth's system. It extends from less than 1 m below the planet's surface to
more than 10,000 km above the planet's surface. The upper portion of the atmosphere protects the organisms of
the biosphere from the sun's ultraviolet radiation. It also absorbs and emits heat. When air temperature in the
lower portion of this sphere changes, weather occurs. As air in the lower atmosphere is heated or cooled, it moves
around the planet. The result can be as simple as a breeze or as complex as a tornado.

INTERACTION BETWEEN THE SPHERES

The spheres do not function separately, there is interaction between them all the time. For example: the water
cycle.

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THE FLOW OF ENERGY IN THE BIOSSPHERE
The biosphere is made up of many ecosystems. An ecosystem consists of plants and animals and micro-organisms
functioning together with all other non living things. The sun is the main source of energy, its rays pass through
all spheres.
Plants absorb sunlight and use it through the process of photosynthesis to produce food. Once plants have
produecd the food, consumers feed on them. This happens through a food chain, that is:

Producer (plant) primary consumers secondary consumers tertiary consumers

Energy flows from plants to all other consumers this way.

CAREERS RELATED TO THE STUDY OF GEO-SCIENCE

- Economic and mining geologist

- Geologist
- Climatologist
- Mineralogist
- Soil scientist
- Paleontologist

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SCIENCE NOTES
THREE- YEAR JUNIOUR
SECONDARY SCHOOL
SYLLABUS

FORM TWO

NOTES

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 SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY
Gene technology
What is a gene?
 A gene is the smallest unit of inheritance located in a fixed position of a chromosome.
 A gene is a special molecule in the nucleus of a cell which control what the cells does.

A chromosome is a thread like structure which carries a set of linked genes.

Genes are contained within the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). DNA is a self copying material found in the nucleus of
a living cell, therefore chromosome are made up of DNA which contain genetic information/gene and they are all
found in thenucleus of a cell.
DNA contains the genes which control the protein information and finally the physical characteristics/traits of living
organism like hair colour, eye colour, height, shape of ears etc.
Technology of genetic engineering
Genetic engineering means the manipulation (making changes to genetic information in DNA) and combination of
genetic materials from different organisms to produce organisms with particular characteristics through technology.
Procedure for combining genes
- Identify desirable characteristics in an organism
- Remove with desirable gene
- Transfer the gene to another organism that grows faster eg. Bacteria yeast
- The receiving cell reads the gene and show similar characteristics

Manipulation of genetic information

Genetic information can be changed/ altered by several factors which are beyond our control. This is called mutation.
But scientists can also alter the genetic information of organism to produce their desired results
Significance of genetic engineering
Genetic engineering is important in areas like medicine, agriculture, forensic science and energy generation.
MEDICINE
Scientists are trying to use genetic engineering to cure diseases caused by faulty genes (sickle cell anaemia, muscular
dystrophy). They replace faulty genes with the right genes.
Some diseases are caused by failure of the body to make certain protein eg diabetes mellitus which is caused by the
body inability to make the protein insulin.
Scientists have placed the gene cording for human insulin into a bacterium. The bacterium then makes into a
medicine which cures diabetes.

MAKING VACCINES
Measures were made by taking natural measles virus from an infected person. The virus was then grown in cells
from chicken’s embryo where it was modified to produce a vaccine virus which grows poorly and doest cause illness.
Many vaccines such as the vaccine for the serious liver disease, hepatitis B are made genetically engineered yeast
cells.
The vaccine virus is injected into humans to make their immune against measles. It produces itself a little bit to
induce a lifelong immunity.
GENE THERAPY
Transferring healthy genes into diseases carrying cells anti – cancer gene is introduced into the white blood cell of
cancer cells and kill them.
Human growth hormones gene can be injected into human to induce growth.
AGRICULTURE
Genetic engineering can be used to improve plant and animal yields. Plants and animal produced through this
technology are called genetically modified organism (GMO).
Genetically modified plants
Have the following introduced traits
- Adapt to new environment
- Produced more in less time
- Last longer without bad / have prolonged shelf life
- Produce their own insecticides

Genetically modified animals

- Can stand harsh weather e.g. drought
- Can resist diseases
- Produce high quality product e.g. meat, milk etc some goats and cattle are made to produce more milk
using the hormones

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 Forensic science
This is a branch of science that deals with obtaining criminal evidence to be used in the court of law.
Scientists can study the DNA of the criminals using the evidence from the crime Scene like hair, semen, blood,
pieces of skin etc. this is then matched with the DNA of the suspects. The process is called DNA finger printing
(similar to people’s finger prints). The results are in most cases valid because everyone ‘DNA is different.
- DNA fingerprinting is used for identify criminals, people involved in accidents
- Also used in paternity and maternity tests.

Energy generation
Biofuel are fuels generated from living things usually plants eg ethanol made from sugar cane.
Genetic engineering can be used to speed up the growth of plants used to make biofuels and therefore increase their
fuel yields.
- Plants can also be made to produce more of the raw material used to produce fuel e.g. sugar in sugar cane
- Plants can be made to produce less pollution when burnt if it’s a fuel that is burnt to produce energy.
- Some companies are engineering bacteria to produce biofuels.

APPLICATIONS OF GENETIC ENGINEERING

Genetic engineering can benefits us in many ways but there are some limitations involved in some of the process.
Benefits of genetic engineering Limitations of genetic engineering
It can be used to treat diseases Changing the genetic material of an organism may have
unplanned effects which is dangerous
It can be used to make food crops that are protected from The genes may be accidentally passed on to weeds,
diseases and so help to prevent hunger in the world making it difficult to control them
Production of plants and animals with desirable traits Super organisms that outcompete normal ones can be
produced
Cloning/ making identical copies Not possible to clone animals of organisms
Can be used to make new replacement organs for
humans
Creation of human beings from organism
Bringing extinct animal back to life
Making organisms to be able to produce chemicals,
medicines or fuels
Moral and ethical issues of gene technology
The issue of genetic engineering raises a lot of moral and ethical issues in the society.
- Many think it’s wrong as it interfers with nature
- Some worry that it may be misused
- Some of the things which can be done using gene technology are against some people ‘religious beliefs.

LIVING MATTER
Adaptation is a characteristic of all living things that makes it suitable to its environment.

TYPES O ADAPTATION
There are 3 types of adaptation being:
 Structural adaptation – these are physical adaptations
 Behavioural adaptations – these are behaviours such as hunting, courtship, etc.
 Physiological adaptations – this is the way an organism body function, e.g. some plants need less water for
their metabolism.

DRY and HOT CONDITIONS WET CONDITIONS

ADAPTATION IN PLANTS
ADAPTATION IN ANIMALS
-Increase the amount of water intake
-Store as much water as possible
-Reduce the amount of water loss
-active at night (nocturnal behaviour)
-burrowing
-getting water from food
-light coloured body covering
-Positioning of the body to reduce heat
absorption
-increase the rate of water loss
-reduce absorption of water
-Have webbed feet to help them
walk and swim in water
-Have fins to help them move under
water
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HUMAN IMPACT ON PLANT AND ANIMAL ADAPTATION

NEGATIVE IMPACTS OF HUMAN ACTIVITIES ON PLANTS AND ANIMALS

ADAPTATIONS

1. Fencing of game parks – prevent animals from migrating from one place to another especially
elephants.
2. Building of dams – water is made to flood a large area of dry land which was previously
occupied by plants and animals, which are not adapted to living in the water and this will lead to
them to drying.
3. Draining of wetlands – this is done to make way for developments. Organisms that were adapted
to living in these wet land can’t survive well in the new environment
4. Overgrazing - results in desertification
5. Deforestation – organisms that are adapted to growing in shady areas won’t be able to survive
when trees are cut
6. Burning of fossil fuels- results in increasing level of carbon dioxide leading to global warming
7. Introducing alien species( species from other countries)
8. Cutting down trees for firewood or timber
9. Hunting animals for food or sport

Predicting the effects of human activities on adaptation

 The polar ice caps will melt and this will affect the animals, such as the polar bear which are
adapted to live and hunt on the ice
 Some environment will become drier whereas others will become wetter. This will affect
organisms that are adapted to live in wet or dry environments
 Sea levels may rise and this will mean that organisms that live near the shoreline may be flooded
with salty water that they are not adapted to live in.

ECOSYSTEM
ECOLOGICAL TERMS

(i) HABITAT – A particular place where an organism lives. Habitats are usually shared by plants and
animals.
(ii) COMMUNITY- Living things found in a habitat.
(iii) ENVIRONMENT- This is the surrounding in which every living organism lives.
(iv) ECOSYSTEM- A community and its environment. OR Living things in interaction with one another
and their environment.

CHARACTERISTICS OF AN ECOSYSTEM IN TERMS OF LIVING AND NONLIVING FACTORS

NON LIVING FACTORS (Abiotic factors)

These factors affect the growth of plants and therefore also the growth of animals eating plants. They make up
the physical environment and they determine the variety of species because each living organism has its own
requirements and can only live where, the physical conditions are within its range of requirements. Non living
factors include: (a) Physical geographical factor
(b) Climatic and
(c) Soil factors

(a) Physical geographical factors

(i) Topography: has a great influence on the light intensity(strength), the temperatures and
moisture content of that area.

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 (b) Climatic factors
(i) Rainfall: water is essential for life. Rainfall is important for all animals and plants on earth
and is ultimately our only source of water.
(ii) Temperature: Each species of organism has its own preferred temperature. Temperature
fluctuation over long or short period e.g. (frost, severe cold or heat) could determine
whether certain species will survive or not. Temperature variation would be reason why
certain species are not found in an area, but could also be the reason for certain forms of
animal behavior e.g. hibernation of bears during colder periods.
(iii) Wind: can cause temperature to be lowered or raised
– Speed up evaporation and transpiration. This affects soil moisture
and humidity which could lead to fires or local draughts.
– help disperse or spread the seed of many plants and even small
animals. It also plays part of pollination of flowers
– strong winds can also cause soil erosion
(iv) Sunlight is the primary source of all energy o earth. All life depends on sunlight. Light
enable plants to make their own food and to grow. -Light affects the daily and seasonal
activities of plats and animals e.g.
- PHOTOPERIODISM (the way plants and animals react to the day length e.g. in
plants this affects flowering and bulb formation and
in animals it affects the breeding seasons, migration, changes in
hair covering.
– PHOTOTROPISM (the way plants react to the stimulus of light).

(c) Edaphic factors – this relate to the soil of an ecosystem.

There are five main edaphic factors:
- Soil texture: this is the way soil feels when you rub it between your fingers. Soil is texture is determined
by the size
of the soil particles. The best soil for most plants is loam soil, which has a mixture of large and small
particles of soil with lots of decomposed matter.
- Soil air and water: the air spaces can be filled with air or water. The amount of air and water in the soil
depends on the soil particles. If they are large, water drains quickly but there is good aeration, and if they
are very small water stays for a long time there is going to be poor aeration.
- Soil organic matter: plants need the soil which is rich in nutrients for growth.
- Soil organisms: these are living organisms that live in the soil. Some are large and some are small or
microscopic. Microscopic organisms break down the soil organic matter into nutrients needed by plants,
and large organisms turn the soil as they burrow and this mixes the nutrients and air throughout the soil.
- Soil depth: this refers to how deep the soil is. This means that different plant will need different soil dept.h
depending on the root system of a plant.

LIVING FACTORS(biotic)
These include all interactions between different organisms in a particular habitat. Organism relate to one another and
their environment in different ways. One organism may need another as a source of food, shelter or for protection
etc.
Examples of relationships include:

(a) SYMIOSIS – Two organisms live very closely together and each benefits from the association e.g. the
bacteria which live in roots of legume plants. These bacteria fix atmospheric nitrogen into nitrates which
plants need for growth.
- Ruminants and the micro organisms in the rumen. These enable ruminants to digest cellulose and
they in turn provide the microorganisms with vitamins required for survival.

(b) PARASITISM – Only parasites benefit in some way from another organism e.g. tapeworm absorbs
nutrients in the human gut and bilharzia parasite feeds and reproduces in the human blood. A common
plant parasite is mistletoe(boswa or boletswa)

(c) COMPETITION – Organisms compete for food e.g. plants will compete for growing space, water,
nutrients in the soil and sunlight.

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Organisms come in three groups:

(i) PRODUCERS (autotrophic): Green plants such as grasses, shrubs, trees, and water plants obtain
energy and produce carbohydrates foods (sugar and starch) through photosynthesis. All other
organisms which cannot make their own food depend on producers.
(ii) CONSUMERS (heterotrophic): Animals and people cannot make their own food from basic
substances, but they have to eat plants and other animals to get food (stored energy) for the process of
respiration, which releases energy. They are called heterotrophic organisms because they cannot make
their own food
There are 3 types of consumers:
- HERBIVORES. These are animals which feed on plants, e.g. goat, antelope, rabbit, zebra, locust,
snail, mice, cattle, sheep etc. They are called primary consumers because they feed directly on
plants.
- CARNIVORES. These are meat eating animals which eat herbivores, e.g. eagles, frogs, lions,
snakes, ladybird beetles, leopard, cheetah. They are
usually predators because they kill other animals (prey) before they eat
them. Scavengers (e.g. hyena and vultures) are also carnivores, but eat
what is left after the predators have eaten, or they eat animals that died
from other causes e.g. diseases. Carnivores are secondary consumers
because they do not feed directly on plants, but indirectly on animals that
eat plants. Some carnivores feed on other carnivores and these are called
tertiary consumers.
- OMNIVORES. These animals eat both plants and meat of other animals
(e.g. people, pigs, rodents, guinea fowl, etc)
(iii) DECOMPOSERS. Many fungi and bacteria can break down waste materials and dead organisms.
The broken down materials will be available as mineral salts from the soil.

SHOWING THE FLOW OF ENERGY THROUGH AN ECOSYSTEM

There are three ways to show how energy moves through an ecosystem. They are:
- Food chains
- Food webs
- Food pyramids

FOOD CHAIN

A food chain describes the feeding relationship between living organisms in a community. A food chain always starts
with a producer (green plant) which is eaten by consumers (herbivores, carnivores, omnivores).

The food chain above shows that energy in the grass flows to the rabbit, energy in the rabbit flows to the fox when
the fox eats the rabbit.

FEEDING LEVELS (TROPHIC LEVELS)

Trophic levels are the feeding stages in a food chain. A trophic level shows how many times energy has been
transferred through feeding. For example:

Grass rabbit fox

(First trophic level) (Second trophic level) (Third trophic level)

The table below shows how the different types of organisms in an ecosystem are classified into trophic levels.

Trophic level Description

First Produces
Second Primary consumers
Third Secondary consumers
Fourth Tertiary consumers

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FOOD WEB

When a food relationship shows many organisms sharing a food source it is called a food web. A food web is made
up of two or more food chains linked together.

FOOD PYRAMID

Many plants are (producers) are needed to feed small number of primary consumers. The latter have to be more than
secondary consumers. This is represented in a form of a pyramid below.

The food pyramid shows which organisms and how many are involved at each trophic level. The base represents the
producers while the apex represents the highest level of consumers. However, sometimes the pyramid can be a
different shape. For example, the figures are illustrated below .
A pyramid of numbers has to be kept constant so that plants will be enough for animals which need them and the
primary consumers are enough for secondary consumers. Where the numbers of primary consumers are too high in
an area, vegetation will be depleted and soil erosion sets in. soil erosion occurs when the carrying capacity of the
land is exceeded.

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ENERGY LOSS IN AN ECOSYSTEM
Energy flows from one organism to another in an ecosystem. However, the transfer of energy from one organism to
another is a very wasteful process. Only about 10% of the food energy that one organism eats is transferred to the
organism that feeds on it. The remaining 90% of the food energy is converted into heat energy, produced by the
organism as it leaves and grows. This energy is not useful to any other organism in the ecosystem, and it is passes out
into the atmosphere. This is why food chains don’t usually contain more than four trophic levels. By the fourth
trophic level, there is not enough energy left for another trophic level.

Pollution and its effects on food chains

Pollution is the contamination (dirtying) of the soil, water and air by materials that are harmful to living organisms.
Air is usually polluted by dust, smoke, gases from vehicles, coal burning power stations.
Water is polluted by waste from homes (sewage, detergents and other chemicals), chemicals used in agriculture
(fertilizers and pesticides)
Land is polluted by agriculture chemicals and by dumping of waste and rubbish.

Concentration of pollutants
Chemical pollutants can be absorbed by organisms in the food chain, we call this bioaccumulation. If producers
(plants) are treated with poisonous insecticides to protect them, the poisons will be taken in by the locusts as well.
The poison will be more concentrated in the locust than on the plants. The birds eat the locusts and the poisons
concentrate even more in the birds’ bodies because a bird eats many locusts. In the same way the poisons (pollutants)
will concentrate even more in the bodies of the hawk or eagles that eat the birds. The poison (pollutant) becomes
more and more concentrated at each trophic level. This process is called biological magnification.

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS

STRUCTURE OF A FLOWER

1.

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 SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS

Part Function
Anther Produces the male sex cells.
The male sex cells are contained in pollen or pollen grains.
Filament Supports the anther.
Stigma Receives pollen.
Style Guides and directs the pollen tube towards the ovules in the ovary.
The ovules are the female sex cells.
Ovary Produces the ovules. Each ovule contains a female sex cell.
After fertilisation of the ovules, they develop into seeds, & the ovary into a fruit
Petals Attract insects, In some flowers they have a sweet scent (smell) & also produce nectar
Sepals Protect the flower while it is in the bud stage.
They are usually green and can photosynthesise.
Stalk Attaches and holds the flower to the plant.

Flowers are reproductive structures of in plants; they contain the reproductive organs of the plants. The male
reproductive organs are known as the androecium/stamens and they produce sex cells known as pollen. Pollen just
like the sperms and ova of animals are produced by a cell division known as meiosis.

The female part of a flower is known as gynaecium/carpel/pistil which produces female sex cells called ova. After
fertilization, part of the ovary becomes a fruit and contains fruits from the ova.

Some plants produce flowers which have both the pistil and stamen in the same flower and they are known as
hermaphrodite or bisexuals, stamens are usually shorter than the stigma of such plants. Others are known to be
unisexual and contain only one type of sex. Flowers are divided into dicotyledons and monocotyledons.
Monocotyledons have only one cotyledon enclosed in a seed cover (testa), while dicots have two cotyledons enclosed
in a testa.

Pollination

This is the transfer of pollen grain from the anther to the stigma of a flowering plant through various vectors or agent.
It also known as the transference of pollen from anthers to stigmas

There are two types/forms of pollination.

1. self pollination
2. cross pollination

Self pollinated:
This is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of the same flower or another of the same plant.
This form of pollination takes place in hermaphrodite plants (that contain both the male and female parts). This type
of pollination involves the transfer of pollen grains occur between flowers of the same genetic make up.
Cross pollination

This is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of another plant of the same species. The advantage
of cross pollination is that the offspring is usually genetically different from the both the parents. In order to prevent
self pollination in cross pollinated plants, some flowers have self sterility so that the pollen grains will not grow on
the stigma of the same flower. Sometimes the male part (stamens) and the female part (pistils) mature at different
times. Some plants keep their stamens and stigma away from each other an also by producing unisexual plants
(plants with one sexual characteristics e.g. maize plants are not bi-sexual some can either be the male part and the
other one be a female like in human beings).
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 Agents of pollination

Pollination is usually brought about by different mechanisms or agents.

i. wind pollination
ii. Insect pollination

i. Insect pollinated: The insect visiting the flower will carry pollen grains which will stick to its body,
as it will be seeking nectar, it will pass by the stigma of a different flower and the pollen grains will
stick onto the stigma and fertilization will result. Plants that are insect pollinated have big, bright
coloured and sweet smelling flowers. They also produce nectar.
ii. Wind pollinated: grass, cereals and other trees are being pollinated by wind. The flowers are usually
small, green and without sweet scent/smell. The pollen grains are usually very light in mass and
smooth. They can be carried long distances by wind and some of the pollen grains will be trapped by
the stigma of other flowers.
Difference between wind and insect pollinated flowers

Wind pollinated flowers Insect pollinated flowers

 Petals are dull in colour, pale green or yellow.
 Petals are small
 No scent/smell
 No nectar produced.
 Stigmas are feathery and lie outside the flower or they have
long styles.
 Anthers are found hanging outside the flower so that pollen
can easily be released.
 Filament is very long and slender (very narrow) so that the
anthers may swing in the breeze outside the flower.
 Pollen is light and very small with smooth surfaces and may
have wing like extensions to aid wind transport.
 Very large quantities of pollen are produced to compensate
the wastage since they are wasted
 Flowers occur in inflorescence high above the vegetative
leaves.
 Brightly coloured petals.
 Petals are large and conspicuous (visible).
 Produce scent/smell to attract insects from a distance.
 Nectar is produced by nectary glands. Nectar guides insects
to the flower.
 Stigmas lie within the corolla/petals
 Anthers lie inside the flower so that pollinating agent may
brush against it when collecting nectar.
 Filament is strong to support insects when they collect
pollen for food or when brushing against the anthers.
 Pollen grains are larger and have projections or sticky
surfaces to help stick to insects.
 Smaller quantities of pollen are produced due to less
wastage.
 The flowering part of a plant or arrangement of flowers on
a stalk. (Flowers occur in inflorescence.
 Mostly bisexual flowers

 May be unisexual with excess male flowers

Growth of pollen tube and entry into the ovary

After pollination, the pollen grains absorb water; produce enzymes which will start to germinate with the stimulation
from sugary fluid secreted by the mature stigma. The enzyme and the sugary fluid produced prevent fertilization by a
wrong species. From each pollen grain a pollen tube develops.

Many pollen tubes grow down the style simultaneously and where there ovary has many ovules; a separate pollen
tube penetrates each of the ovules. The pollen tube grows towards the micropyle (small opening in the wall of an
ovule through which the pollen tube enters) of an ovule, enters it and then penetrates the embryo sac. The tube
nucleus degenerates and the vegetative and the remaining generative nucleus enter the embryo sac

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Fertilization
This stage follows pollination. The tube nucleus degenerates and the vegetative and the remaining generative nucleus
enter the embryo sac. The generative nucleus fuses with the egg to produce the zygote, while the vegetative nucleus
fuses with the remaining female part nuclei to form an endosperm nucleus. There is double fertilization since the
other nucleus will fuse with the egg while the other fuses with the remaining plant nuclei and this is a characteristic
of flowering plants.

After fertilization, the carpel becomes the fruit, the ovule becomes the seed, the petals and sepals dry off and fall off
along with the stamens, stigma and style

Development of a seed

At this stage, the zygote develops into the embryo, which consists of the Plumule (first shoot), cotyledons (food
store) and the radicle (first root) (i.e. Embryo = Plumule+ radicle+ Cotyledons). In the dicotyledonous embryo,
two cotyledons are formed while in monocotyledonous embryo only one cotyledon is formed. Mono- means “one”
and di- means two. The cotyledons stores food as the embryo develops depending on the plants. In some cereal plants
such as maize the endosperm stores food. The testa is a seed coat which protects the embryo.

Seed dispersal

After the seeds have been formed they are attached to the parent plant and before they can germinate they have to be
separated with the parent plant.
 Seed dispersal is the spreading of seeds far from the parent plant through various agents to avoid
competition for resources such as space and food.
 It can also be defined as scattering of seeds or fruits containing seeds away from the parent plant.

The word ‘disperses’ means “To cause to separate and go in different directions” and here it is used to explain the
separation of seeds from the parent plant and being spread in various directions. These seeds are spread by different
modes such as;

 Wind
 Animals
 Water
 Explosive mechanism
Dispersal by wind
The fruits and seeds that are dispersed by wind may have the following characteristics
 Are small and light so that they can float in the air and for them to be blown by the wind
 They have large, flattened wing-like structures or a parachute of fine hairs so that the surface area
is enlarged to increase air resistance. The fine hairs are known as pappus

Dispersal by animals
The majority of plants do not disperse their own seeds; they use some agents to disperse the seeds for them but can
use animals to do it for them. Some fruits are food for some animals for examples a morula plant can be eaten by a
goat and the goat won’t digest the seed because it is hard and it will excrete it somewhere and then the seed will
establish itself there in the presence of good conditions for germination.

Most succulents fruits are edible e.g. tomatoes and apples have some parts that are edible and the ovary has the seeds.
Succulent fruits are scented (have a smell) and their skins are brightly coloured to attract animals.

Some fruits that are dry can also be dispersed by animals. These plants have hooks and some of them are thorny and
they stick on bodies of animals and fall off and establish themselves e.g. stick right ((Desmodium), black jack
(Bidens pilosa)
 Dispersal by water
Fruits and seeds that are dispersed by water have spongy or fibrous layers (which are water proof) which enclose
chambers of air. The trapped air allows them to float for a long period of time and floating away from the parent
plant e.g. coco nut fruit. Some plants such as the water lily have an aril, a small float that holds air. The seeds can
float on the water until the aril decays, and then it will sink to the bottom of the water then germinate.

 Dispersal by explosive mechanisms

Some plants do not depend on water, wind and animals but have their own explosive dispersal mechanisms. These
plants when ripe the fruits become dry and they burst open by doing so they will eject their seeds away from the
parent. Examples include most of the legumes such as garden peas and cow peas

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Advantages of seed dispersal
♣ Helps avoid overcrowding and this reduces competition for space and food with the parent and
preventing the new plants from dying from the competition
♣ It enables plants to colonize new and favourable habitats/places.
♣ To reduce the spread of diseases amongst closely clumped/grouped plant

DISSOLUTION

Water as a universal solvent: This refers to the ability of water to dissolve many things in it.
Dissolving : Particles of two or more substances getting in between each other.
Solubility: this is the maximum amount of solute that can be dissolved in 100g (100cm3) of water.
Soluble: The ability of the particles of two or more substances to get in between each other.
Solute: a substance being dissolved in the other, e.g., salt is a solute if it is dissolved in water.
Solvent: a substance in which the other substance dissolves e.g. water.
Solution: a complete mixture of substances in which the particles are evenly distributed.
Saturation (Saturated solution): a point at which the maximum amount of solute can dissolve in a specific volume of
solvent at a specific temperature.
Supersaturated solution: a solution in which more solute had been dissolved in a solvent than it would normally do at
standard conditions.
Unsaturated solution: when a solvent can still dissolve more of a solute at a standard temperature and specific
volume.
Miscible liquids: liquids that completely dissolve in each other e.g., alcohol and water.
Immiscible liquids:These are liquids which do not mix (dissolve) in each other e.g. alcohol and paraffin, water and
oil.

Factors affecting solubility

1) Temperature:The higher the temperature, the faster the rate of dissolving. The lower the temperature, the slower
the rate of dissolving.

2. Size of particles

- The larger the particles the slower the rate of dissolving.

- The smaller the particles the faster the rate of dissolving
3. Stirring: Stirring increases the rate of dissolving

4. Nature of substance

Different materials have different strengths of bonding. The stronger the bond the slower the rate of dissolving, the
weaker the bond the faster the rate of bonding.

Application (Uses) of saturated and super saturated solutions

a) Purifying solids: Substances such as sugar can be purified by crystallization, which utilizes the concept of
super saturated solutions.
b) Drink concentrates: Strong concentrates of drinks are made then they are diluted for drinking.

Preparing different concentrations

Concentration: This is the total amount of solute dissolved in a given volume of solvent.

Concentration can be measured using percentage mass.

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Example
Que. What is the concentration of the solution if 30g of ink is dissolved in 70g of alcohol?

Ans.

Mass of solution = mass of solute + mass of solvent

= 30g + 70g
= 100g

%Mass Concentration = mass of solute___ x 100

mass of solution

= 30g__ x 100
100g
= 30%

AIR
Air is a mixture of gases. It is made up of the following:

Nitrogen – 78%, oxygen – 21%, carbon dioxide – 0.03%, water vapour – varies, rare gases( argon,
neon, krypton, helium) 0.09%

OXYGEN

Oxygen (O2) is a non metallic element making up 21% of air. It is also found combined with many
metals and non metals. Plants produce oxygen during photosynthesis, but during the process of
respiration both plants and animals use it produce energy.

Laboratory preparation of oxygen

Oxygen is prepared using a clear colourless liquid called hydrogen peroxide. Hydrogen peroxide
decomposes (breaks up) to give water and oxygen. The reaction is very slow, so manganese (IV) oxide
is added to speed up the reaction. In this case manganese (IV) oxide is known as a catalyst, a catalyst is
a substance which takes part in a reaction and remain unchanged.

Manganese (iv) oxide

Hyrogen peroxide water + oxygen
There are other ways of preparing oxygen in the lab, e.g. heating pottasium chlorate, using manganese
dixide as a catalyst.

85
 Heat
Pottasium chlorate pottasium chloride + oxygen
Managanese dioxide

Collecting a gas that is soluble in water

a. Gases that is less dense than air. a. Gases that is denser than air
Gases that are less dense (lighter) than air are Carbon dioxide is much denser ( heavier) than air.
collected by downward displacement of air.

Collecting a high density gas

PROPERTIES OF OXYGEN

- It is colourless, odourless, tasteless

- slightly soluble in water
- It is slightly lighter than air
- It is very reactive, it reacts many substances to produce oxides. These reaction normaly produce a lot
of energy.

USES OF OXYGEN

- It is used as a fuel
- It is also used in the respiratory machines
- It is used in purifying steel
- It is used in welding when mixed with another gas called acetylene, it produces a hot flame which can
melt or join metals.

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CARBON DIOXIDE
Carbon dioxide is an oxide of carbon, it makes up 0.03% of air. Respiration by living organisms and burning of
fuels releases carbon dioxide. It is also used by plants to photosynthesize.

Laboratory preparation of carbon dioxide

Carbon is prepared using a dilute acid and a carbonate, e.g. adding dilute hydrochloric acid to calcium carbonate.

Calcium carbonate + hydrochloric acid calcium chloride +carbon dioxide + water

PROPERTIES OF CARBON DOIXIDE

- It colourless, tastseless and odourless

- It heavier than air
- It does not support burning, it will put out burning substances.
- It is slightly soluble in water, it forms a weak acid carbonic acid
- Very reactive metals like magnesium will burn it, forming magnesium oxide + carbon
(magnesium + carbon dioxide magnesium oxide + carbon)
- Reacts with alkalis to form carbonates

TEST FOR CARBON DIOXIDE

Bubble carbon dioxide gas in lime water

RESULTS: the lime water will turn milky in the presence of CO2

CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS

When we build a home, we want that home to have certain properties.

For example
 The house should be warm in winter and keep in the heat that is made by fires and heaters
 The house should be cool in summer
 There should be enough light in the house so that you can see what you are doing
 The house should keep out the water when it rains ( water proof)
 The house should be built in such a way that it is strong enough to withstand strong winds and
other stresses
 The house should allow air to flow through it ( be well ventilated)

For the house to all of these properties, it needs to be built from materials that also have the properties
that we are looking for.
Building materials
There are basically two types of houses:
 Traditional houses
 Modern houses

These houses are different due to their designs and building materials used.

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 Building materials for traditional houses
Material Use Good property Bad property
Clay *Making walls Cheaper *easily washed away by rains
*Making mud bricks *Easily available *can be breeding place for
*Plastering *good insulators and help keep insects
Decoration house at the right temperature
Cow dung - strengthens the - easily available - bad smell
walls - it is cheap
- decoration
Wood - rafters *it is light and strong - can be eaten by
- door frames *it is cheap and readily available termites
- doors *it can be cut and assembled in
- support poles different shapes
- roofing *it can be repaired and replaced
easily
Thatching grass as a roof/ thatching *it is light and can be fitted in thick - can be eaten by
layers. This makes it water proof by termites
keep rain out. *Also act as insulator - needs to be renewed
by keeping the house warm in more often
winter and cool in summer - flammable
*easy to find - can be blown away
*easy and cheap to repair if by strong winds
damaged
Ropes - tie grass to - last longer when boiled - can become loose
rafters and need to be
- join rafters renewed often
together
Reeds - walls - cool - catch fire easily
- roofing - easily available - rot due to exposure
- cheap to water
Building materials for modern houses
Materials Use Good property Bad property
Bricks - Making walls - They are hard - Expensive
- Heavy to lift
- Requires skills
Cement Moulding bricks - Durable - Expensive
- Plastering - It is hard The dust can be
- Join bricks together dangerous to our
lifes
Corrugated - Roofing - Water resistant - Need skill
irons - Produce a very Noisy during rainfall
neat roof - Very expensive
Iron roof needs
expensive insulation
Air bricks - Ventilation - Not easily - Expensive
damaged
Window - Support window - Durable - Expensive
frames glasses
Window glass - Allows light into the - Hard Fragile / Breaks easily
house - Expensive
Ceiling - Insulation - Reduce noise Catches fire easily
during rainfall - Easily damaged
- Expensive
- Require skill
Tiles - Roofing - Durable - Very expensive

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 *Put on the walls to reduce dirt - Cool - Requires skills
and for decoration - Water resistant
Wood - Rafters - do not rust - catches fire
- floors poor conductor of heat easily
- doors - requires skills
- ceiling
Nail - joining rafters together - durable - can make holes
into the
corrugated iron
such that water
can pass
through
- expensive
Sand - plastering makes strong bricks and - needed in large
- mixed with cement to walls amount
make bricks join bad conductor of heat
together
Concrete Mixed with cement to - support weight -
make foundation -
floors
Ceramics Used as floor tile - -
Plastics Used for flooring - -
Plaster board Make walls inside the - -
and chipboard house
Glass Doors, and windows - - Fragile
- expensive

INSULATION
Insulation is when something is covered or padded with extra layer so that it does not lose or gain heat
energy.
Insulators prevent heat moving from a hot area to a cool area. Materials that conduct heat poorly are
known as thermal insulators. Thermal insulators reduce the amount of heat that can move into or out of a
house. This means that in winter, when the inside of a house is heated to keep it warm, insulation
decreases the rate at which the heat escapes to the outside.
Thatching grass in traditional huts is an insulators so it prevents heat loss or gain.
In modern houses there is a ceiling made to act as insulators eg foam insulator, cellulose, minerals fibres.
Factors that affect heat transfer in and out of home

1. Window position – windows facing directly in the direction of movement of sun rays will brings
too much heat in to the house. Ensure that windows are facing the direction of the sun as little as
possible.
2. Roof overhang – a small roof overhang will allows too much heat in to the house as most of the
sun rays will enter the house. A large roof overhang allows less heat into the house.
3. Colour of the house – dark colours absorbs more heat while bright and shiny colours reflect back
the heat rays. Therefore it is wiser to use bright colours for painting your house.
4. Type of roofing material - traditional huts is much cooler than modern in summer. Ceiling helps
to improve insulation in modern houses because it is made up of insulators .

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 PREGNANCY
Fertilisation – this the fusion of the female and male sex cells to produce a zygote. After the zygote has implanted its self on the uterus wall
that is known as pregnancy.

SIGNS OF PREGNANCY
Most pregnant women experience a number of symptoms, which can signify pregnancy. The symptoms can include nausea and vomiting,
excessive tiredness and fatigue, cravings for certain foods that are not normally sought out, and frequent urination particularly during the
night.

Development of the embryo in terms of zygote, ball of cells (blastula or morula) and foetus

A. The zygote cell divides by a process
called mitosis to form 2 cells, the 4 cells,
and then 8 & so on. By the 4th day it has
formed a solid ball called a morula, by
this time the morula will be moving
down the fallopian tubes towards the
uterus.
B. On the 5th day, the morula reaches the
uterus and keeps on dividing to form a
hollow ball of cells called a blastula/
blastocyst. Cells in the inner cell mass,
called embryonic cells will develop into
the embryo.
C. On the 6th & 7th days, the blastula
burrows into the inner lining
(endometrium) of the uterus where it can
get O2 & nutrients from the mother’s
blood and this is known as implantation.
The embryo will continue to there for the
rest of the pregnancy.

Placenta, amnion and umbilical cord and their functions

Placenta- allows exchange of oxygen and
nutrients, waste materials such as urea & CO2
and antibodies from the mother to the foetus that
will help after birth through diffusion.
Umbilical cord- connects the foetus with the
placenta. It carries blood from foetus to the
placenta & back to the foetus after exchange.
Amnion- contains the fluid that surrounds the
foetus; this protects the foetus from bangs that
may happen to the mother’s abdomen. It also
protects the foetus from infections by bacteria
and other dangerous organisms

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 Conditions leading to multiple births

Multiple birth can result from the fertilisation of one ovum which then divides or two ova.

Identical twins
They develop from one fertilized ovum, and then splits into. Identical twins always share the same placenta, have the same sex and
appearance.

Non identical/ fraternal twins

They develop if two or more completely separate eggs are released at the same time and separately fertilized, each twin has its own placenta.

ANTENATAL CARE OF A PREGNANT WOMAN

After a woman falls pregnant, she must take care of herself in a special way in order to contribute towards a healthy development of the
expected baby growing in her uterus. She receives some of the care from other people such as health workers in her society.
A pregnant woman must:
 Not take substances that are harmful to the unborn baby’s health. E.g. intake of alcohol tobacco and dagga smoking may affect the
baby’s growth. The expectant mother should only take prescriptions from the doctor. Vitamins and mineral tablets should also be
taken as directed.
 Do some exercises, as this possibly contributes to improved blood circulation and reduces the chances of having circulatory
diseases such as high blood pressure or a stroke
 Go for antenatal checkups regularly (once a month) to monitor the development of the foetus and the health of the expectant
mother. The examination is conducted by a trained nurse or doctor
 Avoid contact with people who have infectious diseases. If she becomes infected, the growth of the foetus may be affected because
the germs can cross through the placenta and infect the foetus as well.

NUTRITIONAL NEEDS OF A PREGNANT WOMAN

An expectant mother should also take care of her diet. She should eat a balanced diet that contains the essential nutrients that the foetus
needs for growth. For example:
NUTRIENT NEEDED IMPORTANCE OF THE NUTRIENTS
Protein For building new tissues in the foetus
Calcium For strong bones and teeth
Fibre To prevent constipation
iron For the formation of red blood cells

THE MAIN STAGES OF BIRTH

During pregnancy the placenta continues to produce progesterone and small amounts of oestrogen. The amount of progesterone decreases
during pregnancy, whereas oestrogen increases. These changes help to trigger the onset of birth after a period of nine months. The process of
birth can be divided in to five stages.
1) REGULAR CONTRACTIONS OF THE UTERUS MUSCLES
The abdomen becomes tight as the uterus muscles alternatively squeeze and relax. These contractions are felt by the mother as
labour pains. At the beginning of labour, they take place every 10 to 15 minutes and gradually increase in force and frequency.

2) GRADUAL OPENING OF THE CERVIX

The diameter of the cervix slowly becomes wider as the head of the foetus pushes against it. It can take many hours for the cervix
to widen to about 3 to 4 centimeters. The cervix gradually opens up to about 10 centimeters which is wide enough to allow the
foetal head to pass through.

3) BREAKING OF THE WATERS

This is when the amniotic sac breaks, releasing the watery liquid which flows out of the mother’s body through the vagina. In
some woman, the amniotic sac breaks only after the cervix has dilated enough for the baby to be born. This amniotic fluid acts as
a lubricant to allow the baby to pass easily.

4) DELIVERY OF THE BABY

After some hours, when the cervix has fully widened, the baby’s head can be seen and the mother can start pushing the baby out
of her body with each contraction. The baby comes out of the body through the mother’s vagina.

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 5) EXPULSION OF THE AFTER BIRTH
When the baby is born, the placenta has to be removed from the mother’s body because it is no longer useful. A few more contractions
usually push it out through the vagina as the after birth.

CHILD CARE
The first milk produced during the first few days after birth is called colostrum. Every time the baby feeds, it gets two types of milk from
its mother’s breast. First, it gets foremilk which is watery milk that quenches the baby’ thirst and followed by hindmilkwhich is thicker,
creamer milk that feeds the baby.

Breast-feeding and bottle-feeding.

After feeding the baby hold the baby up against your shoulder and gently pat or rub the baby ‘s back until it burps or burps a baby across
your lap. When baby feeds, it often swallows some air and the air becomes trapped in the baby’s stomach.
Nutritional needs of a lactating mother and of the baby.
 Carbohydrates for energy
 Fruits and vegetables for vitamins and minerals
 Protein for healthy muscles and nerve development
 Dairy products for calcium needed for good bone development
 Fat for the rich hindmilk
 Iron helps inthe formation of red blood cells. For examples the liver and spinach are rich in iron.
 A high intake of fluids increases the production of milk.

Immunisation is a way of protecting a person from contracting a disease. Immunisation is also called vaccination.

Age Vaccine Diseases it protects against method

Birth BCG Tuberculosis Injection
Hep B (1) Hepatitis B Injection
2 months DPT 1 Diphtheria, whooping cough and tetanus Injection
HEP B 2 Hepatitis B Injection
Oral polio 1 Polio Drops in the mouth
3Months DPT 2 Diphtheria, whooping cough and tetanus Injection
Oral polio 2 Polio Drops in the mouth
4 Months DPT 3 Diphtheria, whooping cough and tetanus Injections
Oral polio 3 Polio Drops in the mouth
9Months HEP B 3 Hepatitis B Injection
Measles Measles Injection
18 Months DPT (4) Diphtheria, whooping cough and tetanus Injection
Oral polio 4 Polio Drops in the mouth
6 years DT Diphtheria and tetanus Injection
Oral polio 5 Polio Drops in the mouth

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 Forces
-A force is a pull or push of an object by another object.
-A force is any action that can bring about a change in a body movement or shape.
-when two objects interact, we say they exert a force on each other.
-force is a vector quantity because it has magnitude(size) and direction.

TYPES OF FORCES
1.CONTACT FORCE-Those that occur when interacting objects are touching each other or in contact with each other.
Examples of contact forces:
a)Frictional force(Ff)-force that opposes movement of objects(acts in the opposite direction)
b)Tension force(Ft)-force applied when something is pulled from both ends.
c)Normal force(FN)-A support force e.g a ball lying on the ground.
d)Air resistance(F air)-Frictional force due to air exerted on an object.
e)Applied force(F app)-either pulling or pushing force.
2.NON-CONTACT FORCES-Those that occur when two interacting objects are not actually touching each other, they act from a distance.
Examples of Non-contact forces(action at a distance force):
a)Gravitational force(Fg)-also known as weight of object, is a force that pulls objects towards the earth.
b)Electrostatic force(Fe)-force that exist between electrically charged particles(+ve or –ve charges)
c)Magnetic force(Fm)-for e exerted by a magnet on a magnetic objects(North & south pole)
FORCE DIAGRAMS
-Are used to show that where there is a force, it is exerted by one object on another.
An arrow is used
The length of the arrow represents the size or magnitude of a force. The arrow head shows direction the force acts and the starting point of
the arrow shows the point of application of the force.
Examples: forces acting on a book on a table
Fg-pulls the book downwards, Ft-table push the book upwards

RESULTANT FORCES
A resultant force is a single force that has the same overall effect as the original two or more forces combined together.
A resultant force is a single force that is made up by combining several different forces.
Examples: CALCULATING RESULTANT FORCES
1.FORCES ACTING IN THE SAME DIRECTION: add them together

5N

5N

Resultant force (Rf) = 5N+5N=10N

2.EQUAL FORCES ACTING IN OPPOSITE DIRECTIONS: They balance and the resultant force is zero. Subtract them.

5N 5N Resultant force(Rf) = 5N-5N=0N (no direction)

3.TWO UNEQUAL FORCES ACTING IN OPPOSITE DIRECTIONS: they are not balanced, subtract them( smaller force from larger
force, the resultant force faces the direction of the larger force).

10N 4N
Resultant force (Rf) = 10N – 4N = 6N

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 EFFECTS OF FORCES
Forces can:
- Make an object to move

- Stop motion

- Change direction and speed

- Change shape and size of an object

APPLICATION OF FORCES IN REAL LIFE

1. FRICTIONAL FORCE:

- Enables movement /motion and can stop motion, e.g.

a) People and animals are able to move due to friction between the ground and their shoes

b) Air friction can slow down falling objects

c) Car wheels can grip on the road to avoid slipping and causing accidents

- Friction can be used to produce heat, e.g. rubbing hands together to keep warm

2. MAGNETIC FORCE can be used in cranes for lifting heavy objects

3. GRAVITATIONAL FORCE helps to keep objects close to earth without floating in the air

4. ELASTIC FORCE – is used in door hinges for the doors to open and close by themselves

-in car shock absorbers the elastic force of springs provide comfort in
road bumps / humps.
5.Air layer above the earth exerts pressure force on everything on the earth surface

IMPORTANCE OF GRAVITY FORCE TO LIFE ON EARTH

Force of gravity is a force that pulls objects towards the centre of the earth. It is also known as weight of objects. The force of
gravity on earth is estimated to be 10Newtons (10N).
It stops the gases in the air from drifting away into space, thus providing air / for animals and plants to live

- It enables rain to fall to the ground hence water made to living things

- Keeps the earth and all the planets in orbit around the sun

- Keeps moon and all the satellites around the earth

FORCE OF FRICTION
Friction is a force that exists when two surfaces are in contact with each other , slide or rub against each other.
EFFECTS OF FRICTIONAL FORCE
It opposes motion of objects, slowing them down or even stopping them.

FRICTION IN FLUIDS (LIQUIDS AND GASES)

An object that moves through a liquid or a gas experiences frictional force. This force that opposes the motion of objects is known as
DRAG. The size of the DRAG force acting on an objects depends on the speed and shape of the moving object.
DRAG – Is a measure of how easily an object moves through air or fluids. E.g. streamlined and smooth surfaced objects experience less
drag.

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Drag force

Object

Weight (mass x gravity)

Drag force/frictional force increases with speed of an object. The faster the speed the greater the drag force.
DEMONSTRATING FRICTION IN FLUIDS
Allow a ball bearing to fall through air, water and cooking oil.

Air water cooking oil

Observation: the ball bearing hits the bottom of the jar first in through air, then water and lastly In cooking oil. This shows that there is little
friction in air followed by water, but in cooking oil there is more friction. We say cooking oil is more viscous than water, and water is more
viscous than air,
Viscosity –refers to the internal friction of a liquid or how easily a fluid can flow.

WAYS OF REDUCING FRICTION

*use of ball bearing around the axles of machines
*oiling or lubricating surfaces that are in contact or rub against each other
*streamlining bodies of object like airplanes, ships to make them move faster

APPLICATION OF FLUID FRICTION

1.In car shock absorbers-when a car goes over bump it bounces up and down because of the movement energy put into its springs
2.In hydraulic machines like lifts in tall buildings, car jacks to lift cars
3.Ball bearing in car CV joints & in bicycles are lubricated to wear out and friction
4.Door hinges are lubricated to reduce out and noise
5. Parachutes and airplanes are designed to use air friction

MEASURING FORCE

Force is measured using a force metre or Newton metre. The SI unit of force is Newtons (N)

PRESSURE

When force is exerted on a surface, we call the force exerted on each unit area of the surface Pressure. A force can produce a high or low
pressure depending on the area that the force exerts. For example: when a pin is pushed into a board, the tip of the pin exerts a high pressure
on the board because the force applied is concentrated on small area of the pin.

High pressure is useful for: cutting, sewing or hammering nails into wood.
Low pressure is useful when: walking, moving on soft ground etc.

PRESSURE= FORCE/AREA. The SI unit of pressure is Pascal (Pa)

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ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE/ AIR PRESSURE

It is the pressure caused by the weight of air on an object in the air. Atmospheric pressure can tell us what type of weather to expect.
Weather forecaster measures air pressure with a barometer.
There are two types of barometers:
 Aneroid barometer
 Mercury barometer

Using a simple mercury barometer

High atmospheric pressure forces the mercury to go higher in the column. Low atmospheric pressure allows the mercury to drop.
The formula to calculate atmospheric pressure:
Atmospheric pressure (in Pascal) = height of the mercury* density of the mercury* gravity.
P= h * p*g

PREDICTING THE TYPE OF WEATHER USING ISOBAR PATTERNS

Areas of high pressure are associated with quite, settled weather. The isobars are spaced wide apart.

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Areas of low pressure are associated with unsettled weather. The isobars are spaced close together. Closer isobars mean that air pressure
changes quickly over a short distance.

USING ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

1. Using straws.
2. Pouring things out.
3. Suckers and suctions pads.

MOTION

Linear motion
Linear motion means motion in a straight line. Linear motion involves two parts (or variables)
 Distance
 Speed

DISTANCE AND DISPLACEMENT

Distance is the numerical description of how far objects are.

Displacement is the distance in which an object moves in a particular direction.

SPEED AND VELOCITY

Speed is the rate at which an object moves. It is a measure of how fast an object moves.
Average speed= total distance traveled/total time taken. S= d/t.

Velocity is the rate at which an object moves in a particular direction.

Velocity= distance in a given direction/ time or velocity= displacement/time. Velocity is a vector quantity. When an object moves at a
constant speed in a particular direction, we say that is moving with a uniform velocity.

ACCELERATION

It is an increase of velocity over a period of time. Acceleration is the rate at which an object’s velocity changes.
Acceleration= change in velocity/time taken for change.

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Or acceleration= change in velocity/change in time. ACCELERATION IS MEASURED IN M/S².
NB: if acceleration is positive, it means that the object is speeding up. A negative acceleration means that the object is slowing down. It is
called deceleration.
If an object is moving with uniform velocity, there is NO acceleration.

UNIFORM AND NON UNIFORM MOTION

Uniform velocity is the motion of an object at a constant speed in a given time without a change in direction.

Non uniform velocity is any case in which an object moves at different speeds

GRAPHS OF MOTIONS

HORMONAL COORDINATION (ENDOCRINE SYSTEM)

All animals contain chemical components produced by exocrine or endocrine glands. Exocrine glands release their chemicals into ducts.
The endocrine glands release their secretions, the hormones, directly into the blood-stream. What are hormones?

 A hormone is a chemical substance that is produced by ductless glands.

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  It is a chemical substance, produced by a gland, carried by the blood which alters the activity of one or more specific target organs
and is then destroyed by the liver.
 It is a chemical substance secreted by a gland, transported through the blood and capable of changing the chemical activity of its
target organ.

These hormones are then carried to other parts of the body (target organs), where in extremely minute quantities, they elicit cellular
responses. Starling (1902) suggested the name ’hormone’ (Greek meaning "to stimulate" or "to excite") for these chemical messengers or
transmitters.

The position of the main endocrine glands in the human body leave a space
The Major Endocrine Organs
 pituitary (hypophysis) - anterior & posterior
 thyroid & parathyroid
 adrenals - cortex & medulla
 pancreas
 gonads - ovaries & testes
Hormones are an additional means of coordination and communication. Together with the nervous system, the endocrine system forms a
combined neuro-endocrine system. The hormone pathway is by the blood stream, while nervous pathway is by the neuron-reflex arc.

Hormones are specifically-acting organic compounds with varying chemical compositions, usually steroids, proteins, peptides or amino
acids.

GLAND HORMONE TARGET ORGAN FUNCTION

The Pituitary Gland: Oxytocin uterus Uterine Contractions;

Posterior Pituitary Secretion of milk
(Neurohypophysis) ADH (Antidiuretic Hormone) kidneys Reduces urine output (causes the kidney to
retain water.)

Thyroid Gland TH - Thyroid Hormone liver Increases basal metabolic rate

Thyroxin

Pancreas: Insulin Liver Stimulate the liver to convert glucose to

(Islets of glycogen for storage in the muscles and liver.
Langerhans) Helps to raises blood sugar by stumulating
Glucagon Liver the liver to convert glycogen to glucose

Gonads: Gonads:
Ovaries Ovaries (Oestrogen Ovaries Female sexual characteristics, develops and
matures breasts and external genitals,
Development of female body contours,
Initiates menstrual cycle
Prepares uterus for pregnancy

Progesterone) Ovaries Matures external genitals, Beard growth,

Voice change, Development of male body
Testes Testosterone Testes contour

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Placenta Various hormones e.g. HCG, Placenta Maintenance of pregnancy
progesterone

Adrenal Glands Adrenaline Liver and muscles Prepares the body for fight or flight

Effects of adrenaline in the body

 Speeds up the conversion of glycogen or fats to glucose for energy release.

 Leads to deeper and rapid breathing to obtain oxygen for flight
 Increases heartbeat/pulse rate for oxygen and glucose to be transported for respiration.
 Leads to diversion of blood from digestive system to muscles to transport important substances used in repiration.
 It could also lead to dilation of pupils to allow and rising of hair

Exocrine and endocrine glands

Exocrine glands - transport their hormones to target tissues via ducts and do not use blood to transport
Endocrine glands- transport their hormones to targets not in ducts and use blood to transport chemicals.

Pituitary gland: a small gland located on a stalk hanging from the base of the brain is also known as “The Master Gland”
• Primary function is to control other glands.
• Produces many hormones.
• Secretion is controlled by the hypothalamus in the base of the brain.

Comparison between Nervous and Endocrine systems

NERVOUS CHEMICAL/ENDOCRINE

NATURE OF MESSAGE Electrochemical impulses Chemical compounds THE

ROUTE OF TRANSMISSION Specific nerve cells General blood system NERV
TYPE OF EFFECTS Rapid, but usually short-term e.g Usually slower but generally long term ES
blinking e.g growth SYST
EM

COMPONENTS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

The nervous system is divided into two main systems, the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS)
The CNS- the brain and the spinal cord.
The PNS- made up of the neurons which send messages to the CNS, called sensory neurons and those that take responses to
effector organs, called motor neurons.

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 FUNCTIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

PART FUNCTION
Brain - Controls all information received by the body.
- Interprets & respond appropriately.
- Communicates with the rest of the body through the spinal cord and the nervous system.
Spinal cord - Connects a large part of the PNS to the brain
- Responsible for some simple reflexes, such as knee jerk, withdrawal reflex.
Neurons (nerves) - Carry messages (impulses) from the CNS to the muscle and glands- motor nerves.
- Carry messages to the brain- sensory nerves.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN A VOLUNTARY AND INVOLUNTARY AND AN INVOLUNTARY ACTOIN

VOLUNTARY ACTIONS
A voluntary action is an action that a person initiates and has time to think about it before carrying out a particular action. For
example: going to school, playing football etc.
INVOLUNTARY ACTIONS
These are automatic actions that do not require thinking on your part. They take place without your control or will. For example:
breathing, heartbeat, digestion, blinking etc.

SIMPLE REFLEX ACTION

When the knee is tapped, it automatically jerks up. Reflex actions are controlled by the spinal cord and brain is not involved in
them. Another example of reflex action is blushing.

LEARNED/ CONDITIONED REFLEXS

The reflexes which we have considered so far are inborn or inherited, a particular stimulus always producing the same response.
Many reflexes are acquired from past experiences or learning. Such a reflex action acquired from past experience or learning with
a stimulus that is originally ineffective in producing the response is called a conditioned reflex action.

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 PATHWAY FROM STIMULUS TO RESPONSE

HORMONES
Hormones are chemical messenger substances that are produced by special glands in our bodies. The glands that produce
hormones are called endocrine glands, and they make up the endocrine system.

MEDICAL CONDITIONS CAUSED BY HORMONE IMBALANCES

1. DIABETES-It is caused by an imbalance in production of insulin.

2. GOITRE- caused by imbalance in production of thyroxine. Iodine contributes to the production of thyroxine. For children,a lack of
thyroxine leads to poor development of body and mind. In adults it leads to an enlarged thyroid gland in the neck, which is a sign
of a disease called goiter.
3. PITUITARY GLAND- IT produces growth hormone. If it makes too little growth hormone, a child’s growth will be stunted. If it
makes too much growth hormone, the child will grow too large.

TERMINAL VELOCITY is the constant maximum reached by a body falling through the atmosphere under the attraction of, gravity
becomes constant due to the equal forces acting on the object.
NB: terminal velocity of a falling body occurs during free fall when object experience zero acceleration.

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 LIGHT ENERGY
Light is a type of energy that is carried by waves which enter our eyes and allow us to see.

PROPERTIES OF LIGHT
Reflection of light
Reflection on a plane mirror

 Angle of incidence: it is the angle between the incident ray and the normal.
 Angle of reflection: it is the angle between the reflected ray and the normal.
 Normal line: a line drawn perpendicular (90º) to a plane surface.

NB: The angle of incidence (i) is always equal to the angle of reflection (r).

REFLECTION ON A SMOOTH AND UNEVEN SURFACE

USES OF PLANE MIRROR

Used as a makeup mirror.

Used in periscope

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 USES OF CURVED MIRRORS
CONCAVE MIRROR
A surface that bends inwards is called concave.

Used in headlights of car lamps.

Used as a shaving mirror and makeup mirror
Used in torches and search lights
Used by dentist to enable them to see teeth better.

CONVEX MIRROR
A reflecting surface that curves or bends outwards is called convex.

Since convex mirrors give a wide field of view, they are used in:
Rear-view mirrors on vehicles.
Buildings or shops as security mirrors.

REFRACTION AND DISPERSION OF LIGHT

Light travels in a straight lines in the same medium and will reflect and change direction when striking another medium. Light can pass
through some materials but not through others.
 Medium: a substance or material (e.g. water, air, glass)
 Transparent: allowing light to pass through, clear.
 Translucent: allowing light through, but in a scattered manner. (e.g. most toilet/ bathroom windows).
 Opaque: not allowing light to pass through.

NB: Light travels at different speeds in different media. It travels faster through gases, slower through liquids and slowest in solids.

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REFRACTION OF LIGHT THROUGH WATER

 When an object is put in an empty beaker, it looks straight; but when put it into a beaker with water, it appears to be bent. This
shows that light refract from the part of the object inside the water changes speed as it moves from the water to the air and
therefore the object appears to be bent.

REFRACTION OF LIGHT THROUGH A GLASS BLOCK

 When a light ray passes from a less dense medium (eg air), to a denser medium (eg a glass block), at an angle, it bends towards the
normal at the point where the two media (air and glass) meet.
 When a light ray passes from a denser medium to a less dense medium at an angle, it bends away from the normal at a point where
the two media meet.
 When a light ray passes from one medium to another at a right angle (90º), the light ray is not bent.

REFRACTION OF LIGHT BY A PRISM

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REFRACTION THROUGHT A CONVEX LENS
A convex lens is thicker in the middle than at the edges.

 When rays of light pass through a convex lens, they bend towards a common point.

FOCAL LENGTH OF A CONVEX LENS

 A thicker lens has a shorter focal length than a thinner lens.

NB: focal length is the distance between the centre of the lens and the focus.

REFRACTION THROUGH A CONCAVE LENS

A concave lens is thinner in the middle than at the edges.

 When rays of light pass through a concave lens, they bend away from each other.

USES OF OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

These are instruments that use mirrors and lenses to reflect and refract light rays in order to enhance the sense of sight.

MAGNIFYING GLASS OR SIMPLE HAND LENS

This uses a convex les, which enlarges or magnifies objects.

 Everything seen under a magnifying glass appears bigger.

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MICROSCOPE
A microscope uses two strong convex lenses, the eye piece lens and the objective lens.

 A microscope is used to view very small micro- organism, such as bacteria and parasites that cannot be seen by the naked eye.
TELESCOPE
A telescope uses two types of lenses, the eye piece lens and the objective lens.

 Telescope is used to view distant objects such as the stars and other planets.
PROJECTOR
A projector has a very bright light source. It uses a condenser lens and a projection lens to produce a very big image on a large screen.

 Large film projectors are used to show films at cinemas, smaller, digital projectors are used mainly for computer based
presentations.

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CAMERA
A camera is used to take pictures or photographs. The camera has a lens which directs light from an object onto film found at the back
of the camera.

BINOCULARS
Binoculars are used by different people to view distant objects. They have two eye- piece lenses and two objectives lenses.

DISPERSION OF WHITE LIGHT

Sunlight appears to be white, but it is actually made up of different colours (spectrum). The colours that make white light are: red,
orange, yellow, green, blue, and indigo (dark blue) and violet (light purple).

RAINBOW FORMATION
White light can b split into different colour components when it passes through a triangular prism. Water droplets falling through the air
can also split white light, resulting in a rainbow, because the water droplets act as prisms.

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 THE EYE

NB: the eye lens is a convex type of lens.

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FUNCTIONS OF PARTS OF THE EYE

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111
 HOW WE SEE

We see an object only if light is reflected from the object and it is focused on the retina. To see an object:
 Light enters the eye through the cornea, which bends it slightly inwards.
 The light then passes through the pupil.
 Then it passes through the lens, which bends it even more to focus it on the retina.
 When light falls on the retina, an upside down image of the object is formed.
 The optic nerve then takes the messages from the retina to the brain.
 The brain then interprets and makes sense of the upside down image so that you see it upright.

NB: ACCOMMODATION: THE ABILITY OF THE EYE LENSTO CHANGE SHAPE IN ORDER TO FOCUS BOTH NEAR AND
DISTANCE OBJECTS.

EYE DEFECTS AND DISEASES

EYE DEFECTS
Short sight (myopia)
o A short sighted person can see near objects very well but cannot see distant objects clearly.
o Shortsightedness is corrected with a concave lenses in spectacles which will diverge light rays before they enter the eye.

Long sight (hypermetropia)

o A long sighted person can see distant objects quite well but cannot see near objects clearly.
o Long sightedness is corrected with convex lenses in spectacles which will start to converge rays before they enter the eye.

ASTIGMATISM
It is an eye defect I which a person cannot focus vertical and horizontal lines at the same time.

o Astigmatism can be corrected by wearing spectacles with cylindrical lenses that are special combinations of convex lenses.

LACK OF ACCOMMODATION (PRESBYOPIA)

o As people get older, their cillary muscles become less flexible. They can see distant objects clearly but the lens cannot thicken
enough to focus on near objects.
o To correct persbyopia, special spectacles with bifocal lenses are used.

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 EYE DISEASES
CATARACTS

A cataract is a clouding of the eye lens.

Causes of cataracts
There is no single cause of cataracts. There are, however, number or risk factors that can lead to a person developing cataracts:

o Old age.
o Repeated exposure to ultraviolet light.
o Cigarette smoking and drugs.
o Diabetes and high alcohol consumption.
o Dehydration.
o Air pollution.

SYMPTOMS AND SIGNS

o A painless blurring of vision.

o Glare, or light sensitivity.
o Poor night vision.
o Double vision in one eye.
o A need for brighter light to read by.

TREATMENT

o Surgically removing the lens that has become opaque, and replacing it with a clear, plastic lens.
o Certain eye drops can be used to reverse cataracts.
o Protection from excessive sunlight using sunglasses that screens out ultraviolet light.

STYES

A stye is a painful red bump located at the base of an eyelash or under or inside the eyelid. It is a small bacterial infection which looks like a
small boil.

SYMPTOMS AND SIGNS

o Redness in the affected area.
o Pain will occur, followed by swelling or redness.
o The eye area will also be tender to touch.
o The eye also becomes sensitive to light.
o The eye may also tend to water and become blurry.

TREATMENT

o Apply antibiotic cream.

o Applying a hot compress for ten minutes, four to six times a day.
NB: do not be tempted to pop a stye as you would to a pimple.

CONJUNCTIVITIS

Conjunctivitis, commonly known as “pink eye”, is an inflammation of the conjunctiva.

CAUSES

o Viruses.
o Bacteria such as gonorrhea or Chlamydia.
o Irritants such as shampoos.
o Dirt, smoke, and pool chlorine.
o Allergies to dust, pollen, or a special type of allergy that affects some contact lens wearers.

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SYMPTOMS AND SIGNS
o Watery eyes in the early stages.
o Inflammation (redness and swelling) of the conjunctiva.
o Yellowish discharge at later stage.
o Discomfort in the eye with itchiness may be present.

TREATMENT
o Special pink eye drops can relieve the inflammation and itchiness.
o Antibiotics
o A warm wash with cotton wool to dissolve the discharge.

TRACHOMA

This is a very unpleasant eye disease that affects the membranes lining the eye lids and covering the front part of the eye.

CAUSES
o Trachoma results from an infection by virus- like bacteria called Chlamydia trachomatis.

SYMPTOMS
o Mild itching and irritation of the eye.
o A feeling of sand or grit in the eye.
o Eye redness.
o Watering eyes.
o Swollen eyelids.
o Discharge from the eye containing mucus or pus.
After seven to ten days later, trachoma symptoms include:
o Light sensitivity (photophobia) of the eye.
o Blurred vision.
o Eye pain.

TREATMENT
o In early stages, treatment with antibiotics may be enough to eliminate.
o Treatment of later stages may require a surgery.
o Treatment with antibiotic therapy.

APPLICATIONS OF LIGHT
THE CAMERA

A camera is used for taking photographs or capturing images of objects. When a picture is taken, the shutter is opened briefly to let light
through to the film and then it shuts again. The camera has a lens that will focus the light to the film. The image formed on the film is upside
down and after the film is developed, you will see the picture up right.

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 FUNCTIONS OF PARTS OF THE CAMERA

PART FUNCTION
Lens Directs/ focuses light rays from the object on to the film.
Aperture A hole which let light into the camera and controls the amount of light admitted.
Shutter This surrounds the aperture. It opens briefly to let light in through the aperture. It is controlled by the button you press
when taking a picture.
Film It is made up of a sheet of thin, clear plastic coated with a photosensitive chemical. The chemical absorbs the light
from the object to form an image on the film.
THE USE OF COLOUR IN COMMUNICATION

SIGNAGE
 Any kind of visual graphics created to display information to a particular audience.
 It is used to find information in places such as streets or inside/ outside of buildings.

TRAFFIC LIGHTS
 Traffic lights are signaling devices positioned at road intersections, pedestrian crossing and other locations to control traffic flow.
 Colour is more visible and recognizable than words.

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BUTTONS ON ELECTRONIC DEVICES
 Buttons are usually colour- coated for easy identification, like in remote controls of devices such as radio, television etc.

COLOUR- CODING ELECTRICAL CABLES

 To prevent accidents with electricity, such as connecting the wiring cables, most electrical appliance are wired using coloured
wires.

HEAT ENERGY

Heat is a form of energy possessed by a substance by virtue of the vibrating movement (kinetic energy) of its particles. It always flows from
a region of higher temperature to one of lower temperature. Heat is usually measured in units of energy called joules.

EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION IN SOLIDS, LIQUIDS AND GASES

Expansion is the increase in size of a substance as a result of an increase in temperature. Contraction is decrease in size of a substance as a
result of decrease in temperature. Expansion and contraction occur in all three states of matter: solid, liquid and gas.

EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION IN SOLIDS

The ball and ring experiment

Before heating After heating

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Explanation
The result shows that the ball expanded on heating and this can no longer pass through the ring.

EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION IN LIQIUDS

The particles in liquid are not held together as tightly as in solid because they can move past one another. This means that if a liquid is
heated, the particles should move apart more easily than those of a solid.

EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION IN GASES

When the flask is heated, the balloon increases in size, this happens because air inside expand. When air inside is cooled, the balloon
decrease in size because air inside contract.

USES OF EXPANSION
 The thermometer: alcohol and mercury thermometers are used to measure temperature because the liquids inside the
thermometer expand when exposed to heat and contract when cooled.
 Bi- metallic strip: consists of two different metals which expand at different rates as they are heated(iron & brass, or steel &
copper)
 Thermostat: a device used for regulating the temperature of a system so that it is maintained near desired set temperature. It is
often made using a bi- metallic strip. Thermostats are commonly used in electric irons & kettles, air conditioners ovens etc.

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PROBLEMS OF EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION

THE RAILWAY LINE

Railway lines are made of steel. On hot days the steel expand and could cause the lines to twist (bend), and this could derail the train.
NB: the past, this problem was rectified with gaps to allow the steel to expand without twisting.

PLUMBING

Cold and hot water are often carried in pipes. These pipes expand when hot and contracts when cool. They must be allowed room to expand
and contract when laid so that they do not twist when hot or break when cold.

TELEPHONE AND ELECTRIC CABLES

These cables are usually made of metals such as copper, aluminum or steel. These metals expand on hot days and contract on cold days.
When they expand, they may hang too low, exposing people to danger. When laid on hot day, they are not tightened- some sag is allowed so
that they do not snap when they contract during cold days.

METHODS AND APPLICATIONS OF HEAT TRANSFER

Heat always moves or is transferred from a hotter place to a cooler place. There are three main methods of heat transfer: radiation,
convection and conducting.
1. Conduction- is the process in which heat energy is passed along by vibrating or colliding particles. Conduction takes place in
solids, liquids and gases. Solids conduct heat better than liquids and gases because particles are closely packed.
Good conductors- metals are good conductors of heat. For this reason, kettles saucepans, boilers radiators e.t.c are made of metals. Metals do
not conduct heat at the same rate; silver is the best conductor, followed by cooper, then gold, aluminum and then iron.
NB: Heat flows only slowly through poor or bad conductors.

Good insulators- non- metals such as wood, glass, fibre glass, plastic (except carbon) and gases are usually bad conductors. For this reason,
handles of saucepans, kettles are made of plastic or wood.

2. Convection- is the transfer of heat through a liquid or gas by means of movement of heated particles. The movement of particles
carrying heat energy in liquids and gases (fluids) is called convection current.

Demonstrating convection in a liquid

3. Radiation- is the way in which heat energy is transferred from a hot object to a cooler object without the presence of a medium
such as air, a solid or a liquid. Radiation is the way the sun’s heat energy is transmitted to the earth. Heat radiation can be absorbed
and reflected.

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Different surfaces absorb and reflect heat radiation differently.
 Dull, dark and rough surfaces are the best radiators (emitters) and absorbers of heat radiation.
 Shining, silver, and smooth surfaces are poor radiators and absorbers heat.

APPLICATIONS / USES OF METHODS OF HEAT TRANSFER

 Solar water heaters

 Car engine cooling system
 Ventilation of houses
 Weather & heat transfer
 Vaccum flask & thermos flask

NATUARL PHENOMENA CAUSED BY CONVECTION, CONDUCTION AND RADIATION

Natural phenomenons are notable things occurring in the environment such as:
 Earth quakes
 Volcanoes
 Tsunamis
Some of the natural phenomenons caused by convection and conduction include the following:
 Rainfall
 Winds
 Evaporation
 The water cycle
 Weathering
 Climate

TEMPERATURE REGULATION

Insulation effects of fat in animals

Fat is a good conductor of heat. It prevents most of the heat produced from within the body from escaping. Animals such as polar bears,
penguins, seals and the arctic wolf which live in very cold regions have a thick layer of fat called blubber beneath their skin.

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 HOW DIFFERENT ANIMALS ARE ADAPTED TO KEEPING COOL OR WARM

1. HEAT PRODUCTION
 The methods mammals use for producing heat include shivering, cellular metabolism and circulatory adaption.
2. HEAT DISSIPATION
 Vasodilation- the process in which moisture from sweat glands or respiratory surfaces evapourates and cools an animal.
3. HOMEOSTASIS
4. HAIR,FUR AND FEATHERS
5. HIBERNATION- means to spend the winter weather in a deep sleep to survive on stored nourishment within the body.
6. EVAPORATIVE COOLING

HEALTH AND SAFETY

LIVING SAFELY
Safety means freedom from danger.
What is an injury?
An injury is damage or harm caused to the structure or function of the body caused by an outside which may be either physical or chemical.

COMMON INJURIES

Common injuries Prevention/ care

Eye injury Avoid getting small particle in your eye.
Stings & bites Wash the area with soap and water. Cover it to keep clean, and apply
ice to reduce pain and swelling.
Fracture Fractures have to be treated by a doctor.
Electric shocks Never touch an electric appliance or cord with wet hands.
Get a qualified electrician to fix problems with your electricity.
Cut & scratches When using a knife, hold it firmly to avoid cuts.
Do not leave a broken glass lying around.
Burns & scalds Use thick or thick gloves to protect your hands when lifting pots or
kettles of fire or stove.
Poising Read labels and follow instructions on containers.
Wash your hands well after using poisons and chemicals.

SAFE PHYSICAL MOVEMENTS

Moving safely will help you to maintain good posture, reduce back pain, and avoid injury. These include:

 Getting out of bed  Bending down

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  Pushing  Getting out of car
 Lifting  Reaching & turning
 Carrying

SAFETY AND PROTECTING DEVICES

There are different safety devices that are recommended when working in areas which may endanger people working there. These
include:

 Ear muffs
 Smoke detectors
 Safety hats
 Goggles
 Protective shoes
 Masks
 Gloves
 Coats

PREVENTING POSSIBLE HAZARDS IN THE MEDIATE

ENVIRONMENT

Proper housekeeping helps to maintain a safe environment.

Practices to prevent hazards:
o Do not leave items on the floor
o Clean up spills and wet areas immediately to prevent
people from slipping.
o Fasten mats, rugs or carpets to the floor, so they don’t
cause people to trip.
o Don’t leave the doors or drawers of cabinets and
cupboards open.
o Ensure that all safety equipment such as fire
extinguishers is in proper working condition.
o Use only strong, stable step- ladders and stools for
reaching high.
o Clean air vents and filters regularly.
o Never leave flammable materials near heaters or open
fires.

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 VENTILATION

Ventilation is the movement of air in and out of a building.

AIR MOVEMENT WITHIN A BUILDING

Air circulation in a thatched house

Air circulation in a modern

house

THE NEED FOR GOOD VENTILATION

 Provide constant supply of oxygen.

 Good ventilation makes a building habitable and healthy.
 In a well ventilated building there is less risk of communicable diseases.
 There is also less risk of air pollution from factors such as cigarettes smoke, the fumes from paint and
other volatile chemicals in homes, dust, and carbon monoxide from combustion.

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 SANITATION

Sanitation is the hygienic means of promoting health by preventing human contact with the hazards of humans and
animals.

THE NEED FOR THE PROPER DISPOSAL OF DOMESTIC REFUSE AND SEWAGE

 If domestic refuse and sewage is not properly disposed of, it may become a health hazard. This is because it
may also be a source of germs that may cause diseases such as cholera and diarrhea.
 Decomposing sewage has a bad smell, becomes breeding place for carriers of disease and leads to the
breeding of organisms like house flies, mosquitoes and other pests.

HYGIENIC WAYS OF DISPOSING SEWAGE

Sewage is waste water, faeces and urine. The best way to deal with it is through building toilets and infrastructure such
as sewage pipelines and waste water treatment plants.

Building toilets
- Pit latrine
- Chemical toilets
- Water closets or flush toilets.
Sewage infrastructure
- Sewage system

Methods of disposing of domestic refuse

 Refuse collection
 Holes in the ground
 Landfills
 Incineration
 Recycling and re- use
 Compost heaps
 Burning

ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM

What is a circuit?
A circuit is a path followed by the flow of electricity from a cell, battery or generator, along a wire, through a lamp or
other electrical equipment, and back to cell, battery or generator. A circuit must have the following components:
- A conductor
- A piece of equipment that uses electricity
- An energy source to supply electricity

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 CIRCUITS DIAGRAMS

We use symbols to represent the different components of an electrical circuit.

SERIES AND PARALLEL CIRCUITS

SERIES CIRCUITS

In a series circuit, there is only one path for current to flow.

PARALLEL CIRCUIT

In a parallel circuit, there is more than one path along which current can flow.

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ELECTRIC CURRENT

The flow of negatively charged electrons around a circuit causes an electrical current. An electric current is energy that
we can use.

THE SI UNIT FOR ELECTRIC CURRENT

The SI unit for electric current is amperes (abbreviated to amps or A).

MEASURING CURRENT
Electric current is measured using an ammeter. NB: the ammeter must be always connected in series in a circuit.
MEASURING THE CURRENT AT DIFFERENT POINTS IN A SERIES CIRCUIT

From the above ACTIVITY, you will have realized that:

 The current A1, A2 and A3 are the same. This show that current is the same at every point in series circuit.
 This can be represented this way; A1= A2= A3

MEASURING CURRENT IN A PARALLEL CIRCUIT

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Form the above activity; you will have realized that;

 The current at A1 and A4 is the same.

 When you add together the current at A2 and A3, you get the same answer as at A1 or A4.
NB: this shows that the current from the source is the sum of the currents in the separate branches of a parallel circuit.
 This can be represented this way: A1 (or A4)= A2 + A3.

POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE
Potential difference is the difference between the total number of electrons at the negative terminal and the total
number of electrons at the positive terminal of a cell. Therefore, the potential difference indicates the amount of energy
available in the cell to push electrons around a circuit.

THE SI UNIT FOR POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE

The potential difference of a cell or battery is known as the voltage, and its SI unit is volts (V).

MEASURING POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE

The potential difference is measured using a voltmeter.
NB: the voltmeter must be connected across or parallel to a component in a circuit.

VOLTAGE AT DIFFERENT POINTS IN A SERIES CIRCUIT

From the above activity, you will have realized that:

 The voltmeter is only placed across an electric components when measuring potential difference.
 The addition of another cell increases the voltage (or the potential difference) in the circuit.
 Voltage in V1 equals voltage in V2 added to voltage in V3
 V1= V2 + V3
NB: this shows that the sum of potential difference across components in a series circuit is equal to the terminal
potential difference across the circuit as a whole.

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VOLTAGE IN A PARALLEL CIRCUIT

From the above activity, you will have realized that:

 Voltage at V1 is the same as voltage at V2 and V3
 V1= V2= V3
NB: this shows that potential difference across components in a parallel circuit is the same as the terminal potential
difference.
THE SOLAR SYSTEM

STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH

Earth as a sphere consists of several layers. The three main layers are:
Core
Mantle
Crust
The core is the inner part of the earth. It is very hot.

The mantle is the layer that surrounds the core. It is rich in minerals like silica, magnesium and iron.
The crust is the outer most layer of the earth. It consists of rocks, sand and water.

EARTHQUAKES, TSUNAMIS AND ENERGY TRANSMISSION

Earth crust is divided into segments that move relative to one another. Segments are called tectonic plates.

The plates are moving slowly all times. The lines between the plates are called boundaries.

Interesting things can happen at plate boundaries

Volcanoes- when moving plate collide or move down underneath the other, this causes friction and friction causes heat
energy. The heat energy is hot enough to melt rocks and causes volcanoes.

Earthquakes- when moving plates move against each other or in opposite directions, the rocks in the ground become
stretched and break resulting in the earth moving. This is an earthquake.

Tsunamis- when earthquakes happen under the sea, this causes a wave of water called tsunami.

EEFECTS OF EARHTQUAKE ON PEOPLE

 Death and injuries
 Destruction of houses and infrastructure wires

EFFECTS OF VOLCANOES ON PEOPLE

 Emission of poisonous gases like hydrogen sulphide and sulphur- dioxide
 Causes choking

EFFECTS ON FLOODS ON PEOPLE

 Destroy houses
 Causes drowning of people

EFFECTS OF DRAUGHT ON PEOPLE

 Plants and animals die
 Causes soil erosion

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THE CONTRIBUTION OF HUMANITY IN NATURAL DISASTERS
1. Landside- humanity contributes to the occurrance of landsides by removing trees and doing building
construction on steep slopes.
2. Earthquakes- activities of man like mine blast and doing nuclear tests can contribute to the occurrance of
earthquakes.
3. Tsunamis- this they do by indirectly causing landside and some of these landside cause tsunami.

4. Floods- excess urban development leading to lack of open land where water can be absorbed by the soil.

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 SCIENCE NOTES
THREE- YEAR JUNIOUR
SECONDARY SCHOOL SYLLABUS

FORM THREE

NOTES

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 COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY TOOLS
COMMUNICATION: Transfer of information from one person to another
MEDIA: Refers to the means of communication

METHODS/FORMATS OF COMMUNICATION
-Telephone, radio, computers, cell phones, magazines, newspapers, televisions

2 WAYS SCIENTIST USE TO COMMUNICATE INFORMATION

1. Publication of articles in scientific journals
2. Scientific meeting

IMPACT ON SOCIETY OF LIMITLESS ACCESS TO INFORMATION

POSITIVE IMPACT NEGATIVE IMPACT
1. Information is instantly available to 1. The information available on the internet is almost impossible to regulate
people and control
2. Information can be gained from 2. Anyone can place information on the Internet that can be accessed from
many different sources anywhere
3. Scientific, medical and technological 3. Technological information can be accessed on the internet that teaches
information can be shared very easily people how to make bombs and weapons to carry out other harmful or
dangerous practices.
4. Educational material and information 4. Not all of the information that is available on the internet is factually
can be obtained more easily correct and this means that people may learn the wrong things
5. People can find information about 5. People can use the internet to spread and access offensive or illegal
anything that interests them. material such as child pornography

CULTURAL IMPACT OF GLOBAL COMMUNICATION

POSITIVE NEGATIVE
1. People throughout the world can view and experience the 1. People may feel that other cultures and traditions are
artistic creations of other cultures, such as music and better than theirs and stop practicing their own culture
paintings, without having to travel long distances to
experience them
2. People can easily gain knowledge about different 2. People of one culture may feel that their traditions
cultures and practices are superior to those of other cultures and
so try to impose their cultures on other societies
3. If people are aware of different cultures, they may want 3. Negative information about a country or a culture that
to travel to the place to experience the culture themselves. may not even be true can put people off visiting a
This encourages tourism. country and so discourage tourism
4. Musicians can learn the musical and artistic styles of 4. A musical style may be more popular than the
different cultures and then bring them into their own styles traditional musical styles of a culture and so people stop
listening to traditional music and playing traditional
instruments
5. Sometimes a culture may have traditions and practices 5. People may start practicing the traditions and ideas of
that are harmful or that restrict people’s rights. Global other cultures they learn about and this may create
awareness of these can help to put a stop to them conflict within their own society
6. People can learn the languages of other cultures and this 6. Most cultures have their own languages and
helps in global communication sometimes the language of another culture is better for
communication in the world as a whole and it is used
more

CAREERS IN ICT
 Computer programmer
 Hardware technician
 ICT trainer
 Multimedia developers

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POLLUTION
Is when the environment is contaminated and become harmful to organisms
ENTER TABLE ON PG 14( diamond bk 3)

METHODS OF CONTROLLING POLLUTION

 Putting scrubbers in chimneys to remove pollutants from smoke
 Catalytic converter in car exhaust
 Using settling chamber and filtering water
 Use of chlorine and ozone to neutralise pollutants in water
 Use of bacteria to remove organic material and chemicals from contaminated water
 Placing solid waste in land fills
 Burning or incinerating solid waste
 Composting
 Recycling of glass, plastic and metals
 Use of legislation: laws and policies e.g. smoke free zone, lead-free fuel

EFFECTS OF POLLUTION ON HEALTH

REFER TO TABLE ON PAGE 20( diamond bk 3)

MATTER
ATOM: Smallest particle of matter that can take part in a chemical reaction.

STRUCTURE OF AN ATOM
WHAT MAKES UP MATTER?

2) Atom- this is the smallest particle of matter that can take part in a chemical reaction or the smallest particle of
matter that can exist on its own.
- It can not be seen with a naked eye. Its diameter is about ten-millionth of a centimeter (1/10 000
000 cm). This means that ten million atoms can be fitted together on a line of 1cm long.
- It is made up of three particles called protons, neutrons and electrons.

General structure of an atom Shell

Electron

Neutrons

Protons
Nucleus

Particle Position Charge

Protons Nucleus Positive ( + ) charge
Electrons Shells Negative ( - ) charge
Neutrons Nucleus Neutral charge ( 0 )

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MOLECULE: A particle that is made up of two or more atoms that are bonded together chemically, e.g. a molecule of
Water (H2 O) has 2 atoms of hydrogen and 1 atom of oxygen.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ATOM AND MOLECULE

MOLECULES ATOMS
molecules can be broken chemically Atoms cannot be broken even chemically
They are joined by chemical bonds There are no bonds
They more nucleus An atom has one nucleus

ELEMENT: Is made up of same kind of atoms [and cannot be broken down into simpler practice]
ELEMENT FOUND IN LIVING NON LIVING MATTER
Carbon Graphite in pencils Living matter plants, animals
Oxygen A gas in the atmosphere Used in respiration
Iron Steel and cast iron pots Forms haemoglobin found in Red Blood
cells
Phosphorus Matches
Magnesium Found in metal alloys Important in enzyme action

PERIODIC TABLE
-Shows elements, their symbol, atomic number, mass number.
-Elements are grouped by similarities of physical and chemical properties
-Chemicals are arranged according to atomic structure

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TRENDS IN A PERIODIC TABLE
o Left side metals except Hydrogen
o Right side non-metals
o How easily an element react chemically [reactivity]
o What sort of compound it forms
o Whether or not it is radio-active

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 COMPOSITION OF THE FIRST 18 ELEMENTS

ATOMIC STRUCTURE OF THE FIRST 20 ELEMENTS STRUCTURES

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DIFFERENCE BETWEEN COMPOUNDS & MIXTURES
COMPOUNDS
1.Pure substances
2. Made of two or more elements chemically combined
3.Need chemical methods to be separated
4. The complete chemical break down of a compound
into its constituents atoms always results in the
production of the same ratio of atoms
5. The physical and chemical properties of a compound 5. The constituents of a mixture usually retain their
are usually very different from the physical and
chemical properties of the atoms it is made of
MIXTURES
1. Not pure substances
2.Made of two or more substances physically combined
3.Can be separated by physical methods e.g. magnet
attracting iron filings
4. A mixture does not always contain the same ratio of one
constituent to another
individual physical and chemical properties

COMMON COMPOUNDS AND CONSTITUENTS

COMPOUND CHEMICAL MOLECULE CONSTITUENTS ATOMS
Water H2O H+H+O
Carbon dioxide CO2 C+O+O
Carbon monoxide CO C+O
Methane CH4 C+H+H+H+H
Ammonia NH3 N+H+H+H

COMMON MIXTURES AND CONSTITUENTS

MIXTURE FORM CONSTITUENTS
Air Gas Nitrogen, Oxygen, Carbon dioxide
Brass Solid [alloy] Copper, Zinc

BOILING AND MELTING POINTS

Boiling point: when a substance changes its phase from liquid to gas
Melting point: when a substance change phase from solid to liquid
NB: Pure substances [pure water] have the same boiling/melting temperature under same conditions.

HEATING CURVES
PAGE 56

EFFECTS OF IMPURITIES ON MELTING POINT AND BOILING POINT

o Increases boiling point
o Lowers freezing point

SEPARATION TECHNIQUES

1. FILTRATION: Solid from a liquid

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 2. EVAPORATION: Remove salt from water

3. DISTILLATION:

Alcohol from water [depends on their different boiling points]

e.g. Alcohol boils at 780c then evaporate, water boils at 1000c will remain behind
4. FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION:

Separate crude oil

5. CHROMATOGRAPHY

-Used to identify and analyse constituents of a mixture

-Used in small quantities [volume] e.g. dyes

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DIFFERENCE BETWEEN DISTILLATION AND EVAPORATION
EVAPORATION
1.It happens at any temperature
2. The vapour escapes into the atmosphere
3.The vapour is not collected and is lost into the
atmosphere
4.The solid constituent of the mixture remains
5.It is used to separate and purify a solid from a solution 5. It is used to separate and purify
DISTILLATION
1. It happens at boiling point
2. The vapour is condensed back into a liquid
3. The condensed liquid is collected
4. Both the solid and liquid constituents remain
a) a solid and a liquid from a solution-simple distillation
b) a liquid from a mixture of two or more liquid-
fractional distillation

APPLICATIONS [USES] OF SEPARATION TECHNIQUES IN REAL LIFE

1. FILTRATION – Coffee machine, water from the river
2. EVAPOARTION – Salt production [Sua-Pan]
3. DISTILLATION – Brewing alcohol, Purification of Crude oil
4. CHROMATOGRAPHY – Used in forensic medicine to identify samples at crime scenes, used in Sport to detect
drugs in urine from athletes

ACIDS AND BASES

ACID – A chemical that releases hydrogen ions when added to water
Examples:
o Nitric acid
o Sulphuric acid
o Hydrochloric acid
o Lactic acid
o Ethanoic/Acetic acid
o Citric acid
o Tartaric acid
BASE – chemicals that are metal oxides and metal hydroxides of metals e.g. Copper oxide, Zinc oxide, Sodium
hydroxide, Potassium Hydroxide e.t.c.

pH of a solution is a measure of the concentration of hydrogen ions [H +] in the solution.

PROPERTIES OF STRONG ACIDS AND WEAK ACIDS

STRONG ACIDS WEAK ACIDS
1. Completely ionised [split] in water 1. Partially ionised in water
2. Contains 3 types of particles e.g. H+, Cl- and water 2. Contain 4 types of particles e.g. molecules of acid, 2
ions [H+, CH3COO-] and water
3. React vigorously with other substances 3. React slowly with other substances

PROPERTIES OF STRONG AND WEAK ALKALIS

STRONG ALKALI WEAK ALKALI
1. Completely ionised [split] in water 1. Partially ionised in water
2. Form many OH- ions e.g. 2. Form few OH- ions
-Sodium hydroxide, Potassium hydroxide e.g. Ammonia gas
3. React vigorously with other substances 3. React slowly with other substances

o A base is a metal oxide or metal hydroxide

o Alkali- a base that is soluble in water

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN STRENGTH AND CONCENTRATION OF A SUBSTANCE

o Concentration- amount of solute dissolved in a certain volume of solvent
o Strength- the amount of ionisation that a chemical undergoes in a solution
e.g.
o A 90% solution of hydrochloric acid is a concentrated solution of a strong acid
o A 5% solution of hydrochloric acid is a dilute solution of a strong acid
o A 90% solution of ethanoic acid is a concentrated solution of a weak acid
o A 5% solution of ethanoic acid is a dilute solution of a weak acid

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CHEMICAL REACTIONS
WORD EQUATION
A+B C+D
Reactants Products

REACTIONS OF ACIDS WITH OTHER SUBSTANCES

1. NEUTRALISATION REACTION

Acid + Alkali Salt + Water

e.g. Hydrochloric acid + Sodium Hydroxide Sodium chloride + Water

NAMING SALTS
ACID SALT
Hydrochloric acid Chloride
Sulphuric acid Sulphate
Nitric acid Nitrate
Citric acid Citrate
Methanoic acid Methanoate
Ethanoic acid Ethanoate
Acetic acid Acetate
Lactic acid Lactate
Tartaric acid tartarate

2. Acid + Metal Salt + Hydrogen gas

Sulphuric acid + Magnesium Magnesium sulphate + Hydrogen

3. Acid + Carbonate Salt + Water + Carbon dioxide

Nitric acid + Potassium Carbonate Potassium nitrate + Water + Carbon dioxide

GAS TEST
Hydrogen Burns with a ‘popping’ sound
Carbon dioxide Turns clear lime water milky/cloudy
Oxygen Relights a glowing splint

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APPLICATIONS OF ABOVE REACTIONS IN REAL LIFE
Acid-alkali reactions
 Antacid to relieve indigestion and heartburn
 Toothpaste to neutralise acid produced by bacteria in the mouth
 Insect sting e.g. bee and ant sting are acidic-neutralise with baking powder [alkali]
Acid-metal reactions
 Metal etching- decorating metals with acid
 Car batteries uses sulphuric acid
Acid-carbonate reactions
 Magnesium carbonate to relieve indigestion
 Carbonates in fire extinguishers to put off fire

RATE OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS

-The rate of a chemical reaction is a measure of how quickly reactants are converted to products
A+B C+D
Reactants Products
o Reactants get used up and products are formed/produced
o Concentration of reactant decrease, products increase
o At the end reactants get used up and products stop being produced

FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS

1. Temperature
2. Concentration of reactants
3. Particle size of reactants
4. Catalyst
5. Pressure

APPLICATIONS OF RATE OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS IN REAL LIFE

o Burning of coal in power stations
o Cooking
o Manufacturing of ammonia

HOUSEHOLD CHEMICAL REACTIONS

Soap making
o The process is called saponification
o You need oil/fat from animal [pig], and a strong alkali e.g. sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide

Steps
1. Mixlye[sodium hydroxide/caustic soda] with cold water
2. Heat the fat in a pot until it is melted
3. Add the lye mixture and fat mixture and stir until it thickens
4. Allow to cool

Chemical equation
Fatty acids + Sodium hydroxide Soap + Water
(Acid) (Alkali) (Salt)

HARD AND SOFT WATER

Hard water- Water containing dissolved salts e.g. magnesium sulphate, calcium sulphate, calcium carbonate and
magnesium carbonate

Soft water- water that does not contain dissolved mineral salts e.g. rain water and distilled water

Softening hard water chemically

-Add Calcium hydroxide [lime] to water
Other ways of softening hard water
-Boiling
-Desalination

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 METALS & NON-METALS
PROPPERTIES OF METALS

CHEMICAL PHYSICAL
-React vigorously e.g. K, Na, Mg -Shiny/lustrous
-Some are unreactive e.g. gold, platinum -Solid at room temperature except mercury
-React with water -Have high densities
Metal + Water Metal hydroxide + Hydrogen
Metals react with oxygen -Ductile
Metal + Oxygen Metal oxide
Metals react with acids -Malleable
Metal + Acid Salt + Hydrogen
-Have high melting and boiling point
-Generally strong
-Sonorous [produce sound when hit]
-Generally good conductors of heat and electricity

PROPERTIES OF NON-METALS

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CHEMICAL PHYSICAL
-Non metals react with oxygen -Mostly gases at room temperature e.g. Oxygen,
e.g. Sulphur + Oxygen Sulphur dioxide Nitrogen, Chlorine
Carbon + Oxygen Carbon dioxide
-Non metal oxides dissolve in water to give acidic solutions -Brittle [break easily]
-non-metals react with metals -Have low densities
e.g. Sodium + Chlorine Sodium chloride
-Have low melting and boiling point
-Do not conduct heat and electricity

METALS AND THEIR USES

METAL USE PROPERTIES

Aluminum -cooking pots, body of aircraft -good conductor of heat, light and strong
Copper -electrical wires -good conductor of electricity, malleable
Iron -iron pots, building construction -strong, malleable
Gold -jewellery -unreactive, does not tarnish

NON-METALS AND THEIR USES

NON METAL USE

Carbon -graphite -diamond
Phosphorous -fertilisers
Chlorine -pesticides -sterilise feeding bottles

OXIDATION
-Is a chemical reaction in which a substance gains oxygen
e.g. Magnesium + Oxygen Magnesium oxide

RUSTING
-When Iron is corroded
-Both oxygen and water have to be present

PREVENTION OF RUSTING
o Painting
o Covering with plastic
o Metal plating
o Oiling/greasing
o Galvanising
o Forming alloys e.g. stainless steel

ALLOY- A mixture of two or more metals

ALLOY CONSIST OF USES

Stainless steel Iron, Chromium, Nickel -Construction
-Kitchen utensils
Brass Copper & Zinc -Coins
-Musical instruments
-Gears
Bronze Copper & Tin -Weapons
-Medals
-Sculptures
Solder Tin & Lead -Joining electrical components

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RADIOACTIVITY
-The spontaneous emission of small particles or electromagnetic rays from an unstable nucleus
-These radioactive emissions are known as RADIATION
-When an atom emits radioactivity, we say it undergoes nuclear decay

Three types of radiation

 Alpha [α] [+]
 Beta [β] [-]
 Gamma [Ƴ] [0]

Radioactive materials
o Fuel in nuclear power stations
o Organic materials
o Medicine
o Water
o Glass
o Luminous paint
o Smoke detectors

DANGERS OF EXPOSURE TO RADIOACTIVE EMMISSIONS

o Damages proteins and molecules in living cells
o Cause burns to skin
o Damages bones and blood
o Causes cancer [leukemia]
o Lead to DNA mutations [change]

SAFE HANDLING AND STORAGE OF RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS

o Radioactive materials should be labelled with radiation warning sign
o Radioactive materials should be stored in a safe place and locked
o Radioactive materials should be stored in lead containers
o Use protective clothing e.g. gloves, goggles when handling radioactive materials
o Radioactive materials must be disposed correctly in drums

DEMERITS & MERITS OF USING NUCLEAR ENERGY

MERITS DEMERITS
-Unlimited supply of fuel -Nuclear energy can be dangerous
Can be used to supply all energy for a very long time
-Nuclear energy does not generate carbon dioxide like -Nuclear fuels create waste that is very radioactive that
burning coal and other fossil fuels will damage environment
-Nuclear reactions generate more energy than coal, wind, -Nuclear reactors can be used to make atomic weapons
hydroelectric energy using less material
-Nuclear fuel is cheap Nuclear power stations are expensive to build

CARBON
ALLOTROPE- Is a structurally different form of an element formed by arranging the atoms of the element in different
ways

Allotropes of Carbon [8]

1. Diamond [gemstone]
2. Graphite
3. Glassy carbon
4. Fullerene
5. Chaoite
6. Carbon nanofoam
7. Armophous carbon [found in coal and soot]
8. Lonsdaleite [a type of diamond]

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Allotropes Properties Structure Uses
Diamond -Very hard Tetrahedron lattice -Cutting tools
-Unreactive -Jewellery
-Transparent -Building construction
-Conduct heat
-Does not conduct electricity

Graphite -Soft and brittle Hexagonally arranged -Used as pencil lead

-Conduct heat and electricity -Used as a lubricant
-Dark coloured -Used as electrical conductor
-Slippery -Carbon fibre
-Make boats
-Aircraft
-Sports equipment

ROCKS, MINERALS AND ORES

-ROCK: A substance made up of minerals
-MINERAL: A chemical compound or element that is found in rocks
-ORE: Is a type of rock that contains a large amount of a metal-containing mineral

MINERALS FOUND IN BOTSWANA

o Diamond
o Coal
o Copper/Nickel
o Gold
o Soda Ash

 Precious mineral is a rare mineral that is valuable e.g Gold, Silver, Platinum
 Gemstone is a precious mineral which is when it is cut and polished makes an attractive gem or jewel e.g.
diamond, ruby, emerald
 Non-precious minerals are usually common and do not have a high value or are not very attractive to look at
e.g. iron ore. Bauxite, quartz

PRODUCTION OF GEMSTONE: DIAMOND

o Diamond is dug from the ground then crushed
o The crushed ore is then sorted and small diamond removed
o Small diamond is sorted into different sizes, colour and quality
o After sorting uncut diamond, poor quality is sold to make cutting tools
o High quality diamond are used for jewellery but it is cut first
o Then polished to remove imperfections
o Then sold to jewellery manufacturers

SUMMARY
Mining and extraction of rough diamond

Sorting according to size,

colour and quality

Poor quality used in industry Good quality cut and polished

as a cutting tool and used in jewellery 143
 EXTRACTION OF IRON FROM ITS ORES

COPPER EXTRACTION
Copper ores- Copper pyrite & Chalcopyrite
Copper is usually found in nature as Copper Sulphide
REACTIONS
Copper Sulphide + Oxygen Copper oxide + Sulphur dioxide
Copper sulphide + Copper oxide Copper + sulphur dioxide
Copper oxide + Silicon dioxide Copper silicate [slag] - 98%
Electrolysis- to purify copper to make it 100% pure

NEWTON’S LAW OF MOTION

LAW 1
An object will stay in a state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line unless it is acted on by a force

LAW 2
When a force acts on a body it causes the body to accelerate in the direction of the force
Acceleration = a =proportional m=mass
F=ma
a=F/M

LAW 3
If object A exerts a force on object B, then B will exert an equal force on object A, but this force will be exerted in the
opposite direction

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SIMPLE MACHINES
Tools that are used to make work easier
Simple machines
o Bottle opener
o Scissors
o Spade
o Nail clippers
o Gear
o Spanner
o Wheel barrow

Simple machines reduce amount of effort needed to move a load. This is known as mechanical advantage

Mechanical advantage = Load

Effort

MOMENTS
Act in a circular path [clockwise/anticlockwise]

Moment of a force is a physical quantity that measures the turning ability of a force around an axis.
Moment of a force is also known as torque.

Moment of a forceT = Fr
T=pronounced tan
F=applied force in newton
r=perpendicular distance to the pivot in metres

Units of moment of force are Newton metres [Nm]

MOMENTS OF FORCE IN EVERYDAY LIFE

o Opening a can
o Propelling a car
o Pedaling a bicycle

PRINCIPLE OF MOMENTS
-If the sum of the clockwise moments acting on an object equals the sum of the anticlockwise moments, then the object
will be in a dynamic equilibrium

∑Tclockwise = ∑T anticlockwise

PRINCIPLES OF MOMENTS IN REAL LIFE

o Lifting a mass with your forearms
o Cranes used to lift building material
o Weighing machine

CALCULATING THE MOMENT OF A FORCE ABOUT A FIXED POINT

T = Fr
= Force X distance

CARING FOR PERSONS WITH HIV AND AIDS

THE NEED FOR COUNSELLING OF PEOPLE CARING FOR AIDS PATIENTS AT HOME
1. It gives the care giver someone to talk to about their worries and concerns
2. The care giver receives advice about the correct ways of caring for a person with AIDS
3. The care giver also get information on the patients’ progress and also be put in touch with support groups that
exist in their community

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HEALTHY AND SAFE WAYS TO CARE FOR A PERSON WITH AIDS
A. Preparation
o Read about caring for AIDS patients
o Speaking to a counsellor and nurses at the local clinic, and speaking to a doctor about what
treatments you are going to have to give
o Get clear written instructions about what has to be done to care for the patient

B. Take care of yourself

o Get enough rest and exercise
o Eat healthily

C. Providing care to the patient

o Encourage the patient to look after themselves by having regular exercises and eating a healthy diet
o Also encourage them to avoid alcohol and cigarettes and any drugs or treatments that are not
prescribed by the doctor
o Respect their independence and privacy
o Help keep their home and environment clean
o Make sure the patient has easy access to a bathroom or toilet
o Make sure that the patient has easy access to tissues, towels, blankets and other essential things

D. Preventing the AIDS patient from getting infections

o Wash your hands properly whenever you touch him/her
o Do not allow anyone who is ill to visit the patient
o Keep pets and animals away from the patient
o Keep the environment and personal items clean and hygienic
o Make sure that any food the patient eats is fresh and has been cooked properly

E. Preventing the care giver from getting HIV

o The care giver should wear gloves if they have to touch any body fluids or dress any wounds or
sores
o If the care giver has to use needles on the patient, the care giver should dispose of the needles
carefully to avoid pricking himself or herself with the needle
o All wastes should be disposed of properly

THE SKELETAL SYSTEM

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FUNCTIONS OF THE HUMAN SKELETON
o It gives the body shape
o It supports the body
o It protects the internal organs of the body e.g. skull protects the brain, the ribs protect the heart and lungs
o For the production of bone marrow
o For storage of calcium and phosphorus

BONES, JOINTS, MUSCLES AND MOVEMENT

Joints- places where the bones of the body are joined together

Types of joints
o Hinge joint e.g. knee joint, elbow joint
o Ball and socket joint e.g. shoulder and hip joints
o Fixed joint e.g. the skull joint
o Slightly movable joint e.g. the joint between the vertebra of the spine

Muscles and movement

There are three types of muscles found in the body:
o Skeletal muscles- these are important for movement in the body and are attached to the bones by a tough
tissue called tendons.
o Smooth muscle
o Heart (cardiac) muscles

NB. The body has over 600 muscles.

Muscles work in pairs in order to bring about movement. If one muscle contracts, the other relaxes.

MOVEMENT IN ANIMALS
Movement is controlled by forces that are produced by muscles. The muscles are attached to different bones at either
end by tendons. The bones are connected at joints. When two bones are connected by a muscle, one bone can often
move freely than the other. Muscles can contract and relax. When a muscle contracts, it produces pairs of forces which
act on the bones and the muscles at the point where the tendons attach. The bone that is more free to move is usually
pulled towards the less movable one.

THE IMPORTANCE OF GOOD POSTURE

Posture- the way you hold your body when you are sitting, sanding and walking.
Good posture-the correct way of handling your body
Bad posture- the incorrect/poor way of handling your body

THE EFFECTS OF GOOD AND BAD POSTURE

THE EFFECTS OF GOOD POSTURE THE EFFECTS OF BAD POSTURE
It puts less strain on your muscles and reduces the It causes tired and aching muscles that can be stiff. This often
chance that you will have muscle stiffness makes the posture even worse
It reduces the risk of injury when doing activities It increases the risk of injury because the muscles are not
because your muscles will be aligned in the correct aligned properly
way
It helps breathing better because the rib cage and Breathing is not as easy because the movement of the lungs,
diaphragm are able to move easily. This will help you rib cage and diaphragm are restricted
to exercise better
The person looks and feels more confident. This The person looks sloppy. If they do not care about
affects how people see you and what they think about themselves, they may also feel this way. This can cause a
you negative feeling about a person
THE IMPORTANCE OF PHYSICAL EXERCISE
o Exercise improves your mood
o Exercise helps you to control your weight and maintain your muscles
o Exercise protects you from chronic diseases
o Exercise helps you sleep
o Exercise can be fun

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ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE
What is electrical resistance?
The degree at which a material resists the flow of electrical current (electrons) through it.

SI UNIT OF RESISTANCE
The SI unit for resistance is the ohm (Ω).

NB- A resistor has a resistance of one ohm when a potential difference of one volt over the ends of the resistor causes a
current of one ampere to flow through the resistor.

DETERMING THE RESISTANCE OF A CIRCUIT COMPONENT

REFER TO ACTIVITY ON PAGE 232-233

OHM’S LAW
The potential difference(V) over a resistor (R) is directly proportional to the current (I) that flows through the resistor
provided the temperature of the resistor remains constant.
R=V/I
V=IR
I=V/R

Where:
V=potential difference
I= electrical current
R= electrical resistance

This means that for a particular resistor:

o If the potential difference across the resistor is increased, the current through the resistor will increase
proportionally
o The direct proportionality only exists if the temperature of the resistor stays constant

For calculations refer to your textbook Page 234-235

FACTORS THAT DETERMINE THE RESISTANCE OF A RESISTOR

o The length of a resistor wire- the longer thee conductor wire, the greater the resistance, the shorter the
conductor wire the lower the resistance
o The cross-sectional area of the resistor wire (thickness of the wire)- The smaller the cross-sectional area of a
conductor wire, the greater the resistance of the conductor, and the greater the cross-sectional area of a
conductor wire the lower the resistance of the conductor.

THE RESISTANCE OF TWO OR MORE RESISTORS IN SERIES

Total resistance for three resistors
RT= R1 + R2 + R3
Eg 3Ω +12Ω +15Ω= 30Ω

THE RESISTANCE OF TWO OR MORE RESISTORS IN PARALLEL

Total resistance for three resistors
1/RT= 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3
E.g. 1/5 + 1/3 + 1/15
= 9/15

RT = 15/9 = 1.67Ω
THE USE OF RESISTORS IN ELECTRIC CIRCUITS
The heating effect of resistors is used in
o Heater elements of stoves, irons, kettles, room heaters and hot water geysers
o The filaments of light bulbs
The voltage drop effect of resistors is used in the following ways
o In heavy duty electric motors such as electric train engines
o In power tools such as electric drills to increase or reduce the speed of the drill
o In the electronic circuits found in radios, TVs, radar, electronic computers to increase or reduce voltages as
needed.

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SPACE EXPLORATION
WHAT IS ASTRONOMY?
Is the studying and exploring of outer space.
o Outer space includes anything that is not found within the Earth’s atmosphere.
o The field of astronomy includes the study of the moon, planets, the stars, galaxies and the universe as a
whole.

Branches of astronomy
o Light astronomy
o Radio astronomy
o Cosmology

THE BENEFITS OF SPACE EXPLORATION

REFER TO TABLE ON PAGE 246.

THE TECHNOLOGY USED IN SPACE EXPLORATION

Technology used for space exploration from Earth
o Telescopes
 Light telescopes
 Refracting telescope
 Reflecting telescope
 Radio telescopes

Technology used for travelling into space

o Rockets
o Space suits
o Satellites

CAREERS IN SPACE EXPLORATION

o Astronomer
o Engineer
o Astronaut

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