raJifl

tfim®
First published in the United States of America
m Ten Volumes by
CROL1ER EDUCATIONAL CORPORATION
Danbury, Connecticut 068 16

Y AN EQUINOX ENCYCLOPEDIA
Planned and produced by
Equinox (Oxford) Limited
Mayfield House, 256 Banburv Road,
Oxford, England, 0X2 7DH

Copyright© 1983 Equinox (Oxford) Limited

This Ten Volume Edition Copyright © 1983 Grolier Educational Corporation

Danbury, Connecticut 06816

All ngbts reserved.No part of this publication

may be reproduced, stored tn a retrieval system,
transmitted in any form or by any means electrical,
mechanical or photocopied, recorded or otherwise
without prior permission of the publisher.

ISBN 0-7172-7077-7

Printed and bound in Singapore by

Toppan Printing Co.
 7

CIVIC CENTER
3 1111 00855 5854

THE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF VISUAL ART

VOLUME FOUR !

HISTORY OF ART REFE

Romanesque Art - Romanticism lii

Chapters Special Features

31 ROMANESQUE ART The Burgundian School of Sculpture Gallery Study 576— 561

32 GOTHIC ART Sculpture and Glass at Chartres Gallery Study 590—1 585
Antique Figure Sculpture at Reims Gallery Study 598—9
English Manuscript Painting cl280-1350 Gallery Study 608-9

33 THE SURVIVAL OF The Flagellation of Christ Gallery Study 626—7 621

ANTIQUITY Renaissance Portraiture Gallery Study 634—5

34 RENAISSANCE STYLE Renaissance Armor Gallery Study 652-3 641

35 THE NORTHERN Arnolfini Wedding by Jan van Eyck Close Study 666-7 659
RENAISSANCE

36 MANNERISM Assumption of the Virgin hv Titian Close Study 688-9 675

37 THE BAROQUE Cortona's Barbenni Ceiling Close Study 702-3 695

38 THE ROCOCO The Hotel de Soubise Close Study 720- 1 717

Yierzehnhciligen Close Study ~?2b-~

39 NEOCLASSICISM ( )ath of the Horatn by David Close Study 736-7 731

40 ROMANTICISM Landscape Painting Gallery Study "48-9 745

GROLIER EDUCATIONAL CORPORATION

DANBURY, CONNECTICUT 06816 USA
 3"

ROMANESQUE ART

The Ascension: detail of stained glass in Le Mans Cathedral; c 1

145 (see page 573)
 562 ROMANESQUE ART

Romanesque art emerged during the nth century

and flourished in the 12th, giving way to Proto-
Gothic or Gothic. No single country or region "in-

vented" Romanesque art; the process of its creation was a

slow one and took place almost simultaneously in Italy,

France, Germany, and Spain. Greater political stability, econ-
omic growth, and the reform of religious institutions created
conditions more favorable for the renewal of artistic activity
than in the preceding period, when civilized life in Europe was
threatened with extinction. The revival first took root in Ger-
many Ottoman Art), which extended its rule over large
(see

parts of Italy.The decline of the Roman Church was halted by

the revival of monastic life and discipline, led by the Abbey of
Cluny in Burgundy which stood at the head of a network of
dependent monasteries throughout Western Europe, and also
by the reforming activity of the Papacy. At first, the interests
of the Holy German Empire and complemen-
the Papacy were
tary and their relations harmonious. But before long, the em- A transverse section of Cluny Abbey, looking towards the apse and
perors and secular rulers in other countries could not accept ambulatory, as it was mid 12th centurv
in the

the divided loyalties of their clergy, controlled from Rome,

and bitter conflicts erupted which were to weaken Germany. appearance. Western Christianity, led by energetic popes,
The triumphant Papacy extended its influence to the newly thriving monasteries, and pious rulers, entered a period of
converted Scandinavian countries, and to Poland and Hun- expansion. The Crusades and the reconquest of the Holy
gary. Wherever Rome established its influence, wherever Land, Sicily, and the partial reconquest of Spain from the
monastic orders were founded, Romanesque art made its Moors started in the nth century and opened new territories

Map of places mentioned in the text

B
 ROMANESQUE ART 563

in which Romanesque art could flourish. The emergence of Western Europe in the 1 ith century was a great improvement
Germany as a political power of the first order was soon in building techniques and the planning of churches, which
followed by the revival of strong centralized power in France, had to take account of the more elaborate liturgy that was
although, for most of the 12th century, France was still being evolved, especially in the Cluniac order. During the 10th
divided into semi-independent units. The Norman rule in Eng- century, the stone used for building was predominantly
land, after the victory at Hastings in 1066, brought the British unhewn rubble. In the nth wrought ashlar
century, carefully
Isles into close contact with the rest of Europe and introduced became almost the rule. In some regions, brick was preferred,
Romanesque art there, chiefly, though not exclusively, from as, for instance, in Sahagun in Spain, from which center the

Normandy. fashion for brick buildings spread widely, eventually reaching

It is often said that Romanesque art was predominantly as far south as Toledo. This technique was popularized by the
monastic, but this is only partly true. The revival of civilized Arab builders settled among the Christians of northern Spain.
life in Western Europe was chiefly due to the monastic com- One of the preoccupations of masons during the Roman-
munities emerging from a period of corruption and decline. In esque period was to reduce the risk of fire. Medieval chron-
the early stages of this process, Cluny and its dependencies icles are full of accounts of fires that destroyed or damaged
played a decisive The Benedictines were the most numer-
role. churches. These churches were lit by candles, there was a
ous and their influence was powerful. Many new orders came considerable amount of wooden furniture and equipment,
into being at this time — Carthusians, Premonstratensians, Cis- textiles were used for curtains and hangings, and ceilings were
tercians, for example. The latter were to assume a leading role usually of timber, so the risk of fire was always great. The
during the abbacy of St Bernard (ob. 11 53), and had a pro- need to replace the ceiling by stone vaulting was therefore
found influence on the art of the 12th century and on the given priority. Experiments were carried out in many regions
emergence of Gothic architecture. Monastic orders were not and were particularly energetic and fruitful in the Mediterra-
only the centers of a religious revival but also of a revival of nean countries, where Roman buildings provided inspiration
learning, letters, and the arts. By the 12th century, however, and models. The vaulting of narrow spaces presented no great
their leadership in the sphere of intellectual life had passed to difficulty, so apses and aisles were the first to be vaulted. But

schools and universities, and the blossoming of intellectual life gradually the vaulting of the nave was mastered as well. The
that ensued has been rightly called the Twelfth Century Re- dome also came into use.
naissance. The earliest experiments in vaulting were in a group of
Romanesque art was an integral part of this revival, but our churches to which the name "First Romanesque" is given. The
knowledge of the art of this period is very imperfect; it relies earliest of these churches were built in Lombardy at the end of
on the accidental survival of buildings and works of art, which the 9th century, but the greatest number of the buildings in
are only a small part of what once existed. This is particularly this group date from the first half of the nth century. The
true of England, where the deliberate destruction of the ma- style of these distinct buildings spread from Lombardy along
jority of the monastic churches and vast quantities of figural the Mediterranean coast west to Catalonia, through northern
religious art during the Reformation was followed by the Italy to Dalmana, north to Switzerland, and along the rivers

further ravages of the Puritans. Rhone and Rhine as far as the Low Countries. Apart from the
The term "Romanesque" art (in French Vart roman, in Ita- characteristic external decoration, consisting of pilasters and
lian arte rotnanico, in German romanische Kunst) is a com- corbel-tables in the form of small arcades under the eaves
paratively modern creation, intended to indicate a style de- (called "Lombard arches"), these churches are most notable
rived from Roman The English term
art but distinct from it. for their vaults which are either of the simple barrel (or

"Norman", often used as synonymous with Romanesque, tunnel) type, or groin vaults, a form well-known to the
should be avoided, for not all Romanesque art in England was Romans and two barrel vaults at
the result of intersecting
of Norman inspiration or due to Norman patronage. Roman right angles. The barrel vault was given a pointed section in
sources for Romanesque art are undeniable, but there were some regions (for example, Burgundy and Provence), so the
also others: Early Christian, Byzantine, Carolingian, Otto- pressure of its weight does not cause supporting walls to be
man, even Islamic. Moreover, each country or region blended pushed outwards. The groin vault had the advantage of direct-
Romanesque art with the local art of preceding ages, whether ing the stress to the four corners which could be suitably
Christian or pagan, as, for instance, in Norway, where the supported by heavy piers. A great step forward was the inven-
Romanesque style absorbed many elements from Viking art. tion of the rib vault, an improved version of the groin vault
Because of this variety of sources, Romanesque art differs with two arches placed at the intersection. By this method, the
greatly from country to country and even from region to masonry between these arches, which no longer had any struc-
region. Nevertheless, there are certain underlying common tural function, was reduced in weight, so that much wider

tendencies Romanesque art which

in all fully justify the use of spans could be covered by vaults. Rib \aulting was to revol-
the term "Romanesque style". utionize medieval architecture and led to the evolution of the
( lothic style.

Architecture. The first result of the more settled conditions 111 In their plans, large Romanesque churches followed the tra-
564 ROMANESQUE ART

ditional basilican forms of naves with aisles, transepts, and

apsidal choirs. But they differ from Early Christian basilicas in

many respects —especially in the treatment of the two ex-

tremities, the choirs and the facades. The elaborate liturgy,

which had developed over the ages, though notably during the
monastic revival of the nth century, required large choirs and
numerous chapels. Side by side with this development went
the increased cult of relics, displayed in shrines of precious
materials placed in the choir and not, as in the past, in a dark,
underground crypt. The architects' reaction to the spatial
problems caused by these changes in religious practices was to

design two basic types of choir. Both were spacious enough to

allow large numbers of monks or secular clergy to participate
in services and ceremonies, and vast crowds of the faithful to

have access to the shrines and to take part in processions and

other rituals. One of these types had staggered apses in the
choir and the transepts, the other an ambulatory: an aisle
encircling the apse from which chapels usually radiate. Exten-
sive crypts were often built under such choirs for burials and

as additional space for services. The pilgrimage church of Ste-Foy at Conques; 2nd half of 1 ith century

Romanesque facades differed from those of the Early

Christian churches just as much as did the choirs, and here the Roman, and they passed their craft from generation to genera-
influence of Carolingian and Ottonian buildings was decisive. tion, each trying to improve on previous achievements. In
The western block, usually with twin towers, was adopted in spite of common features, Romanesque buildings vary a great
many important churches, especially in Germany, France, and deal from country to country and from region to region, al-

England, and the tradition continued during the Gothic though certain types of churches, which are closely related,
period. In Italy, however, towers were frequently separate, are found far apart. The so-called pilgrimage churches belong
isolated structures and the facades were usually "sectional": to this last group, the best-known being Ste-Foy at Conques,
they consist of a wall that repeats the form of the interior. In St-Sernin at Toulouse, and the cathedral of Santiago at Com-
other cases, as in S. Michele, Pavia, the facades extend up- postela.
wards above the roof, as if pretending that the building behind Pilgrimages, which started during the Early Christian
ismore extensive than it is in reality. Such screen-facades period out of the desire of the pious to visit and pray at the
became particularly popular in Western France and England, places associated with the life of Christ, the apostles, and
and in the latter the tradition continued well into the Gothic other saints, developed during the Romanesque period into a
period, producing such gigantic screen-facades as the one at well organized mass movement of thousands of pilgrims,
Wells. crossing Europe and the Near East in all directions and stop-
Whichever type of facade was used by Romanesque buil- ping at numerous famous shrines to pray. The most celebrated
ders, it was always divided into smaller units by stringcourses, pilgrimage places were, of course, those in the Holy Land and
and other means. Certain features are emphasized
buttresses, Rome, but during the 1 ith century, the shrine of St James the
by moldings and sculpture; portals in particular were given a Great in Santiago de Compostela in western Spain acquired
rich decoration. This division into units applies to interiors as almost equal fame. James was the patron saint of the Re-
St
well. Everything consists of units. The nave and aisles, the conquista, the holy war to free Spain from Arab rule, and
transepts and the choir are all made up of well-defined bays, pilgrimages to his reputed tomb were, in part at least, inspired
each separated from its neighbor by piers or columns, by wall by a pious zeal to be associated with this struggle. Along the
shafts, and by pilasters. This division is carried upwards into routes to Santiago, the troubadours encouraged this spirit by
the vaulting by means of transverse arches, which, while their epicpoems, of which the Song of Roland was based on
strengthening the vault, also provide the customary division. the war of Charlemagneagainst the Moors. Special hospices
Even in cases where barrel vaulting has no transverse arches, were built along the pilgrims' routes, roads were improved,
the division into bays is achieved by painted decoration. bridges repaired and built, and, above all, churches capable of
Within each bay, the elevation is also subdivided into a main holding large numbers of pilgrims sprang up along the princi-
arcade, a tribune, and a clerestory. Thus the whole building pal roads used by them.
consists of the sum of its rhythmical parts, the proportions of The pilgrimage churches are all of the ambulatory type and
which are determined by simple, mathematical relationships. their transepts provided with aisles so the crowds had more
Romanesque builders acquired their knowledge and art by- room to circulate. All of them employ sculpture lavishly. One
experience and the study of older structures, especially of the landmarks in Romanesque architecture was the rebuild-
 —

ROMANESQUE ART 565

ing of the Abbey of Cluny, which started in 1088. Until the inspiring mother church in Burgundy.
rebuilding of St Peter's in Rome in the 16th century, it was the Regional schools of Romanesque architecture are most dis-

largest Christian building. In order to provide sufficient room tinct in the countries that lacked strong, central political
for the resident and visiting monks, and for the vast congrega- power, like France and Italy. In England, the strong mon-
tions attracted to Cluny by its fame, the church was built with archy, imposed by military conquest, used the monasteries,
two transepts, each with apsidal chapels and each with a which were filled with Norman monks, as one of the means
tower over its crossing. In addition, there was a further tower of keeping the country under control. The Norman monks
over each arm of the western transept. In front of the facade imported to England Romanesque architecture of the most
was a narthex flanked by twin towers. This massive building advanced kind, for 11th-century Normandy witnessed a de-
must have been an unforgettable sight, but all that remains of velopment in the field of architecture that ranked among the
it today is the arm of the southwest transept; the rest was most progressive in Europe. The abbey churches at Bernay
pulleddown after the French Revolution. and Jumieges are the earliest surviving examples of those large
Some of the self-evident features of Cluny —the pointed and massive buildings. The two abbeys at Caen one for the —
barrel vaulting, the fluted pilasters, and the pointed arches of monks, St-Etienne, the other for the nuns, La Trinite were —
the arcades —were imitated elsewhere. The double transept founded by William the Conqueror and his wife. They, and a
plan found only one follower, the Cluniac Priory at Lewes in string of other major churches, set the pattern for the future
England. However, on the whole, Cluny was too vast to have development of Anglo-Norman architecture in England. With
inspired close imitations. The majority of Cluniac churches the great financial resources available to them in their new
followed, in the design of their churches, the example of country, the Normans built on a far larger scale than in their
churches in their own regions rather than that of the awe- own Duchy; Norwich Cathedral, for example, has no less
than 14 bays. As in Normandy, Anglo-Norman churches were
The elevation of the nave of Durham Cathedral; 1093—ci r 3° of the three-apse or ambulatory type and, in elevation, they
usually have three stories: the main arcade, the tribunes, and
the clerestory with a wall-passage for circulation at window
level, a useful device for diminishing the weight of the wall
and for the maintenance of the building. Jumieges, St-Etienne
and La Trinite, Caen, and many other Norman churches, are
notable for their two-towered facades, a scheme frequently
followed in England, although in the later Romanesque
churches screen-facades became popular.
The most famous of all Anglo-Norman buildings is Durham
Cathedral (1093-0 mo), which, in many of its features, fol-

lowed the earlier Norman models (like Jumieges, for example,

it has an alternating system of supports with cylindrical and
compound piers) but introduced ribbed vaulting which had
never before been used on such a scale. This type of vaulting
was further experimented with in Normandy, and from there
passed on to the ile-de-France (the royal domain round Paris)

where it laid the foundations for Gothic architecture.

With the exception of a group of buildings in the West of
England (Gloucester, Tewkesbury, Pershore) characterized by
tall, heavy columns and four-story elevations, which can be

considered as a local school, English Romanesque churches do

not form regional types as in France or Italy. The most distinc-
tive regional school of the French Romanesque, apart from

Normandy, is the group of domed churches in Aquitaine

probably the result of influences from Cyprus.
Italian churches varied greatly in type. The Lombard school
evolved from the "First Romanesque" and frequently em-
ployed exterior galleries and distinctive decorative sculpture.
It had a wide influence in the whole of Europe from western

France to Hungary and Poland. The metropolitan church of

Scandinavia, Lund Cathedral, is a pure Lombard building.

The Tuscan Romanesque, with Pisa Cathedral, the Leaning

Tower, and the Baptistery as the most famous examples, relies

Pisa Cathedral, begun in 1063, enlarged 1 150—60, and the Leaning Tower, begun in 1 174, completed in 1372

German Romanesque: the west end of the Abbey church of Maria Laach;
1093-1230
largely for effect on the multi-colored marbles and external
galleries. Much is classical, deriving from Roman
of the detail
models. Venice and the Adriatic coastline were much affected
by Byzantine influences. In the Norman kingdom of Sicily and
southern Italy, a blending of many cultures took place, with
considerable elements from Arab art, especially in the lavish
decoration of buildings. In Spain, too, Arab influences af-
fected Romanesque buildings.
Perhaps the most distinctive was Romanesque architecture
in Germany, which emerged gradually out of the Ottonian
style. Although Lombard exterior galleries were frequently
employed, the character of German Romanesque churches is

quite un-Italian. In their plans, the use of apsidal terminations

at both the east and west ends of the buildings was frequent
as was also the employment of numerous towers, not only at
the west end but over the transepts or flanking the choir.
Especially impressive are the Imperial cathedrals of Speyer
(with groin vaults over the nave, built before 1100), Mainz,
and Worms.
From Early Christian times onwards, certain structures
were built on round or polygonal plans — for instance,
mausolea and baptisteries. One of the most venerated build-
ings of Christianity was the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem
which became a model for endless imitation over the cen-
turies. During the Romanesque period, many imitations (few

actually resembling the Holy Sepulcher) were made and many

 ROMANESQUE ART 567

of these were connected with the buildings of the military

orders, setup in the Crusading Kingdom for the defence of the
holy places and the protection of the pilgrims. These orders,
the Templars and the Hospitalers, had many wealthy
branches in the West and their churches are invariably cen-
trally planned.
An important place in the architectural history of the
Romanesque period is held by Cistercian buildings. Founded
as a reaction against the worldly mode of life of the Cluniacs
and the Benedictines, the Cistercians aimed at an austere life
in isolation, away from towns and even villages. Their monas-

teries were to be self-sufficient in everything the soul and body

needed. Their churches yvere simple in plan, rectangular, with-
out towers, and without sculpture or painting. Their beauty
lies in their simplicity and fine craftsmanship. The order was
born in Burgundy, and,
in spite of great animosity between the

Cistercians and the Cluniacs, Cistercian builders adopted the

pointed arch from Cluny. The newly emerging Gothic archi-
tecture was much to their liking because of its simple, logical
structural qualities. The prodigious success and expansion of
the Cistercians throughout Europe helped the expansion of
the early Gothic style which they adopted. Unfortunately,
many Burgundy have perished,
early Cistercian monasteries in
but Fontenay Abbey survives as an example of the Cistercian
npe of church, monastic buildings, workshops, and agricul-
tural structures. In the early stages of their history, before they
too became as worldly as the orders they aimed to replace, Norman castle-building: the keep of Hedingham Castle, Essex, England:
1130-52
yvherever the Cistercians built a monastery it yvas based on
the standard type: Fontenay is an example.
Of secular Romanesque buildings, many town houses and end of the 1 2.th century and even later. In contrast to the
public structures survive — usually in a much altered con- severity of the early development, this late phase was charac-
dition. Some monastic buildings, such as chapter houses, dor- terized by a complexity of forms and a richness of sculptural
mitories, and even kitchens, still exist. The most spectacular decoration. This Romanesque "Baroque" lost the vigor and
Romanesque kitchen in existence is at Fontevrault Abbey, inventiveness of the earlier works. It was the swan song of a

built yvith great attention to the decorative use of stonework. style which, at its height, produced buildings that still rank
In these monasteries, the most beautiful structure after the among the great achievements of human culture.
church was invariably the cloister, the place where the monks
read, kept their books, and performed many of their allotted Painting and glass. The interiors of Romanesque churches
tasks.The cloisters of Silos Abbey in Spain and of Moissac were, almost without exception, covered with plaster and then
Abbey in Languedoc in southern France are among the most painted. Many of these churches were cleaned and their paint
spectacular buildings of this type (both cnoo). removed in the 19th century, as it was then believed that the
The castles of the period are more works of utility than beautifully cut ashlar was originally uncovered. In fact, it can
beauty, but often, in their massive solidity and picturesque be shown that, in some cases, walls were plastered and
situation, they are a memorable sight. Some of the most inven- painted in imitation of ashlar blocks, as if the idea of an un-
tive castles were built by the Normans, both in the Duchy and painted surface was repugnant to medieval men. Romanesque
in England; they are credited with the invention of the keep, interiors, with their vast expanses of walls and comparatively
the towerlike structure within the defensive walls and moats. small windows, provided far greater opportunities for paint-
The greatest advances in castle-design were made by the Cru- ers than, say, Gothic interiors, in which walls were reduced to
saders, who, under Byzantine influence, introduced curtain- an absolute minimum and large windows took their place.

walls incorporating defensive towers at frequent intervals. This explains the blossoming of stained-glass painting in the

The first Gothic building, the choir of St-Denis Abbey, Gothic period and its rather modest role in the itth and 12th
'built 1 140-4), started a new development in European archi- centuries.
tecture, at first confined to the Ile-de-France and the ad|oimng Bv far the most durable technique of covering walls with
regions. In many parts of France and the rest of Europe, the decoration was that of mosaic. After the distintegration of the
Romanesque style in building continued to be used until the ilingian Empire in the 9th century, this technique, requir-
568 ROMANESQUE ART

The apseTnosaics in S. Maria in Trastevere, Rome; 1 140

ing costly materials and great skill, practically went out of use Among the mosaics of St Mark's in Venice and those on the
in Western Europe. It was revived at the celebrated monastery neighboring islands of Torcello and Murano, cycles survive
of Monte Cassino, the cradle of western monasticism, when it dating from the nth to the 14th centuries.
was being rebuilt by Abbot Desidenus (ob. 1087). He ob- A related technique was that of making mosaic pavements,
tained the services of Greek craftsmen from Constantinople, of which the most extensive examples also survive in Italy, at
and used them to decorate his church and to train local Otranto for example. Wall-painting as practiced during the
people, so that the craft would not be lost again. None of the Romanesque period included frescoes; this was frequently
mosaics by these Greek artists survive, but the example of combined with other techniques such as a secco and tempera.
Desidenus was followed in Rome, where two cycles were car- Even in the best conditions, wall-paintings deteriorate with
ried out: one in S. Clemente (1 128) and the other in S. Maria time, so they were usually replaced at one time or another,
in Trastevere (1140). Outside Rome, two centers are oustand- frequently by painting a new scheme on top of the old. Thus,
ing for their mosaic works Sicily and Venice and both imi- — the wall-paintings that now survive were often uncovered by
tate Byzantine models. The Norman Kings of Sicily, jealous of painstakingly removing the later layers of paint. In all cases,
the splendors of Constantinople, sponsored a colossal scheme what survives gives only a very imperfect idea of what must
of decorating the churches under their patronage, and their have been one of the most important branches of artistic pro-
palaces, with Byzantine-inspired mosaics: for example, duction in the period.
Cefalu, Palermo, Monreale. Venice, whose power was based As far as can be judged from the existing material, there
on trade with the East, was able to commission Greek artists was, unlike in Byzantium, no universally followed method of
to work in its territories, but simultaneously many local allocating subjects to any given place in the building. General-
craftsmen acquired a mastery of Greek techniques and styles, ly speaking, the central apse was considered the most impor-
and sometimes blended them with Romanesque forms. tant part of the building, reserved for Christ, with subsidiary
 ROMANESQU1 ART 569

Christ and the Adulteress: a wall-painting in S. Angelo in Formis, near Capua; late 1 1 th century-

apses frequently decorated with the figures of the Virgin Mary importance, still alive), a detail which makes it possible to
and the patron whoever he or she might
saint of the church, date at least the earliest of these wall-paintings to before 1087,
be. The long above the arcade were
stretches of the nave walls the date of Desiderius' death.
usually divided into bay units, each devoted to a scene from The Byzantine elements in these south Italian paintings are
the Scriptures, Old and New Testament episodes on opposite easily explained by the proximity of Monte Cassino. But in
walls. The west wall was frequently allocated to the Last Judg- other parts of Europe, in Austria (Salzburg), France (Berze-la-
ment. Ville), England (Canterbury, Winchester), and elsewhere,
One of the best-preserved cycles of wall-paintings is at the Romanesque painters were clearly aware of the Byzantine
Abbey of S. Angelo in Formis near Capua, a dependency of style and made use of it, modifying it in various ways. Their
Monte Cassino. These wall-paintings probably reflect, in a Byzantine models were presumably portable ob|ects, such as
distant way, the now lost mosaics of the motherhouse, for illuminated books; in other cases they probably knew Byzan-
they are strongly Byzantine in style and iconography. How- tine art second-hand, from visiting Italy, especially Sicily. In

ever, there seems little doubt that if the painters of S. Angelo some cases, they could have traveled through Constantinople
in Formis were influenced by Byzantine art, they were also on the way to the Holy Land and have seen Greek paintings. It
deeply indebted to late Roman illusionism with which they is easy to see the difference between Romanesque painting

were familiar through the study of Early Christian wall-paint- affected by Byzantine art (as at Berze-la-Ville), and that which
ings in the old churches of Rome. But their figures are indis- was not (as at Tahull). In the former, there is a striving for
putably Romanesque m the linear, stylized treatment of the naturalism in the way the folds of the draperies are used to
faces (especially the schematic hair) and the draperies. The emphasize the structure of the human body, and the highlights
paintings include the figure of Abbot Desiderius of Monte attempt to convey its three-dimensional quality and roundness
Cassino, shown with a square nimbus (signifying a person of of forms. Modeling is achieved not only by the use of high-
 ROMANESQUE ART 571

lights but also by many dynamic lines which help to define the
shapes and postures of the figures, while other such lines are
used merely as patterns in order to enrich the surface of the
picture. This last feature is not Byzantine but Romanesque.
Berze-la-Ville is a small church near Cluny, belonging to it,

and the place of rest forAbbot Hugh (ob. 1 109), who built the
great church at Cluny. As S. Angelo in Formis is thought to
reflect the style of the lost mosaics of Monte Cassino, so the
wall-paintings of Berze are believed to reflect the style and
quality of the frescoes that we know decorated the great
church at Cluny.
In contrast to Berze, the wall-paintings in the Catalan
church of S. Clemente at Tahull (removed to the Museum of
Catalan Art at Barcelona) are thoroughly Romanesque in
style, without any attempt at Byzantine naturalism. They are
linear, stylized in the extreme, and two-dimensional. The fea-
tures are simplified and geometrical, the colors vivid and ar-
bitrary. The whole is a powerful image, only distantly related
to natural forms and proportions.
Not all Romanesque paintings were as uncompromising,
but many share with Tahull the predilection for the simplifica-
tion, almost geometrization, of human forms. This tendency

towards abstraction, for changing natural forms almost into

geometric patterns, was one of the features of Romanesque art
as a whole.
In western France, a number of wall-paintings of the
Romanesque period survive and illustrate well the great var-
iety of styles that existed even in one geographical area. The
most extensive of these are the wall-paintings at St-Savin-sur-
Gartempe, where in one church it is possible to distinguish
different styles because of the employment of
a number of
painters trained in somewhat different traditions.
Much better known than Romanesque wall-painting is the
book-illumination of that period. Although here also the loss
through destroyed libraries is heavy, a sufficient number of Christ in Majesty, from the Bury Bible; 2nd quarter of 12th century.
books exist to give us a much fuller picture of the development Corpus Christi College Library, Cambridge
in this important field. Not all medieval books were illumi-
nated: in fact only a small proportion of them were. In that where monks copied books and decorated them. But there are
age of intellectual curiosity, a great texts were copied many also numerous examples of books commissioned by monas-
for their content only. Illuminations are found chiefly in books teries from lay artists. One such book is the Bury Bible

for liturgical use at special ceremonies and also in books in- (Corpus Christi College Library, Cambridge) which, we know
tended as gifts to some highborn person. Some books de- from a document, was executed by a secular master, Magister
pended on pictures as much as on the text, for instance the Hugo, for the Abbey of Bury St Edmunds. Two other cele-
Bestiaries and Herbals. Not all books were illustrated in the brated books, the Eadwine Psalter (Trinity College Library,
same way in all countries. It became a custom in England to Cambridge) and the Dover Bible (Corpus Christi College Lib-
precede the text of the Psalter with full-page illustrations of rary, Cambridge) were written by a monk of Christ Church
episodes from the Gospels, although the pictures had nothing Cathedral in Canterbury, but illuminated by lay painters who
to do with the text. are portrayed in the Dover Bible painting in an initial.
In the past, it was assumed that all Romanesque illumina- The Eadwine Psalter is a good example of the method of
tions were the work of monks, but today it is generally ac- "copying". This book was one of three copies, made at differ-
cepted that, in many cases, the illuminators were lay artists. It ent times, ci 000, CI150, and cnoo, from a Carolingian
is of course true that most monasteries had their scriptoria, original, the Utrecht Psalter (University Library, Utrecht),
which was at Canterbury from about the year 1000 until the

Wall-paintings from S. Clemente at Tahull; early 1 2th century. Reformation. None is an exact copy, but the closest to the
Museum of Catalan Art, Barcelona original is the earliest of the three. The Eadwine Psalter is
 ROMANESQUE ART

thoroughly Romanesque in style, and follows the original only middle of the 12th century, the character of Cistercian illumi-
in iconography and layout. Thus copying was not slavish, but, nation changed considerably under the influence of Byzantine
on the contrary, the artist felt free to modify the model to the models and in response to the austere directives of St

taste of the period. Bernard.

As can be expected, Romanesque illumination evolved The country number of mas-
that produced an astonishing

gradually from pre-Romanesque styles. In Germany, for ex- was England, where
terpieces in the field of book-illumination

ample, the transition from the Ottoman style was a slow pro- the tradition of book-painting of the highest quality went
cess. It is difficult to say precisely when the Ottonian style, back to the early Middle Ages. The Norman Conquest, and
based so strongly on Byzantine and Classical models, was the resulting reorganization of the English Church and the
abandoned in favor of the more decorative and linear great influx of Norman monks, introduced into England
Romanesque. Among the various regional styles or schools of Norman forms of illumination. These consisted chiefly of "in-
illumination, those of Regensburg, Salzburg, and Cologne are habited" initials, that is, initials made up of scrolls of conven-
The Mosan region (the valley of the River
the most distinctive. tional foliage in which human and monsters
figures, animals,

Meuse in Belgium) was one of the most inventive artistic cen- were entangled. Of the many
centers producing books with
ters during the Romanesque period; some highly original such initials, the most prolific was at Canterbury. But the
books were produced there, in which Byzantine elements tradition of lavishly illuminated books with full-page pictures
played an important part. The Italian illumination of the was revived cnzo with the St Albans Psalter (now in St
period is best known by the so-called gigantic Bibles, pro- Godehard, Hildesheim) made for a recluse, Christina, and
duced in Rome and Umbria, and the Exulted Rolls, a peculiar- followed by a number of other, equally rich books: the Life of
ity of southern Italy. These were long parchment scrolls, with St Edmund (Pierpont Morgan Library, New York), executed
the text for the blessing of the paschal candle and its appropri- by one of the painters of the St Albans Psalter, for Bury St
ate pictures; they were read from the pulpit, and unrolled for Edmunds, the Bury Bible by Magister Hugo, already men-
the congregation to see the pictures at the ceremony of the tioned, the Lambeth Bible, made at Canterbury, and many
blessing of candles on the Saturday before Easter. others.
In France, there were several regional centers of book- The Bury Bible (ci 140) is a manuscript of great importance.
lllumination, Limoges, Normandy, and Burgundy among It contains a strong Byzantine element, which was increasingly
others. Unfortunately, little is known about the books pro- to influence English painting in the 12th century. The vivid
duced at Cluny, for few manuscripts from there have survived. colors and considerable amount of gold give the book a lavish
Those that do, however, show fairly close links with German appearance. The figures are solid, and covered by clinging
illumination, both Ottonian and Romanesque. Burgundian draperies, enriched with double-line patterns, which help to
manuscripts produced in Cistercian monasteries are better indicate the form of the bodies. This so-called damp-fold
known. They include some striking books from the early 12th drapery is of Byzantine derivation, a device used by other
century, full of humor in depicting the occupations of the painters in many other centers, notably at Canterbury (the
monks. In this respect, they are exceptional. Towards the Lambeth Bible, Lambeth Palace Library, London) and Win-
chester (the Winchester Psalter, British Library, London)
An example of French Romanesque book-illumination: a monk cutting where it was used with a passion for dynamic patterns.
rich,
corn. Bibliotheque Municipale, Dijon Here the Byzantine forms were made Romanesque. But
truly
by ci 170-80, this agitated style gave way to a softer, more

7?M naturalistic
trend
method of depicting
was not restricted to England alone, but was almost
the human figure. This new

universal and was also present in media other than painting.

This "classicizing" trend was due, once again, to a wave of
^ Byzantine influences, partly from Sicily but also presumably
by direct contacts with Greek art. A manuscript in which this

Byzantine element is seen very strongly is the Winchester Bible

(in Winchester Cathedral Library), a colossal book now
bound in 1 1 80. A leaf by one of
four volumes, which dates to c

Sets the painters of thisfamous work is in the Pierpont Morgan

Library, New York (MS. 619), and it is thought that the wall-
paintings in the Aragonese royal chapel at Sigena (damaged
during the Spanish Civil War and now in the Museum of
Catalan Art, Barcelona), are by the hand of this Winchester
master, who was probably trained in Sicily.

This development away from the Romanesque style,

imbued so strongly with classical elements absorbed from By-

 ROMANESQU1 \RT 573

zantine art, is usually termed the Transitional or Proto-Gothic

style.

Romanesque stained glass is stylistically closely related to

wall-painting and book illumination. Its aesthetic effect is, of

course, very different by the nature of the technique for the
translucent colors of glass are more lively, especially if seen
against strong outside light. The technique of glass-painting
is described in the celebrated artists" manual De Diversis
Artibus. written cnoo by a monk who wished to remain
anonymous, and who signed his work with a pseudonym.
Theophilus. The design of the glass panel was made on a flat
surface and pieces of glass of appropriate colors were then cut
to shape. On these were painted, with enamel colors, the de-
tails of the draperies, the faces, the hands, or whatever was
required; these painted pieces were fired so the colors would
fuse with the glass. The pieces were then put on the flat surface
and joined with strips of lead; these formed an important part
of the design, providing black outlines and accents. In spite of
the use of highlights for modeling the figures in early
Romanesque glass, they and highly stylized
appear very flat

for example, the head of Christ from Wissembourg in Alsace,

now in Strasbourg; late nth century). The figures were large

and hieratic, and there was a predilection for much ornamen-
tal detail (for example, the Prophets in Augsburg Cathedral;

C1135).
France was renowned for its glass during the Romanesque
period, and, not surprisingly, most of the surviving glass is
found there. Not all this glass was made by Frenchmen: the
glass preserved at Chalons-sur-Marne Cathedral was executed
CI150 by Mosan artists. The person who stimulated the de-
velopment of stained glass in France was Abbot Suger of St-
Denis, but unfortunately much of this glass was destroyed or
dispersed during the French Revolution. His famous Tree of
Jesse window started the fashion for this iconography in
which Christ's descent from the line of Jewish kings was rep-
resented. This composition in glass was, for instance, repeated
in Chartres Cathedral, in York Minster, and many other
places. Closely connected with the styles of the local schools
of book illuminations is the glass in Le Mans, Angers, and
Poitiers. But gradually the monumental and hieratic style of
the early Romanesque glass was replaced by a more agitated,
narrative type of painting, in which the scenes were small, and
contained in roundels with decorative borders. As in other
media, the Transitional style of Byzantine inspiration also
dominated the late-nth-centurv production of glass every-
\\ here, paving the way tor the stylistic changes that took place
in the 13th century with the triumph of Gothic.

Sculpture. The revival of sculpture after the period of neglect

during the 10th century was due, in the first place, to Ottoman
art. But Ottonian sculptors were chiefly concerned with sculp-
ture in the round, such as cult-images and church furnishings

Paintings on a leaf by one of the tt inchesier Bible artists:

late 1 2th century. Pierpont Morgan Librar\ . New York

574 ROMANESQUE ART

(seeOttoman Art). The architectural sculpture of the Otto-

man period was negligible. One of the great merits of the
Romanesque period was the revival of sculpture in stone
which formed part of a building; in this field, the achieve-

ments were truly astonishing.

The beginnings of this development were modest, tentative,
and experimental. There were enough craftsmen in different
countries during the i ith century, who were presumably mas-
ters in several media and who were capable of carving, when
required, such objects as altar frontals (though these were
usually made of precious metals), bishops' thrones, screens,
and tombs. The first tomb with an effigy, since Classical times,
was that of Abbot Isarn {ob. 1048) of St-Victor at Marseilles,
and it is not surprising that it was based on a Roman model.
The next surviving one is that of Rudolf of Swabia who died
in battle in 1080 and was buried in Merseburg Cathedral.

This time the tomb was cast in bronze, a technique German

craftsmen were more familiar with than carving in stone.
was one thing to carve an isolated object which was then
It

set up inside a church, and quite another to work side by side

with a team of masons decorating selected features of a build-

ing. It was from the close collaboration between a sculptor

and an architect that truly Romanesque sculpture was born,

and achievements in monumental sculpture became possible.
At its best. Romanesque sculpture is an organic part of the
building of which it forms a part. The collaboration between
the carver and the builder led to a mutual understanding of
problems and and resulted in happy solutions.
difficulties,

At first, was presumably commissioned from

sculpture
sculptors working near quarries, so there was hardly any need
for the sculptor even to see the building for which his work
was intended. The celebrated marble lintel over the west door-
way of the Abbey of St-Genis-des-Fontaines dated 1019— 2.0)
in the Roussillon region on the French side of the Pyrenees

could well be a work of this type, for it is inserted into the

facade without in any way being integrated into its design.
Christ in Majesty: a relief by Gilduinus in the choir of St-Sernin.
The caning is flat, in two planes, with arbitrary forms, ex-
Toulouse: c 1090
ecuted in the so-called chip-carved technique. The subject is

Christ Majesty enthroned between two angels and six

in

apostles. Chip-caning was practiced in many periods, but in say, narrative capitals and sculptured figures in niches,
this case it was probably inspired by works in Islamic Spain. flanking the portal. Around 1090, a remarkable sculptor
However. Arab art was predominantly nonfigurative; the St- called Gilduinus took over, first producing a marble altar, and
Genis-des-Fontaines' carver could well have had in front of then carving a number of capitals in the interior and seven
him an Ottoman ivory as a model for the composition and, large reliefswhich were probably part of the screen. One of
above all, for the facial types. In the same region, there are these is Christ in Majesty, still a timid work. The sculptor
related but later works, a lintel at St-Andre-de-Sorrede, a must have used a work in metal or ivory as a model, and
cross, set above the doorway, at Arles-sur-Tech, and. on the enlarged it in marble. The relief is flat and the draperies indi-
Catalan side of the Pyrenees, a series of capitals at S. Pedro de cated by double lines. Yet the composition is powerful in its
Roda. This regional development was the first sign of the in- simplicity. In other reliefs, Gilduinus tried to introduce a dif-
tensive sculptural activity that was to blossom in the last two ferent, more naturalistic type ot drapery, clearly imitating
decades of the nth century. Its chief center was Toulouse. Roman sculpture, of which the district still has numerous ex-
The collegiate church of St-Sernin at Toulouse has already amples. The work of Gilduinus and his workshop at Toulouse
been mentioned as one of the "pilgrimage churches". Its ear- must have been much admired, for the rich and powerful
liest sculptures consisted of interior capitals and a portal Cluniac Abbey at Moissac obtained the services of sculptors
known as the Porte des Comtes, with "histonated", that is to trained by Gilduinus. To them we owe the beautiful cloister
 ROMANESQUE ART 575

with its wealth of capitals and marble plaques on cloister The sculpturalworkshop of Cluny must have attracted
piers. An inscription tells us it was finished in 1100. The rapid the best talent of the region. Once the work in the abbey
evolution of the style initiated by Gilduinus at St-Sernin can be was completed, the sculptors dispersed over the whole of
seen in a doorway there, known as the Porte Miegeville (of Burgundy to produce some of the greatest masterpieces of
before 11 18), which repeats the arrangement of the earlier Romanesque sculpture. The two most talented masters were
Porte des Comtes, with the addition of a tympanum and lintel Gislebertus, whose name is recorded in an inscription at
representing the Ascension of Christ. The portal is recessed by Autun, and the unknown author of the tympanum at Vezelay.
two orders: arches and columns; as time went on, the number The fame of Gislebertus rests on a series of interior, histori-
of orders in a portal increased, providing a rich frame for the ated capitals, and the two large tympana at Autun. The style
entrance, and leading the eye by gradual stages into the in- of the master of the Vezelay tympanum is more dynamic than
terior. The style of the Porte Miegeville is more lively, the that of his rival's at Autun, and more akin to the wall-paint-
relief more pronounced, and the details more decorative than ings at Berze-la-Ville. The innovation in their portals (CI130)
the earlier works of Gilduinus. It is at this stage that the was the use of the trumeau, a supporting pillar in the center of
sculptors from Toulouse must have moved to the principal the doorway, technically essential because of the great size of
pilgrimage church, Santiago de Compostela, where they the tympana employed by them. Such large tympana had to be
worked on the transept portals of the cathedral. A similar carved on several slabs joined together; although they rested
style is also two portals of S. Isidoro at Leon, at Jaca,
found in on strong lintels, the weight of the whole work required addi-
and at other places on or near the route to Santiago. If we tional support. This provided sculptors with the welcome
were to use the term "pilgrimage sculpture", it would be for opportunity of extending the sculptural program by carving
this series of works. —
additional reliefs on trumeaux the statue of St Lazarus, the
The extraordinary blossoming of sculpture in Toulouse and patron saint of the church, at Autun (destroyed in the 18th
elsewhere was largely due to the collaboration of the crafts- century and replaced in the next) and that of John the Baptist
men, who, in the nth century, worked in many media, chiefly at Vezelay. Moreover, at Vezelay there are additional pairs of
making church furnishings, with the masons on a building figures of apostles flanking the doorway on either side. At
site. As sculpture was increasingly in demand for decorating both Autun and Vezelay, the west facade also included two
buildings, the craftsmen began to specialize more and more in lateral portals of a smaller size.

—
stone sculpture but they did not always become members of Contemporary with, or even a little earlier than, these two
the masons' teams. This can be demonstrated in many regions major works was the portal of Moissac (C1125) with its gigan-
where similar types of buildings do not necessarily contain tic tympanum representing the Apocalyptic vision of the
similar types of sculpture; on the contrary, very different Second Coming: Christ, the austere Judge, in the center
buildings incorporate sculpture by the same sculptors. flanked by two angels, the symbols of the Evangelists, and the
Languedoc, with Toulouse as its main center, was one of 24 Elders of the Apocalypse. Below, on the trumeau, there are
the many regions of Europe where, at the close of the nth fierce beastsand, fitting skillfully into the sides of the trumeau,
century, a veritable school of sculpture arose. Burgundy was are the elongated figures of Jeremiah and St Paul. On the
another important region where, out of modest beginnings in jambs on either side are the figures of St Peter and Isaiah. The
the 1 ith century, a flourishing school of sculpture developed. portal is within a shallow porch, and here the sculptor took
This can be seen, for instance, in the series of capitals in the advantage of the opportunity to cover the side walls with
crypt of St-Benigne Abbey at Dijon (before 1018). The center narrative reliefs. Portal sculpture, so modestly initiated 100
where most important innovations were made, was, not sur- years earlier at St-Genis-des-Fontaines, had developed into a
prisingly, Cluny Abbey. Here, at the close of the 1 ith century, complex and extensive program of decoration. The Moissac
the new church was adorned with a series of capitals in the tympanum is a work of great power and beauty that ranks
ambulatory, now in the Musee du Farinier, Cluny, which are among the masterpieces of human artistic achievement. It ex-

as refined in their execution as in their iconography. The crisp, presses forcefully medieval man's piety, and his fear of the

delicate forms of the acanthus leaves and the figures show a severe judgment that awaits the sinner. Although the tym-
complete mastery of the stone-carving technique. The subjects panum or the trumeau are unified works in themselves, the
represented on these capitals include the Seasons, the Virtues, individual parts of the portal and porch are not fully inte-
and the Tones of the Gregorian chant, personified by musi- grated into an harmonious whole. As with the bay system of a
cians playing various instruments. The main portal of the Romanesque interior, these are still individual units. True

abbey is known from drawings made before its destruction unity in portal decoration was not achieved until the portals

and from a few fragments. It had a majestic tympanum, with of St-Denis Abbey were created a short time later.
Christ surrounded by the symbols of the Evangelists and In the meantime, Romanesque sculpture had made parallel

seated in a mandorla supported by two angels. As on the advances in many parts of Europe. In Spain, a similar develop-
portals of St-Sernin at Toulouse, there were flanking figures in ment Languedoc was taking place. The cloister of
to that in

the spandrels of the square frame (of Arab derivation) and, in Silos Abbey is contemporary with the cloister of Moissac. Its

addition, there were carved archivolts around the tympanum. capil ils have the delicacy and refinement akin to that found in
The Burgundian School of Sculpture
The beginnings of the Burgundian School of
sculpture are linked with the rebuilding of
Clunv Abbey, the motherhouse of a vast and
influential monastic order. Work on the huge
building, to be the largest in Christendom,
-:arted in 1088, and the consecration of
the finished church took place in 1 130. Only

a small portion of this structure survives, but

eight capitals from the ambulatory are pre-
served in the Museedu Farinier, Cluny and
ations have brought to light numerous
carved fragments from various parts of the
building. These include the majestic west
portal, recorded by drawings and engravings
before its destruction.
Cluny sculpture is of great refinement; the
acanthus of the Connthianesque capitals lmi-
the best Classical models, the figures are
modeled with delicacy, the draperies are On the great portal was the Apocalyptic The tympanum of the
rendered by rhythmical incised lines, while Vision of Christ between the symbols of the Last Judgment at Autun

Evangelists, the Elders of the Apocalypse, Cathedral by

the contours are agitated, expressing a dyna-
Gisleberrus; c 1 1 2.0-50
mic mood. The subject matter of the capitals and the angels. There were originally many
is allegorical, and includes the Tones oi the hundreds of carved capitals in the church.
Gregorian chant, the Seasons, and the Virtues. and altar frontals, tombs, screens, and many
other furnishings and embellishments in two side-tympana, though the greatest glory
marble, stone, and wood, which must have of this church is the central portal with the
occupied a large team of sculptors until. Mission of the Apostles on its tympanum, the
c 1 1 20. many of them moved to other build- expressive work of a sculptor who was no
ing sites throughout Burgundy and beyond. doubt trained at Cluny. Some of the nave
The great sculptor who carved the am- capitals at Yezelay by this sculptor faithfully-
bulator}- capitals at Cluny found employ- repeat the designs first used at Cluny.
ment in the pilgrimage church of St Man The portal of Yezelay holds an important
Magdalen at Yezelay. where he produced place in the development of sculpture, for
here figure-sculpture was applied not only to
MA Connthianesque The figure of Eve from
the tympanum but also to its supporting
Four
capital, of the the lintel of the transept
Rners of Paradise, from portal ot Autun pillar or trumeau, and to the door-jambs,
Cluny Abbey: late 1 ith— Cathedral; height -ocm thus taking a step towards the "royal
earlv 1 ith century. 1 ith century. portals" of the Gothic period, in which rows
Musee du Farinier. Musee Rolin. Autun
of column-figures flank the portal.
Clunv
Another great sculptor, also trained at
Cluny, was Gislebertus, whose chief works
survive in the cathedral of St Lazarus at
Autun, another popular pilgrimage church in

Burgundy. From c 1 1 20, for ten years or

more, he carved, practically single-handed,
the narrative capitals inside the church and
the two portals both with trumeaux . one in

the north transept, and now largely de-

stroyed, and the gigantic west portal with the
Last Judgment on its tympanum. This is a
work of great expressive power and feeling,
executed in bold, arbitrary forms, visionary
rather than naturalistic. The Eve from the
transept portal is, in contrast, a work of great
tenderness and almost sensuality.
Numerous other buildings throughout
Burgundy were decorated with sculpture
showing the influence of the stvle initiated at
Cluny and thus deserving to be called a
School. There are considerable differences
 (.AI.I.ERY STUDY

between individual works, and yet they share

enough common characteristics of style and
subject matter to be instantly recognized as
having been created in Burgundy.
Towards the middle of the i zth century, a
new, even more agitated style had begun to
dominate Burgundian sculpture (seen, for
example, at Charlieu and St-Julien de Jonzy).
Works in this style rely on contrasts of light
and shade and on expressions and poses
verging on caricature.
Burgundy had a widespread influence on
Romanesque sculpture not only in other
regions of France but also beyond its borders,
for instance in Spainand England. More
important, however, was the impact of the
Burgundian style and portal decoration on
the early Gothic sculpture of the Ile-de-
France.
GEORGE ZARNECKI

T The central portal An example of the

tympanum of the later, more agitated
Mission of the Apostles style: a tympanum at
at St Mary Magdalen, Charlieu Abbey; mid
Vezelay; C1130 12th century
578 ROMANESQUE ART

remains, developed a number of regional schools in which the

influence of Roman sculpture was very marked. The marble
throne in S. Nicola at Bari, an important pilgrimage center for
the cult of St Nicholas, is a late- nth-century work of extra-
ordinary naturalism, based on some Roman models. This
throne is series surviving in Apulia and Campania.
one of a
There, as Languedoc at precisely the same time, marble
in

carvers were put on building sites to decorate portals and

other architectural details of buildings. These thrones are in-
variably supported by lions, elephants, or human Atlas
figures, and it is not surprising to find similar supports em-
ployed under the columns in portals. One such portal, perhaps
the earliest (before 1105), is found in S. Nicola, where lions
support the freestanding portal columns, an Italian revival of
this Classical motif. Such portals, with columns standing some
distance in front of them, eventually developed into large
porches as in Modena Cathedral, Ferrara Cathedral, and in
many others. Their echo is found in the transept porches of
Chartres in the 13th century.
Two Italian Romanesque sculptors stand out by the indi-
viduality of their styles: Wiligelmo and Niccolo. The
was first

responsible for the decoration of Modena Cathedral (C1099-

1 120) and stands at the beginning of the school of sculpture in

Emilia; the second was 120—50

active ci at several places, but
his most mature works are in Ferrara and Verona. Wiligelmo
was a powerful, expressive sculptor, deeply indebted to Anti-
quity. Niccolo was more lyrical in mood and softer in model-
ing his figures. His late portals include a feature that was only
hinted at by Wiligelmo: figures carved on door-jambs. This
method was only one step from the Proto-Gothic portals of St-
Denis.
The most influential of all regional schools of sculpture in
Italy was that of Lombardy, characterized by the exuberant

decoration of portals, windows, capitals, and, at times, whole

facades (as at S. Michele, Pavia) with interlaces, foliage, ani-
mals, and monsters intermingling with occasional religious
motifs. It was obviously because of the almost light-hearted,
playful character of this decoration that it found numerous
Christ on the journey to Emmaus; a relief in Silos Abbey, Spain; followers in other parts of Italy, and, above all, in Germany,
late nth century the Scandinavian countries, Hungary, and Poland. A group of
late- 12th-century churches in Russia also shows a distant in-
Islamic ivoryworks from Cordoba; it is possible that Arab fluence from this sculpture.Romanesque churches in Tuscany
craftsmen were employed there. As at Moissac, the piers of the relied for their decoration as much on marble inlays as on
cloister are decorated with carved plaques: not with the single sculpture. Pisa was an important center where, in the third
figures that are found at Moissac, but with narrative scenes, quarter of the century, the master Guglielmo was active. His
like the Journey to Emmaus, in which Christ is represented as style is related to that of the school of Provence where the
a pilgrim to Santiago with the shell, the emblem of St James, facades of St-Gilles Abbey and St-Trophime, Aries, are the
on Some scholars believe that in the early stages of its
his crib. most outstanding monuments (third quarter of the 12th cen-
development Romanesque sculpture in Spain anticipated by a tury), and were inspired by Roman architecture and sculpture.
decade or two many of the features of French sculpture. In those facades, portals are flanked by statues in niches,
Whatever the truth of such claims, it is a fact that Spanish Roman fashion, and the lintels extend beyond the portal to
sculptors were highly original throughout this period, and form a frieze, again an imitation of Roman friezes on tri-
that Spain possesses some of the most spectacular of umphal arches. These Provencal works not only show a strong
Romanesque sculptures. stylistic link with Italy, but also with Burgundy and other
Italy, as can be expected from a country so rich in Classical French schools. Artists traveled a great deal and accepted
The facade >f Notrc-Darr -La-Grande at Poitiers: mid i 2th century

commissions in places far apart, transmitting the style of one stages of its development, the school was characterized by the
region, and even from one country, to another. A sculptor very rich archivolts of the portals, niches, and windows,
known in literature as the Master of Cabestany, whose works carved radially with small, repetitive motifs, as, for example,
are found in Catalonia, Roussillon, and in Tuscany, is a good in Notre-Dame-la-Grande at Poitiers. This method was com-
example. paratively easy and effective and it was adopted in Spain and
One of the most prolific regional schools was that of west- England with great enthusiasm. In England, especially, radia-
ern France, embracing Poitou, Saintonge, and Angoumois, ting voussoirs became a favorite form for the decoration of
and extending even beyond those provinces. The original in- arches, and remained so throughout the izth century, long
spiration for the styleand type of decoration probably came after the fashion for them in their country of origin had died
from Lombardy and Languedoc, but in their exuberance the out.
churches of this school surpassed even Lombardy. The sculp- The new method of decorating arches in western France
tors have used every known method of decoration, lavishing it was invented in the third decade of the 12th century. Ulti-
on capitals, portals (which avoid tympana), niches (frequently mately, it was of far greater importance, for it was adopted in
with tympana), friezes, and corbel-tables, and at times even Gothic portal sculpture. This new method was evolved out of
covering whole wall surfaces with sculpture. In the earlier the dissatisfaction with radiating voussoirs, which allowed
\8o ROMANESQUE ART

only small-scale sculpture. The sculptors, therefore, began to called the Herefordshire School. It flourished c 1130—60 in the

cane figures along the curve of the arch, thus increasing their west of England: its principal monuments are at Shobdon and
length. The method had one disadvantage. Arches are formed Kilpeck. The latter contains one of the best presened village

of small segmental voussoirs; to cane a large figure on them churches in the country from the Romanesque period, and is

necessitated using four, five, or more voussoirs for the pur- lavishly decorated both inside and out. It can be shown that
pose. To achieve a perfect fit for the various pieces, great the origin of this schoolwas due to the pilgrimage of a local
sculptural technical virtuositywas needed and achieved. The patron to Santiago, accompanied by the principal sculptor of
figureson the arches caned in this technique are usually of the the School. This sculptor must have made numerous sketches

Virtues and Vices, the Wise and Foolish Virgins, and of of decorative schemes on churches he visited, and he and his

angels; in the apex, there is often, caned vertically, the Agnus assistants used these as models for work on many buildings

Dei and a bust of Christ. This change from the purely decora- over a number of years.
tive sculpture of the previous method to more meaningful, In Germany and the territories under German influence,

symbolic or narrative themes was perhaps the result of the Romanesque sculpture falls more clearly than elsewhere into
increasing influence of the Cistercians and especiallv of St two categories. Architectural sculpture was strongly in-
Bernard. At precisely the nme when the change in the charac- fluenced by Italy, a fact easily explained by the German politi-
ter of west French sculpture was taking place, St Bernard cal involvement in Italy; but in the sculpture of cult-images
wrote his famous indictment of frivolous subjects in art. It is and church furnishings, such as fonts, screens, and lecterns,

true that the great Cistercian chiefly objected to the use of German sculptors followed local traditions, mainly from Ot-
luxurious art objects in monastic houses, but he also criticized toman an. This type of sculpture was stylistically close to
grotesque subjects in sculpture because, as he put it. "we are contemporary metalwork and ivory-caning; it is possible
more tempted to read in the marble than in our books"'. that, as in England,many craftsmen worked in all these media
Romanesque sculpture in England was, generally speaking, throughout the Romanesque period.
of the kind that was so offensive to St Bernard. Even before Of the newly converted Christian countries, the most origi-

the political union with Aquitaine under Henry II, when the nal contribution to Romanesque sculpture was made by
influence of western French sculpture became prevalent, the N'onvay. There, timber remained the favorite building ma-
sculpture used in Anglo-Norman churches was predominantly terial for a long time. The Nonvegian stave churches, as a
decorative, using all kinds of grotesque motifs similar to those rule, were provided with caned portals of great richness, in

found in the contemporary "inhabited" initials in illuminated which Romanesque motifs were modified by the sunival of
books. The capitals in the crypt of Canterbury Cathedral, Viking animal forms —mainly large dragons, whose bodies are
built ciioo. are an admirable example of this, and it is, in caned the whole height of the portal, one on each side and
fact, possible to find numerous close parallels in subject interlaced with stems of complicated foliage design. These
matter and in style to these capitals in initials painted at Can- canings are fairly flat,but crisp and dynamic. Religious
terbury at that time. The similarity of the two is in many cases motifs are practically unknown. The spirit of this art is still
so striking that it is and the sculp-
quite possible the painters entirely Viking.
tors were the same people. The likelihood of this is further It is no exaggeration to say that the course of European
suggested by a documented case of the artist Magister Hugo sculpture north of the Alps was influenced by one single build-
who obviously practiced several techniques — book-illumina- ing and one person. The building was St-Dems Abbey, and the
tion, casting in bronze, and the caning of large figures. person was its Abbot, Suger.
The sources of the English sculpture of the period were The rebuilding of the abbey involved the addition of the
Of foreign
varied. influences, those from Lombardy and the western block, carried out 113--40, and the new choir,
west of France were the most widespread. But English sculp- 1 140-4. The western block consists of a narthex between two

tors were, nevertheless, faithful to local traditions and of towers and the three portals. In his fairly detailed account of
these, the Winchester School style and the Viking animal the work carried out on his initiative and under his guidance,
styles were the most persistent see Anglo-Saxon Art and Suger tells us very little about the portals — but this is consis-
Viking Art . On the whole, English Romanesque sculpture is tent with other medieval writings, which, while describing
not monumental, but employs small-scale delicate ornamenta- works in precious materials, are usually silent about stone
tion of every kind. In no other part of Europe did geometric sculpture. Suger was a cultivated and much traveled man; this
patterns enjoy greater popularity than in this sculpture. Religi- must have made him conscious that, by contemporary stan-
ous themes were rare except on screens of which there are dards, the Abbey under his charge was old-fashioned. He re-
several fragmentary remains, for example at Chichester and solved, therefore, not only to improve it, but to make his
Durham Cathedrals;, and
on doorways usually
their presence Abbey more impressive and more lavish than any he had seen.
signifies foreign inspiration from Lombardy
for example, Ely For this purpose he assembled the best craftsmen from many
and Burgundy, Malmesbury from Languedoc and western regions, and it seems that, among his sculptors were men from
France;. One of the few schools of sculpture with a clear Languedoc and western France, and possibly even an Italian.
geographical boundary and an individual stvle was what is Of the three portals of the west front, one had a mosaic tym-
 ROMANESQUE ART 5 8 I

panum which certainly suggests some Italian participation in if suspended between heaven and earth. They were imitated
the work. The portals as they exist today are but a sad rem- widely in France, and occasionally in Spain and England, but
nant of the original work, but drawings exist of the statues nobody could equal the artistic quality and spirituality of
that were destroyed during the French Revolution. these statues.
The central doorway has the scene of the Last Judgment on The achievements of the Chartres workshop, unique though
the tympanum (with Suger prostrate at Christ's feet) and there they are, were made possible by the experiments carried out
was an inscription (quoted in Suger's account of the work) on previously elsewhere, and in Languedoc and Burgundy in par-
the lintel. The lintel and the trumeau no longer exist. Sur- ticular. The Ile-de-France, with Paris as its capital, had played

rounding the tympanum are four archivolts with the Elders of little or no part in these experiments. From now on, after St-

the Apocalypse and other figures carved along the curve of the Denis and Chartres, the leadership was to pass to that part of
archivolts. Suger must have seen this new method of carving the country, reflecting the new prestige of the French mon-
arches in Aquitaine when he went there to arrange the mar- archy. St-Denis was an Abbey, Chartres was not. St-Denis and
riage of King Louis VII with Eleanor, the heiress to the Duke- Chartres are still largely Romanesque, but contain the seeds
dom. The door-jambs either side of the entrance are carved of new developments which were to lead to Gothic art. In
with the Wise and Foolish Virgins, a subject favored in west- St-Denis the long line of monastic patronage that had so
ern France, but the actual arrangement of the figures under the dominated the Romanesque period was to end. The future
arches is taken from Wiligelmo's portal at Modena. What belonged to the city cathedrals and to secular patronage. The
was, however, entirely novel (but is now destroyed) was the main steps in the evolution of the sculpture of the Proto-
use of so-called column-figures, four on either side. They were Gothic period must be studied in cathedrals such as Senlis or
less than life-size and were statues in the round projecting Laon. During this period of transition, the main inspiration
from the colonette of the portal and carved from the same came from the prosperous, industrial Mosan region. Senlis
block of stone. This was a logical development of what had (CI170) follows St-Denis and Chartres in some respects, but
been done at Moissac or Vezelay, where large figures flank the its column-figures, invested with a new naturalism, are quite
portals without being incorporated into them. The sculptor foreign to Romanesque art. Its iconography, the Triumph of
Niccolo made such figures a part of portal composition, but the Virgin, also marks the new period, less haunted by fear of
placed them on rectangular jambs. The sculptor of St-Denis, the Last Judgment and the punishments that would follow. It
by placing the figures on columns, brought them into much was a period of greater gentleness and hope.
closer unity with the portal, at the same time allowing the
figures more life and freedom. Future development demon- Luxury from contemporary texts that works in
arts. It is clear

strates to what extent this was a revolutionary invention. and bronze, ivory-carvings, embroideries, and the
gold, silver,
The lateral portals repeated the design of the central one, other so-called "minor arts" were highly valued, not only
though on a somewhat more modest scale, but the three because the materials from which they were made were expen-
portals were separate units, isolated from each other by but- sive, but chiefly because of their beauty. Reference has already
tresses. The next step (1145-55) was taken in Chartres been made to the manual De Diversis Artibus, written by the
Cathedral, where the three western portals are brought to- monk Theophilus cnoo, in which many techniques are de-

gether into a whole, the 24 column-figures and the frieze- scribed in detail. From this we know that many craftsmen
capitals providing a link between the The iconographic
three. were masters of several techniques and they could switch from
program at Chartres is much fuller and more logical than at one to another as a commission required. This explains the
St-Denis. The tympana illustrate the Infancy of Christ, the close stylistic links that exist between works in different

Ascension, and the Second Coming. The archivolts are de- media. What was believed to be the result of the
in the past

voted to the Labors of the Months and the Liberal Arts, thus influences of one medium on another was probably due to the
indicating that a good life on earth should follow the orderly common authorship of such works. Magister Hugo is a good
pattern of manual work month by month, and of worthy example of an artist who was able to use several techniques.

intellectual pursuits. Episodes from the life of Christ are The on him by his contemporaries testify to
praises lavished

carved on the capitals, while the column-figures represent the the high esteem in which he was held. To use the somewhat
Old Testament figures of kings, queens, and the forerunners of derogatory term "minor arts" for the works of such men
Christ. Many sculptors contributed to this gigantic work. One seems inappropriate and so the term "luxury arts" has been
could well have been the St-Denis Master; another is known introduced in recent years. It gives a far better idea of the

as the Etampes Master because he was also responsible for the status this type of art had attained in the Middle Ages.
portal of Notre-Dame at Etampes, not far from Chartres. But Many of the objects that fall within this category had addi-
the truly great artist was the author of the central portal with tional prestige because of their function as reliquaries, altar

its elongated column-figures, which have the simple beauty- frontals, or covers of liturgical books. In other words, they
similar to some of the Greek figures of the Archaic period {see were intimately related to the liturgy and they acquired special

Archaic Greek Art). These figures, attached to the columns, sanctity because of this association. Unfortunately, the pre-

took the form of columns. They are hieratic and immobile, as cious materials from which many of these objects were made
582 ROMANESQUE ART

rendered them vulnerable to plunder and theft. It was also linear and dynamic style of Roger's work is thought to show
quite a common occurrence to pawn or sell them in times of an Italo-Byzantine influence.
need. But in spite of the destruction of so many of these ob- Of the objects on an altar, the most important was the
jects over the ages, there are still enough left to give an idea of crucifix which was usually made of wood, metal, or ivory. The
what these luxury arts were like during the Romanesque crucifix given by Ferdinand I of Spain and his wife Sancha to
period. S. Leon in 1063 (Archaeological Museum, Madrid)
Isidoro at
The altar was the most important place in a church, and is a splendid example of such a cross, 20 in (52 cm) high and

was often embellished with either a sculptured or painted altar carved on two sides. Another famous cross of the late
frontal. In the richer churches, such altar frontals were made Romanesque period is now in the Metropolitan Museum,
of ivory, gold, or silver and were usually decorated with reliefs New York, and is attributed to the Abbey of Bury St Ed-
hammered out from behind (the repousse technique), enamels, munds. Of 12th-century crosses, an important example, over
and precious stones. Some spectacular examples survive in 19 ft (6 m) high, existed at St-Denis Abbey where it stood by
Spain, Germany, and the Scandinavian countries. When on a the entrance to the crypt. Made at the order of Suger and
journey, an abbot or a bishop would use a richly decorated consecrated by Pope Eugenius
in 1147, it consisted of a gilt-

portable altar containing relics. Two such altars are the work bronze base adorned with figures of the Evangelists and
of a celebrated artist, Roger of Helmarshausen, who is prob- enamel plaques. The cross no longer exists, but its appearance
ably identical with Theophilus, the author of the manual. The is known from descriptions. A small version of it was in the

Abbey of St Bertin and the foot of this cross is preserved in the

The ivory cross given by Ferdinand I and Sancha to S. Isidoro, Leon; Musee Hotel Sandelin, St Omer.
height 52cm (2oin); C1063. Archaeological Museum, Madrid Besides the cross, there were numerous candles on and in
front of the altar: the number depended on the solemnity of
the occasion. They were placed in gilt or silver candlesticks of
which the Gloucester Candlestick (early 12th century) in the
Victoria and Albert Museum, London, is an elaborate English
example. Further light was provided by the candles in coronae
hanging from the vaulting.

The church isadorned with gemmed crowns of light, nay, with

lusters like cartwheels, girt all round with lamps, but no less

brilliant with the precious stones that stud them. Moreover, we

see candelabra standing like trees of massive bronze, fashioned
with marvelous subtlety of art, and glistening no less brightly

with gems than with the lights they carry.

These are the words of St Bernard — words of disapproval, but

carrying more than a hint of his admiration for the "marvel-
ous subtlety of art" of these objects, an opinion borne out by
the surviving objects. "The trees of bronze" to which St Ber-
nard refers were the seven-branched candlesticks used in large

churches for special occasions. At Durham, the branches are

said to have stretched from one wall of the choir to the other.
A particularly beautiful candlestick of this kind is in Milan
Cathedral, dating from the late 12th century.
The vessels used to celebrate Mass, especially chalices, were
particularly lavish and of high artistic quality. In a class apart
were reliquaries, some taking the form of the part of the body
contained in it —an arm, head, or foot —others resembling
large sarcophagi made of gold, silver, precious stones, ivory
plaques, and enamels. Conques Abbey preserves in its treasury
a number of reliquaries, the most precious of which is that of
the local saint to which the Abbey was dedicated, St Faith
(Ste-Foy). Her relics are enclosed in a golden image of the
seated saint, her face made of a reused Roman mask. Oc-
casionally, reliquaries were given the form of a domed build-
ing, a kind of a golden martyrium, with ivory figures placed in

niches.
 ROMANESQUE ART 583

Norman knights charge the English lines, a scene from the Bayeux Tapestry; height 52cm (2oin); C1080. Musee de la Reine Mathilde, Bayeux

Connected with the altar were liturgical books, some of development of 12th-century art. Roger's style is thoroughly
which were actually kept on the altar or near it, others in the Romanesque, though its sources may be, at least in part, By-
sacristy, and, on occasions, if their bindings contained relics, zantine. Renier's style, on the other hand, is basically Classi-
with the reliquaries. The bindings of many books incorpo- cal, even if it was formed without a deep, personal knowledge
rated ivory plaques, enamels, or engraved designs, and were of Classical art by the artist. Classical forms could have been
works of art of the highest order. transmitted by a series of Carolingian and Ottonian inter-
Apart from the altar, there were, in a Romanesque church, mediaries, and these were already present in the Mosan region
numerous other objects of beauty: lecterns, statues, fonts, in the nth century in manuscript painting and ivory carvings.
and precious hangings. The Bayeux Tapestry (which
screens,
isin fact an embroidery) with its incomparable history of the The bronze font by Renier de Huy; c 1107-18. St-Barthelemy. Liege
Conquest of England, used to be draped at one time round the
nave of Bayeux Cathedral on the Feast of the Relics, July ist.
Many churches must have had decorative textiles for such
occasions. Other textiles, often imported Byzantine or Islamic
silks, were used for vestments.
Fonts were, as a rule, made of stone or marble, and their
decoration was frequently elaborate. Some of the richest stone
fonts are found in England and the Scandinavian countries,
while in Sweden, exceptionally, there are even wooden fonts.
Probably the most celebrated font of the period is of bronze. It

was originally in Notre-Dame-aux-Fonts at Liege (now in St-

Barthelemy's), commissioned by Abbot Hellinus (1 107-18)

and is the work of Renier de Huy. Although almost contem-
porary with the portable altars of Roger of Helmarshausen, it

represents a very different style. Roger's work is linear and

dynamic, and the figures are covered by the arbitrary
the draperies. In contrast, Renier's figures are modeled
lines of

in high
t ' * 1
relief; theirdraperies are soft, the expressions gentle, and the
movements and gestures natural. The difference between these
two styles is fundamental to the understanding of the stylistic
584 ROMANESQUE ART

Thus, Renier's style was not as unexpected as it may appear at bution of a given work, so easily portable, is uncertain. We
first sight. For a time, this classicism was a purely Mosan know that Spain produced some early champleve enamels,
development, but in time it became of European significance and that Limoges was a center for similar enamels in the later

when Mosan artists and their works started to influence the izth and 13th centuries. But it is difficult to be absolutely
artistic production of neighboring countries, especially sure, when dealing with mid- 12th-century works, whether
France. The great cross at St-Denis was made by Lotharingian they are Spanish or French. The same applies to Mosan and
(or Mosan) goldsmiths. The stained-glass windows at Cha- English enamels, which are close in style. However, generally
lons-sur-Marne were also the work of artists from the Meuse speaking, in the field of metalwork, German lands and those
valley. By C1170 the influence of this art was already present under the rule of the emperors (for example, the Meuse
in the portal sculpture of Senlis. In the last quarter of the 1 2th Valley) were especially famous, but this does not mean that
century Mosan classicism can be found affecting sculpture, England, France, Spain, and Italy were not capable of produc-

painting, metalwork, and ivory-carving, not only in large ing masterpieces in this medium. Important ivories originated
areas of northern France, but also in Germany and England. in the nth century in Spain and southern Italy, but in the

The Proto-Gothic Style was, in large measure, of Mosan inspi- 1 2th, Germany and England were the most inventive in this

ration. field. Bronze doors were, in the earlier Middle Ages, exclusive-

The late state of this development, which istowards an even ly of German workmanship, but during the Romanesque

greater naturalism, was due to yet another and probably the period Italy produced the greatest number of them. Lead fonts
greatest of Mosan artists, Nicholas of Verdun. His reputation were an English speciality.
must have been sufficiently established in the late 1170s for The luxury arts, far from being a reflection of monumental
him to be called to Klosterneuburg, near Vienna, to execute a works such as wall-paintings and stone sculpture, were, in
pulpit (converted into an altar retable in the 14th century) for many instances, in the forefront of the artistic development of
the Augustinian monastery, a task he finished in 1181. The the period. In the eyes of contemporaries they were the most
pulpit consisted of numerous enamel plaques of related Old praiseworthy. It is therefore essential in the assessment of
and New Testament scenes (in what is termed the typological Romanesque art to give them their due.
program) which, in their style, depart from the gentleness of GEORGE ZARNECKI
the earlier Mosan works and depict a mood of great intensity
and drama. This is further augmented in his other works, the Bibliography. Clapham, A.W. Romanesque Architecture in Western
shrines in the cathedrals of Cologne and Tournai. The art of Europe, Oxford (1936). Conant, K.J. Carolingian and Romanesque
Architecture: 800-1100, Harmondsworth (1978). Dodwell, C.R.
Nicholas of Verdun is no longer Romanesque, and it fore-
Painting in Europe: 800-1100, Harmondsworth (1971). Lasko, P.
shadows the style that was to be widespread in the first de-
Ars Sacra: 800-1100, Harmondsworth (1973). Rickert, M. Painttng
cades of the 13 th century. in Britain: the Middle Ages, Harmondsworth (1965). Stone, L. Sculp-
The contribution of different countries in the production of ture in Britain: the Middle Ages, Harmondsworth (1972). Zarnecki,
luxury arts is difficult to assess: in many instances, the attri- G. Romanesque Art, London and New York (1971).
 32

GOTHIC ART

Panels in (he Resurrection window of St Lawrence's Chapel, Strasbourg Cathedral; ci 345 (see page 603)
586 GOTHIC ART

During the period C1150—

The term Gothic
misused, so it is
is liable to be

best to begin by explaining

misunderstood and
its descrip-
also useful for the figurative arts.
1250, European painting and sculpture underwent one of its

tive limitations. It was coined at the very end of the most fundamental periods of transition in which a style still

artistic period to which it is normally applied. Its inventors heavily influenced by the pattern and symbolism of Byzantine

were the Italian art historians and critics of the 16th century art was replaced by an interest in realism, naturalism, and
who were seeking a word to describe art that was either pre- humanitarian feeling. On the other hand, from C1400 on-
Renaissance or non-Italian or both. The Goths in question wards, European art became increasingly involved in the aca-

were the Ostrogoths and Vizigoths of the 4th and 5th cen- demic, antiquarian, and often frankly revivalist aspects of the
turies ad who, by their persistent attacks on and occupations Italian Renaissance. Thus Gothic art is what lies in between
of the Italian and Iberian peninsulas, contributed largely to these dates. It is neither Romanesque nor Byzantine nor Re-

the collapse of the western Roman Empire and, so it was held, —

naissance but it is much easier to say what it is not than to
to the destruction of the artistic culture of Classical Antiquity. give an account not merely of what happened during this

What they put in its place was, to later Italians, a virtually period, but why it happened.
undifferentiated mass of art and architecture strung across the Much did happen during this period, and in fact, of course,
centuries up to C1300— was at best grandiose, but in
art that Gothic style (like Renaissance many styles. Within the
style) is

general barbaric and retrogressive. Thus "Gothic" was a de- term have to be accommodated, by way of example, Canter-
rogatory adjective and, a little like the connotations often bury Cathedral and Prague Cathedral, the sculpture of the
attached to "medieval" now, implied something strikingly Naumburg Master (ft. 1230—70) and at least the early
old-fashioned from a background that was certainly unen- sculpture of Lorenzo Ghiberti (1378-1455), the painting of
lightened and probably repressive. Needless to say, the Matthew Paris (ob. 1259) and the painting of Jan van Eyck (fl.
reappraisal of Gothic art in the 19th century has dispelled 1422—41). This observation brings out immediately the very
most of these unpleasant overtones, and the adjective, scaled limited use of "Gothic" when applied without qualification;
down in its application, has become a useful descriptive word. in practice, historians have evolved a great many qualifying
The main subsequent development of terminology came phrases. For instance, formulae such as the "International
made in the 19th century between the
with the distinction Gothic style" have been devised in order to evoke a whole
high- and late-medieval Gothic styles of art and architecture episode within the Gothic period (in this case, 0400), and
and the earlier Romanesque style. The dividing line between English architectural historians have long been familiar with
the two, largely under the influence of architectural historians, the famous sequence of Early English, Decorated, and Perpen-
was drawn through the period when pointed-arch architecture dicular styles into which English Gothic architecture is, by
was superseding the use of round arches, C1150. At the other now, traditionally divided (another distinction made in the

end of the time-scale, the Gothic period was held to have come 19th century). By contrast, attempts to invest Gothic as a
to an end with the introduction of the Classical orders into whole with specific qualities are doomed to failure. It is

architecture, C1400 in Italy and C1500 north of the Alps. In nevertheless common for Gothic art tout court to be dubbed
practice, this isolation of the period 0150— C1400 or C1500 is by such adjectives as "spiritual", "naive", "linear", and
"hieratic". The reasons for this insensitivity are worth ex-
Gothic Europe amining, since they bring out some of the historical problems
which have collected round the period.
One of the chief enemies of any art is ignorance —and ignor-
ance of the Middle Ages is widespread. To many people, the
history of Europe before 1500 is as remote and inscrutable as
Chinese Mongolia. It is true that, to anybody living in the
post-industrial age, there is much in Early European history
thatis unfamiliar and foreign. But there are many situations

—
which are instantly recognizable and, in terms of art, its
patrons and producers, many of the practical conditions in
which "Gothic" aesthetic taste developed and artistic skill

flourished, long survived the demise of "Gothic art". In terms

of training to be an artist or architect, attaining success and
gaining a reputation, the change between the 14th century
and, for instance, the 18th century is not so complete as might
be imagined.
One of the most striking developments of the Gothic period
is the thorough secularization of its artists. Romanesque art

was almost certainly ecclesiastically based. But already by the

1 2th century there is evidence that architects were increasingly
 GOTHIC ART 587

The Trinity Chapel of Canterbury Cathedral; 1174-85

secular persons —and further indications suggest that some and the increasing numbers of people entering some form of
even of the more famous monastic craftsmen, such as Roger of academic discipline meant that large numbers of standard
Helmarshausen (fl. early 12th century), may have been secular texts —
especially Bibles, the writings of the Church Fathers,
professionals who entered monastic life at a late age. This and law books, all with their appropriate commentaries had —
does not mean that "ecclesiastical" artists vanish from the to be produced and marketed. The concept of "mass pro-
scene C1200. Matthew Paris was monk, Loren-
a Benedictine duction" in the Middle Ages is easily grasped by examining
zo Monaco (C1370-1425) a Camaldolese monk, Fra Angelico the detailed carving of a building such as the nave of Canter-
(ci 395/1400-55) a Dominican friar, Fra Filippo Lippi bury Cathedral (late The degree of imagination
14th century).
(c 1 406-69) a Carmelite friar. But by the late 13th century, required of the stone-carvers is nil: the architect made his
these conventuals had at the top professional level been decis- effect partly through a restricted number of seemingly end-
ively challenged by people such as Master Honore in Paris (fl. lessly repeated moldings and motifs. Buildings of this sort
late i3th/early 14th centuries), Erwin von Steinbach (fl. could only be completed successfully if the architect had at his

1277-1318) at Strasbourg, or Giotto (1266-1337) in Flor- disposal a team of carvers who could work with meticulous
ence.So the conception of Gothic art as the product of devout precision on a production line.
clergymen working to the greater glory of God is extremely So in the 13th and 14th centuries, the production of art
misleading. became increasingly secularized. In general, this reflected the
Indeed, alongside the work of the great master, there prosperity of towns and cities and the benefits of civic life

Nourished by the end of the 14th century a degree of commer- which followed. More and more, these must have outweighed
cialization and mass production — perhaps surprising for a the security offered to those who belonged to a religious
preindustrial age. For instance, the growth of the universities order. Members of collegiate and monastic communities have
588 GOTHIC ART

always been offered protection against the ruder buffets and

pressures of the outside world, and there was a long period
when these institutions offered a natural haven for virtually all

cultural pursuits. As a haven for artists, however, they had

various severe disadvantages. For one thing, a member of an
enclosed community would have had considerable restrictions

placed on his ability to travel. But the attitudes to his work to

which he was at least supposed to pay lip-service must also

have seemed increasingly unrealistic. These are clearly stated
both in the Rule of St Benedict, and in the fundamentally
important 12th-century treatise De Diversis Artibus, written
by a monastic writer calling himself Theophilus, now thought
on good grounds to be the German metal sculptor Roger of
Helmarshausen. On all artistic counts, Theophilus belongs
firmly to the Romanesque period (see Romanesque Art); but
his principles of work hold good effectively for all members of
all religious communities at all times. A conventual artist must
be humble, not proud of his achievement, and not interested
in financial reward. For him, the sins of Pride and Avarice
always lie in wait. But humility is not the first quality we
normally associate with the great masters, and what we know
about the careers of Giotto or Henry Yevele suggests that
making money and gaining recognition were high on their list
of priorities. The secularization of artists is not surprising; by
the late 13 th century, communities of artists and craftsmen
were established in the major European cities. In Paris in

1292, according to the taxation rolls, there were 33 painters,

24 image-makers, 13 illuminators, and 104 people listed as
masons. The earliest ordinances for London's painters date The west front of Siena Cathedral, by Giovanni Pisano and
Giovanni di Cecco; late 13th century
from 1283.
This immediately introduces the subject of guilds. They
have in general acquired a bad reputation for being obscuran- regulations aimed mostly at welding a guild's members into a
tist and restrictive in their operations. Indeed, it is sometimes unit and giving them an esprit de corps. Annual general meet-
suggested that the alleged freedom of the Renaissance artist ings were ordered and processions were arranged, especially
was in some sense due to the break-up of a "guild system". All on the patronal saint's day, when all members might be ex-
this is very misleading. In the first place, guild regulations pected to attend. Indeed, most guilds might be expected to
never seem to have restricted the achievements, movements, have their own altar in a local church as a focus for corporate
or operations of a really work on Siena
good artist. In order to worship. Similar attendance was sometimes urged at a mem-
Cathedral, Giovanni Pisano (ci 245/50— 13 14) moved to ber's funeral, and more fortunate members might be enjoined
Siena and was granted Sienese citizenship. Later, he moved to visit sickand needy brethren. The most public ceremonies
back to Pisa to work on the cathedral there. The Savoyard would have demonstrated to the world at large the existence,
James of St George (active in England 1278- 1307) moved to composition, and status of the guild, and to some extent must
England during the same period to mastermind the construc- have fostered a sense of solidarity and purpose among the
tion of castles in Wales for Edward I. Giotto in the 1320s and artists taking part. But if the members were then offered a
the 1330s moved from Florence to Naples and back again. sense of protection as being a part of a greater (and beneficent)
Simone Martini (1280/ 5-1 344) in the 1330s moved to Avi- whole, it was still necessary to protect the good name of the
gnon (where he died). The Roman marble-workers under profession by guarding its members against cheats and swind-
Petrus and Odoricus came to Westminster in the 1260s and lers within its ranks. So, the detailed regulations are mainly
1 270s to fit out the presbytery of Henry Ill's new abbey about specific jobs (for instance, the manufacture and decora-
church. The practical effects of guild activities in the Middle tions of shields, saddles, or religious images) especially, for
Ages are too known; but surviving regulations suggest
little example, shoddy refurbished goods which might be placed on
that their primary aim was not to restrict first-rate artists, but the market as brand-new.
to protect good second-rate ones. Guild ordinances veered It is difficult to make generalizations about the members'
between general regulations about meetings and conduct, and workshops. It is, however, quite clear that members often
precise instructions about particular types of work. General formed family units. Many great artists produced sons who
 GOTHIC ART 589

worked under them; occasionally, as in the case of the Pisano any period before the mid 19th century. Up to that point,
or Bellini families, the genius of the father was passed on to changes in art normally occurred gradually and originality
the son. Where no son most promising apprentice
existed, the was almost invariably tempered with a strong respect for tra-
might marry the master's daughter —
Richard of Verdun (fl. dition. Nor, clearly, did the balance thus struck inhibit at any
1288-1318) was the son-in-law of Master Honore and in — point the production of works of art of breathtaking beauty.
practice there must have been a large number of these small But, for the Gothic period, it is much harder than at any
working groups created partly by procreation and partly by period since to discover what artists and architects themselves
intermarriage. Simone Martini was the most distinguished felt about this balance.
member of a group consisting of himself, his brother, his There is also a further class of persons to be taken into
father-in-law, and his brother-in-law (Lippo Memmi; fl. account here —the patrons. The large majority of surviving
I3I7-47)- medieval art is ecclesiastical in its application; during the
was normal to train for several years as a pupil in an
It Romanesque period (nth and 12th centuries) it would prob-
established workshop. From the 15th century, contracts sur- ably be true to say that the church, in its many forms, exer-
vive to demonstrate a legal relationship between master and cised a near monopoly in the patronage of art. However, from
pupil, although the actual length of the apprenticeship seems the 13th century onwards, two particular types of secular
to have varied. Albrecht Durer (1471-15Z8) trained for three patron appear on the scene —the king and the city council.

years under Michael Wolgemut (1434— 1519); Rogier van der Kings had at all times, according to their means, exercised
Weyden (1399/1400—64) was for five years under Robert their patronage in the field of architecture, since their status

Campin (1378/9-1444). The purpose of this training was first was in part judged by outsiders according to the state they
and foremost to protect standards. It was assumed that five kept. Charlemagne's Chapel Royal at Aachen (built C785-
years spent watching Robert Campin at work would at least 800), and William Rufus' Great Palace Hall at Westminster
turn an apprentice into a reliable painter (though not necess- (1090s), are magnificent surviving examples (the latter is now
arily an inspiring or memorable one). However, it also pro- much However, during the 13th century there is in-
altered).
duced a respect for tradition which forms a prominent trait creasing evidence of a more detailed interest in the decorative
in medieval art. It comes out clearly in one of the surviving arts from members of royal families. Louix IX of France (St
medieval painters' manuals, the Libro delVArte of Cennino Louis; reigned 1x26-70) and Henry III of England (reigned
Cennini C1370-C1440), written probably in the late 14th
[fl. 1216—72) are particularly important. Much is known about
century. Cennini stressed two distinct elements in the develop- the interest Henry III took in the decoration of the Palace and
ment of a young painter's potential: learning from a good Abbey of Westminster, and of his palace at Clarendon, Wilt-
master, and copying nature. With regard to nature, it is dif- shire. St Louis had a major artistic project in the new palace

ficult to know whether, say, a 13th-century artist would have chapel in Paris (the Sainte Chapelle); we also know he started
expressed himself in quite this way (although there is plenty of to build up a library of manuscripts. It was a collection his

13th-century sculpture with a very direct underlying basis in successors continued, and which, by the end of the 14th cen-
nature); but Cennini's sense of the importance of having a tury, was one of the most impressive in Europe, containing
good master extends to implying that that master, too, should about 1,000 items. Other secular libraries were built up con-
have had a good master. He himself, he wrote, had learnt his currently, notably the library of the Visconti lords of Milan.
precepts from Agnolo Gaddi (c 13 50-96), who was the son By the late 14th century this was similar in size. This type of
and pupil of Taddeo Gaddi (1300-66) who, in turn, was the activitydoes not amount to anything as abstract as collecting
pupil of Giotto. There is no reason to suppose that a 13th- "art". Libraries were respectable, and these libraries have the
century would not have thought in similar terms al-
artist — character of 18th-century gentlemen's libraries with their
though Cennini's inclusion of his "pedigree" was certainly large preponderance of standard works of reference and liter-

influenced by the high reputation Giotto had already achieved ature. Otherwise, kings collected not "art" but curiosities,

by the end of the 14th century. However, in a perfectly practi-
cal way, possession of a good training has always been taken
as prima facie evidence of reliability, with simple conse-
quences in the case of architecture. Any patron who knew the
buildings of Heinrich Parler (mid 14th century) would have
such as wild animals (Henry III of England had an elephant in
theTower of London). Later in the 15th century, the great
men of Italy came to collect antique sculpture, gem stones,
medals, and cameos. The concept of collecting "art" was a
late arrival on the scene. Nevertheless, the spectacle of impor-

felt immediate confidence in employing his son, Peter Parler tant men from distinguished families taking a close interest in

(1330-1399)- art can have had nothing but beneficial effect on artists. Not
It is sometimes suggested that this respect for tradition had only did it confer a kind of nobility on their profession, but it
a stultifying effect and that an innate conservatism has
on art, also opened up vistas of social advancement such as had not
left its mark on the Middle ages. This is partly true: from a apparently existed before. During the 14th century, small
20th-century viewpoint, changes seem to occur slowly, al- groups of artists are found in Italy and France, on court estab-
though it seems unlikely that this particular characteristic lishments and associating closely with the relevant prince or
would have struck many people with any particular force at monarch. The French court office of Valet de Chambre is the
Sculpture and Glass at Chartres

For many people, the cathedral of Chartres

will sum up everything they feel a Gothic
cathedral ought to be. It must always have

been one of the most completely decorated of

medieval ecclesiastical buildings, and by
great good fortune the main constituents of
this decoration — the glass and the portal
sculpture —have survived virtually intact. At

Chartres, more than anywhere else, it is still

possible to sense the impact of a large

medieval church and
in all its pristine glory,

to see an important part of the development

of early Gothic glass-painting and sculpture.
The main areas of sculpture surround the
portals of the west end and the transepts (the

i nh-century choir screen was demolished in

the 1 8th century and survives only in frag-

ments). The west portals were carved 0150.
In their general layout and style, they strong-
ly resemble the west front of St-Denis, Paris.
The style is not indeed uniform, but at its best
it exemplifies mid-i 2th-century sculpture at
its peak. Chartres was imitated several times
(for instance at Angers and Bourges), but
never surpassed.
The themes with which the sculptors in-
volved themselves embrace the whole history •4 Christ at the Second Chartres Cathedral,

of the world — past, present, and to come. Coming, the tympanum

of the central portal of
seen from the southeast;
built 1 1 94— 1260; north
The tall figures flanking the portals are
the west facade of steeple added 150--13
almost certainly from the Old Testament Chartres Cathedral;
probably, in part, Kings and Queens of ci 1 50
Judah. The capitals display the life of Christ
in a continuous horizontal band. Above are period c 1210—30. The sculpture is concen-
visible carvings of the Ascension, the Virgin trated in two enormous transept porches.
and Child, and, in the center, Christ at the Although these may look as if they were
Second Coming surrounded by the Apocaly- planned from the start, appearances are de-
ptic Beasts. This sculpture forms part of a ceptive. Archaeological evidence suggests
porch or narthex which was added to the that, like many medieval projects, they were
1 ith-century church. The original glass of altered in form, and enlarged during the
this building survives in the three west lancet ———i-^-
._ making.
windows. Together with the famous Notre The final "program" of sculpture is one of
Dame de la Belle Yerriere, preserved in the the most extensive to survive. embraces the
It

south choir aisle, they constitute precious Life of the Virgin, the Final Coming, Apostles,
from the 1 2th century nearly con-
survivals — Prophets, Confessors, and Martyrs, many
temporary with the famous glass of Abbot other Saints and various subsidiary themes
Suger of St-Denis. such as Virtues and Vices and the Labors of
The 1 zth-century sculpture and glass at the Months. The work in general is remark-
Chartres are famous in their own right. But ably high in quality, and the style probably
in 1 1 94 a disastrous fire destroyed the main derives from that of the workshop of the
part of the old church (except for its crypt), Laon (1
cathedral at 190s). Interestingly, the
and the glass and sculpture to the east of the two porches are quite different in character
porch belong for the most part to the rebuild- and must have been designed by different
ing. Miscellaneous dating evidence suggests a people.
The magnificent program of 1 3th-century
Column figures on the glass at Chartres in many ways echoes the
north porch of Chartres
Cathedral; from left to
style of the portals — at least in the figures and
drapery. The iconography is, however, less
right, Melchizedek,
Abraham and Isaac,
The two huge transept rose
clearly organized.
s, Samuel, and windows glorify the Virgin and comment on
David; ci 100-10 the Second Coming. In the clerestory of the
 HH

< A group of furriers, Above left The porches A The porches of the T The rose window and
the donors of the of the north transept; south transept; C12.10- lancets of the south
window of St James the C1210— 30 3° transept; 1224
Greater of Chartres
f
!
t:.f
)*L*
% Cathedral; 13th century

' »

ilasl

main apse, we see the Virgin and Child

surrounded by the major Old Testament
Prophets. But throughout the remainder of
the cathedral, the visitor is overwhelmed by a
fantastic and somewhat miscellaneous
wealth of imagery. The donors of individual
windows often had themselves portrayed, or
indicated their contributions by heraldry.
Many of these donors were royal or noble.
But a large number of windows offer tiny
vignettes of bakers, carpenters, wine mer-
chants, furriers, and many other secular
professions. Cumulatively, the effect is

almost complete and very impressive — and

crucial to the history of early Gothic glass
painting.
ANDREW MARTINDAI K

Further reading. Delaporte, Abbe Y. and Houvet, E.

Les Vitraux de la Cathedrale de Chartres, ( lhartres
(1926). Henderson, G. Chartres, Harmondsworth
(1968). Karzcnellcnbogen. A. The Sculptural I'm
grams 0/ Chartres Cathedral, Baltimore 1 959).
(
Kidson, P. and Pariscr, U. Sculpture .it 'hartres,
London 1958). Male, 1 . / 'Art Religieux du XII'
Sn-i le en I rant e, Paris 1 192X1. Male. I / 'Art Re-
Ugieux du XIII' Siicleen I ranee, Paris (1925). Merlet,
R. / a Cathidrale de ( hartres, Paris 191.6). Sauerlan-
der, W Gothil Si ulpture in I r.in, r 1 140-/270,
London (1970).
592. GOTHIC ART

best known of these established posts — later, Pol de Limburg of aristocratic and civic society. By the 14th century, archi-
(C14 10-15) and Jan van Eyck (c 1425-41) were valets de tecture, sculpture, and painting were all activities in which
cbambre of the Dukes of Berry and Burgundy respectively. educated men could take an interest without necessarily
Thev were preceded by many others, including Giotto who, as appearing ridiculous to their peers, and artists, in a sort of
familiaris (a member of the household establishment), held a reciprocal development, attracted something of the gentility-

similar position at the court of Naples (C1330-3). associated with this interest. The first knighthoods conferred
This extension of secular interest in the activities of artists on artists appear at the end of this period in the late 15th
had beneficial effects in other directions. The most obvious century.(Andrea Mantegna (143 1 — 1506), Gentile Bellini
was the way in which town councils sought to emulate the (1429-1507) and Carlo Crivelli (1430/5— C1495) were all
activities of royal courts. Town councils, too, needed palaces created Knights.)
and splendid chapels. We have only to see the Guildhall in The situation thus far described is, in the main, unmysteri-
London, and the close association between the Mayor and ous and requires no great effort of the imagination to resurrect
Aldermen and St Paul's Cathedral, to realize that the state a it. Why, then, does Gothic art create for itself such problems
city "officially" kept was also of the greatest consequence. of interpretation? The answer lies partly in the fact that
Most medieval cities would have had city halls and offices, Gothic art was inarticulate in a quite easily perceptible way. In
although in many cases these have necessarily since been re- spite of this apparent interest in art by educated men, and in

built. London's Guildhall may go back to the 13th century spite of the apparent increase in the social acceptability of
the Hall is now mainly early 15th); the Guildhall of Norwich artists, the practice of writing about art never developed in the
is fundamentally early 14th century. But the earliest and most Middle Ages. The reason for this must lie partly in the bias
splendid city palaces were in The establishment of the
Italy. given to all formal education by its classical antecedents:
Italian communes from the 12th century onwards led, in the "art", in the modern sense, was a craft, a "mechanical" opera-
1 uh and 14th centuries, to the building of a number of enor- tion, and, as such, incapable and unworthy of intellectual

mous civic buildings, often modeled on the Imperial palaces of analysis. It is, in fact, confusing that the medieval use of the
Germany. The original decoration of these municipal palaces Latin word Ars denoted a craft, as apposed to Scientia, for
has survived far less frequently than the buildings, and their which intellectual accomplishment was necessary. Artists
most popular theme seems to have been the cycle of images of were not thought worthy of biographies, and their activities
the great men of Antiquity and Biblical history by which, were not considered worthy of written comment. Consequent-
presumably, a regime might seek to link its aspirations to a ly, very known about the lives of medieval artists, and
little is

respectable past. However, that more ambitious undertakings even less is known for certain about the way in which people
were possible is shown by the sequence of decorations in the talked about art in the Middle Ages. We know almost nothing
Palazzo Publico at Siena, where the surviving paintings cover of the way in which patrons and artists distinguished between
a wide range of religious imagery, allegory, and fairly recent good and bad, talked about the interplay of tradition and
art
history. originality, or noticed the development of a new style.
The determination of the Italian communes to have im- The absence of literary exposition on these points, however,
pressive civic buildings also extended to removing the supervi- cannot mean that artists and patrons alike were reduced to
sion of the fabric of the local large church (usually a cathedral) incoherence when confronted by them. The Abbot Suger
from the ecclesiastical authorities and vesting it either in a —
(cio8i 1151) did not pick the names of his artists and archi-
council committee or in an existing guild. In this way, the tects out of a miter when he was planning his.operation at St-
rebuilding of the cathedrals of Florence and Siena, for ex- Denis, and his writings show, almost in parenthesis, that he
ample, became civic enterprises, paid for largely out of local was conscious there was such a thing as a "modern" architec-
taxation. tural style. The monk Gervase of Canterbury (0200) left a
It might be expected that there would have been a civic long and famous account of the building works at Canterbury
development parallel to that of the valet de chambre — that following the fire of 1174 in which he showed quite clearly
is, a development by which artists might have been officially that the architectural style of the new building was novel,
designated as serving the town council. For architects, this memorable, and to be distinguished in detail from the building
indeed took place. But there was always the need for a city of the early 12th century. Cennino Cennini saw (rather less
engineer, since, apart from any work of aesthetic merit, roads, clearly) that artistic creativity in painting depended on the
walls, bridges, and drains required permanent maintenance. balance struck between the demands of tradition, the claims
Imitation of the royal courts to the extent of having an official of the visible world, and the operation of the artist's imagina-
"town painter", however, occurred so seldom as to be neglig- tion. His writing has great interest because of the difficulty he
ible; presumably it was a form of luxury expenditure unac- reveals in framing these somewhat abstract concepts. In fact,
ceptable to the majority of councillors. the language he used was heavily indebted to Horace's Ars
Nevertheless, the lot of the artist and architect continued to Poetica and to a somewhat cloudy Platonism. An academi-
improve throughout the Gothic period as a result of the in- cally trained mind might have made easier going of this, but
creasing interest in the arts taken by those at the highest level we must infer that for most of this period no educated person
 GOTHIC ART 5 y}

attempted a reasoned written study of the subject. The idea common with humans, was unconcerned about himself
all

that the activities of an artist could be reduced to the form of a after his death. But, as with others, he would consider the
literary treatise had to wait for Alberti's Delia Pittura (C1435; most useful and efficacious form of commemoration to be a
first written in Latin). posthumous liturgical one provided by his guild or a religious
This unwillingness of the educated classes to concern them- institution. Seemingly in perpetuo, they would remember him
selves with art in literary terms places apermanent limit on annually by name, and suitable prayers would be offered for
our knowledge of these aspects of the development of art and his progress in the afterlife.
architecture. This reticence may be inferred from the positive The anonymity of Gothic art does not imply, therefore, that
way in which artists' names were excluded from accounts of artists and were an oppressed class, nor that they
architects
their achievements. A 13th-century chronicler of St Alban's were excessively devout and humble. It does not tell us that
Abbey, England, wrote that "he by whose authority a thing is the development of the current stylistic ideas was carried out
done, does it", and there is an almost universal tendency on in subdued religious undertones. Indeed, judging from the oc-
the part of medieval writers toremember things by the name casional glimpses behind the scenes, it is more realistic to
of the person who paid for them or otherwise instigated their imagine the period as of drama and excitement, peopled
full

creation. Thus, churches have come down to us as "by" the by colorful personalities with the most exacting standards of
bishop, abbot, or prior who was in charge at the time, and, as work. Moreover, increasingly during this period we must
often as not, manuscripts are known by the name of the bib- imagine a widening class of patrons, both secular and ecclesi-
liophile for whom they were produced. astical, who possessed equally high standards of connoisseur-
The apparent thoughtlessness by which an artist's name ship and the ability to choose particular artists for particular

was almost never attached to his achievement brings us to one commissions. Ultimately, the records compiled by the literate

of the features of medieval and Gothic art which is perhaps begin to reveal this situation in greater detail before the
most difficult to comprehend: the apparent anonymity of its Gothic period closes.
practitioners. We cannot believe that the artist of the Oscott
Psalter (British Library, London) or the architect of St Augus- European art (except Italy) ci 150— 1300. At the opening of
tine's, Bristol, were nonentities, even though we do not know the period under consideration, we immediately confront all

their names. It is also impossible to believe that works of this the problems mentioned. The period 1 150—1250 has a certain
caliber and individuality did not go with a considerable repu- convenience for the historian. In architecture, it is possible to
tation which circulated within a perhaps restricted circle of chronicle the exploitation of the potential of pointed arch,
connoisseurs. So we must examine the sort of reputation ribbed vault, and flying buttress; and in the figurative arts, the

sought by these artists, as implied by the surviving evidence. historian can note the dramatic moves towards a realistic and
The first conclusion that becomes apparent is that few ar- humane figure-style. However, it takes imagination and a cer-
tists saw their work as monuments to keep their names alive tain amount of courage to infer from monuments what each
and in the minds of posterity. Today, when virtually all paint- master thought he was doing, and it is often equally difficult
ings are signed, many buildings have a foundation stone to assess the qualities for which a particular masterpiece was
naming the architect, and most people think it desirable to be in its time admired.
commemorated by a personalized tombstone inscribed with The man who traditionally dominates the beginnings of
their name, this attitude may seem puzzling. Middle In the Gothic art is not an artist but a patron near Paris, the Abbot
Ages, however, the problem seems to have been approached Suger of St-Denis. Much is known about him: he left two
from a somewhat more realistic angle: what people and deeds lengthy autobiographical writings, a considerable proportion
were worth a monument? In general terms the answer was of which concern his rebuilding and refurbishing of his abbey
"very few", but especially the deeds of those who were mighty church. These writings exhibit many of the less admirable
and powerful and of those who were charitable. In practice, qualities of the successful business executive (Suger was highly
the biggest charitable foundations tended to be endowed by successful): an inordinate admiration for the evidence of well-
those who were also powerful. The idea that art might become managed sumptuous effects, a sense of taste
finances, a love of

a personal monument to its creator seems seldom to have that sometimes seems to go awry, and a superficial interest in
entered the consciousness of artists. the past that may be specious. But Suger had an unerring eye
The most prolific source of inscriptions naming the artist on for technical quality, and although (characteristically for this
a work of art is, for all of the Middle Ages, Italy. This may say period) he never mentioned an artist's name it was certainly
something about the Italians, but it more likely that it repre- no accident that he acquired at least two architects of first-rate
sents a dim survival of the Classical concept of Fame as being ability. Their place in the history of European architecture and

something desirable. In the north, few works of art are signed sculpture will become clear.
before the 1 5th century; we can only assume that the inclusion One of Suger's main achievements was to replace the
of an artist's name on a tomb or in a manuscript was an act of Carolingian apse of St-Denis by a new choir, an ambulatory,
presumption — a sort of lapse of good manners — undesirable and radiating chapels. Unfortunately, the choir itself was later
to both patron and artist. This did not mean that an artist, in rically remodeled in the 1 3th century, but the ambulatory
^
I

V/

rv* 1

O^ or]

— 1

'T.'j

4*1
Mi seen 4
r <^ J
SrS al Si I 1 '

IB-

*• t ft* M
I!* III
!tt
• s 8KKI

•<

I
1

^HJf IE
Kl
1

i
and chapels, begun in 1140, are much as Suger left them. Up
to this date, the east end of the church had usually been plan-
ned as a series of separate units; chapels clearly divided from
each other and opening individually off the ambulatory.
Suger's architect, by breaking down all internal divisions,
opened up a large, exciting hall-like space within the church
and streamlined the external appearance into a series of
smooth, regular undulations. The effect he achieved was made
possible by his superb technical expertise in the calculation
and construction of pointed vaults: this in itself must have set

new standards for technical excellence. But his rethinking of

the interior space had a number of notable imitations, for
instance at Notre Dame, Paris, (1163) where the idea of
streamlining the external perimeter of the building was carried
still farther. Nothing else in France or Europe survives from

this date to approach Suger's architect's mastery of his ma-

terials; it is a matter for regret that we have lost the internal

elevation of his choir at St-Denis.

The interior elevation of a great church was treated in vari-
ous ways during this period though almost all the solutions
adopted had been invented in their broad outlines during the The west front of Notre Dame, Paris; c 1200-45
Romanesque period (see Romanesque Art). Basically, it was
agreed that churches should have aisles and therefore arcades The four-stage nave and choir elevations of Laon Cathedral; 1 165-1200
separating the aisles from the main body of the church. But on
almost every other conceivable point there was disagreement.
What should happen above the arcade? Was it desirable to
have transepts? If so, how far should they project and what
form should they take? How many towers should there be and
where should they be placed? The answers depended in part
on the area of France concerned. Most of the solutions had
their own merits. The large and indubitably Gothic cathedral
of Poitiers (begun in n6z) has the form of a "hall-church":
the aisles are similar in height to the nave and choir, and there
is no clerestory or other feature rising up above. This is in
keeping with local 12th-century traditions governing the
appearance of a great church, and the result is, in its way,
spacious and impressive. Sens Cathedral (begun 0140)
originally, like Poitiers, had no transept (one was added later),
but, unlike Poitiers, it possesses a large and spacious arcade
with a tribune and clerestory rising up to the high vault. It

reminds us that, as in many Romanesque buildings, height

and size played a part in the aesthetic preoccupations of the
age.
This is especially brought home in a group of churches in
the northeast of France and the western Empire, of which the
most striking survivor is Laon Cathedral (begun C1165).
Inside, the elevation of Laon has four stages: above a com-
paratively low arcade rise a tribune gallery, triforium gallery,
and clerestory. The whole is capped by a vault. The insistent
"layering" of Laon is impressive and the Romanesque proto-
types probably derive from antique examples such as the ex-
terior of the Colosseum in Rome. Laon itself, however, would

Left: The choir of St-Denis, Paris, built for Abbot Suger; 1 140-4;
clerestory and transepts rebuilt ii)os
596 GOTHIC ART

have been impossible without an elaborate, if concealed, sup- it is apparent that France was considerably in advance of

port and buttressing system which captures and distributes the other European countries. The earliest important Gothic
weight of the high vault. The rudiments of this system had buildings in England appear in C1170— 80, but elsewhere the

alreadv appeared in Romanesque architecture along with main developments belong to the 13th century.
other "Gothic" features such as vault ribbing. Up to the It has sometimes been suggested that the Cistercian monas-

second half of the i ith century it seems to have been accepted tic order was important in the spread of French Gothic ideas.

that this buttressing system should be concealed beneath the Founded in 1098, the other grew rapidly during the first half
aisle roofs —a on the
preference that had important effects of the 1 2th century and established itself throughout Europe.
dispositions of the interior elevation. However, during the Originally, its habits were intended to be dominated by an
—
second half of the 12th century it is not clear where it first extreme sort of uniformity with annual visitations for every
occurred — architects made it possible to disassociate the house and annual general meetings at the mother-house in

height of this buttressing from the height of the aisle roof by France. This uniformity extended to architecture and Cister-
exposing externally the arched support system (henceforth cian monastic ground plans, for example, bear a general re-
known as flying buttresses). This in turn led to some radical semblance to each other. However, the chief architectural
rethinking of the interior design. principle of the Cistercians was simplicity —not in itself very
The most influential church in this respect was the cathedral positive —so although many early Cistercian churches bear a
of Chartres, a major rebuilding of which began in 1 194. Here general resemblance to a French Burgundian Cistercian
the supporting buttressing rises clearly up above the aisle roof church such as Fontenay (begun in 1139), the architectural

on abandoned on the
the outside; the tribune gallery has been stimulus promoted by such a resemblance is not a particularly
inside and the clerestory greatly enlarged (downwards) so that invigorating one. In practice, especially after the death of St
it nearly approaches the main arcade in height (the two are Bernard (11 53), simplicity was gradually abandoned by the
separated by a small triforium gallery. This solution must Cistercians and their architecture achieved its own interest

have won was adopted, with

almost instant approval, since it within the appropriate regional context.
modifications, in a number of major churches including Reims The most important early Gothic building in England is the
Cathedral (begun in 1210) and Amiens Cathedral (begun eastern arm of Canterbury Cathedral (1174—84). Although
ci 220). In fact, by concentrating their attention on the means designed by a Frenchman, William of Sens, the structure still

by which the structural exigencies of a building could be tight- incorporates features from the Anglo-Norman Romanesque
ly controlled and concentrated in a few places, this develop- tradition in, for example, the tribune gallery and clerestory
ment set architects thinking along new lines. Initially, the most passage. But the capitals and coupled columns are derived
striking achievements were greater height and size. But with from France, and the decorative colonnettes, an outstanding
the collapse of the vault of Beauvais Cathedral in 1 284, it was feature, are familiar from Laon Cathedral. Although the
realized that the limits in this direction had been reached; strength of these older traditions is still apparent (though
architects turned instead to other aspects of the building. chiefly in heavy proportions) in a building such as Wells Ca-
It is worth noting, if only to demonstrate the selectiveness of thedral (begun <rn8o), the rebuilding of Lincoln Cathedral
architects, that the exterior appearance of Chartres had no (1192) showed most clearly the characteristics of this first

imitators; in fact, it belonged to a fashion that was already phase of English Gothic architecture — notably in the elabor-
passing away. Like Laon Cathedral, it was intended to have ate arch moldings, densely grouped colonnettes, and multipli-
four transept towers as well as two western ones (which
its cation of vault ribs — producing a rich effect without any con-
derive from the church of the mid 1 2th century). The tradition tinental rival.
of clusters of towers round the transepts of a great church is Gothic architectural developments elsewhere in Europe
Romanesque in origin and has an extensive history in north- occur slightly later. In Germany, early- 13th-century churches
ern France and the Empire. The results, where completed (or still often appear Romanesque in style, and even the interest-
nearly so, as at Laon), offer an exciting configuration of ing four-storied interior of the cathedral of Limburg is so
shapes, and its general abandonment in favor of a simple pair heavy and graceless in its proportions and detail that it is

of towers at the west end of a church is hard to understand. surprising to learn it was begun C1220, making it a contem-
The change of fashion was probably confirmed at the Ca- porary of Amiens. The earliest churches that by French stan-
thedral of Notre Dame, Paris; in the 13th century, twin west- dards might be called Gothic are the Liebfrauenkirche at Trier
ern towers became the norm. (begun C1235, finished in 1253) and the church of St Elizabeth
The Gothic style of architecture thus far described was not a at Marburg (begun in 1235). Both are reasonably up-to-date
unified development. The Gothic qualities these buildings in architectural detail and St Elizabeth's has the additional
have in common are probably most apparent when reduced to interest of being a hall-church. This form, not much used in
points of decorative detail — riband arch moldings, for ex- France after the 12th century, had a continuing popularity in
ample, or the development of a simplified type of Corinthian Germany and ultimately became the occasion for daring ex-
capital known as the crocket capital. But in whatever sense we periments in vault design.
choose to understand the development of Gothic architecture, In Spain, the main early Gothic churches of Burgos (begun
 GOTHIC ART 597

in 1222) and Toledo (begun in 1226) show, as Canterbury

had earlier, unmistakable French connections —but with one
particular French cathedral: Bourges. Although contemporary
with Chartres, Bourges Cathedral (begun ci 195) has a quite
different interior design. The architect here used his engineer-
ing expertise to build a church of enormous height spread
across five aisles, and the main arcade is of gigantic size. Here
again, he was drawing on a Romanesque tradition but build-
ing to greatly enlarged proportions. He had French imitators
at Le Mans (begun in 1216) and at Coutances (begun C1250);
but the giant "arcade" type of church achieved its greatest
popularity in Spain and, in various manifestations, became the
commonest form of large Gothic church there: Toledo Ca-
thedral is a good example.
The choir of Abbot Suger's abbey church of St-Denis was
begun in 1140. Shortly before then, in the years following
1 1 37, a different architect had rebuilt the west end of this
church. He was undistinguished as an engineer, but as an
architectural decorator he was a designer of crucial import-
ance for the developments in France over the following 100
years. His achievement was to bring together on one facade
various architectural elements that had already appeared in
and to weld them together into a
different parts of France,
Thus he grouped beneath his two towers a circu-
single whole.
lar window, some rows of arcading, and three large portals,

The nave of Bourges Cathedral; ci 195-1245 each containing voussoir carvings, column figures on the
jambs, and a decorated tympanum. Unfortunately, much of
The west front of St-Denis, Paris, built c 1
1 37 for Abbot Suger this carving has subsequently been destroyed, or restored
almost out of existence, so Suger's facade is now a mere
shadow of its former self. But in any case it is the design that
seems to have been important. The sculptural style, as far as it

is was shortly superseded by a style far more dis-

visible,

tinguished whose chief focus seems to be found in the west

front of Chartres Cathedral (0150). Although various
different hands can be detected here — this is true of all large
assemblages of medieval sculpture — the "main" style is

characterized by extreme gravity and restraint underlined by

the method of drawing out the drapery folds into innumer-
able, thin parallel folds with pleated edges. It was a style that

commanded great respect in the mid 12th century, if we can

judge from its imitators at Bourges and Le Mans.
Two worth emphasizing about these churches.
features are
Firstly, they continue a Romanesque tradition whereby avail-

able virtuosi sculptors were employed by architects to make

sizable, significant, and individual contributions to the archi-

tecture — a tradition that did not survive long into the Gothic
period. Secondly, it is the beginning of a general development
towards greater humanity in figure sculpture. Not all the
Chartres west-end sculpture could be called life-like, but the
figure of Christ in the center is strikingly more humane than
previous representations of Christ, as at Vezelay or Moissac.
This development towards greater humanity is one of the keys
to sculpture of the following century. It is not a smooth, even
lopment, but a succession of stylistic fashions with differ-
mtecedents and starting points. The result was a series of
Antique Figure Sculpture at Reims illustrious appearance in the sketchbook of
the mason Honnecourt c 1 220),
Villard de
the only survival of this kind from the period.
The main portal sculpture of Reims Cathe- where a soft undulation of troughs and Villard knew the workshops of both Chartres

dral is commonly dated on archaeological ridges —the so-called Muldenstil of German and Reims.
grounds to between and c 12.40.
c 122.0 art historians — was devised as a replacement Pan of the interest of the Reims figures lies
Amongst the earliest work is a group of for the crisp, linear patterns of the previous precisely in their heightened classicism. But

figures which looks unmistakably Classical. decades. The initial inspiration for this par- the character of the sculpture does not
It includes the famous pair of statues portray- ticular stylistic trick was almost certainly depend on this. From the start, the
solely

ing the Visitation on the west front, but much Classical, but its application proceeded for figures, though heavily dependent on the
of the sculpture on the north transept portals the most part without obvious reference to Chartres style, are altogether stockier. It is as
shows similar characteristics. Together, these original Classical art —Laon and
especially at if the principal sculptor had aimed at increas-

sculptures raise the question of the part Chartres cathedrals (ci 1 90-1 210). It was ing their impact by diminishing their grace.
played by Classical sculpture in the evolution also a style adaptable to painting, and in At the same time, the impression of liveliness
of early Gothic The answers are in-
art. England, at least, had a history lasting to the is enhanced by the use of head-types derived

triguing, but by no means straightforward. middle of the 1 3th century. It makes an from Classical sculpture. The effects certainly
The distinctive drapery style of the Reims made an impression on men like Villard de
figures is not a creation of the Reims masons' Figures of saints, Honnecourt, and notable reflections of this
workshop. The Reims sculpture, indeed, influenced by Classical style are also Empire
found in the at Stras-
marks the final phases of a development, sculpture, on the north Mary and Martha, the
bourg and Bamberg (1230s); and in England
transept front of Reims Visitation scene by the
rather than a beginning. The characteristics
Cathedral; St Virgin's portal in the
at Wells Cathedral (C1230,. Yet the classi-

of this style are to be found c 1

80 in the1 Bartholomew left and west front of Reims cism of the style as a whole is, at best, fitful.
Mosan workshop of Nicholas of Verdun, St Peter right ; cino Cathedral; cmo Classical sculpture usually acted as a reser-
 1 I

(,AI I I KY STUDY

voir of ideas for artists interested in lifelike

results, and the example of Nicola Pisano can
*
H i be used to demonstrate a 3th-century artist
1

using the Antique with dramatically different

i -1
results. Eventually, the somewhat baroque
1 appearance of the Muldenstil must have
grated on someone's susceptibilities and it

J •
] i i a*
was replaced (at Paris a
2 10-20 and Amiens
ci 220-30) by a style notably simpler — at
Amiens almost to a point of dullness. The
t * antique figures at Reims are thus in no sense
<

* J IWlBMr a part of a general renaissance of the Antique,

^ J Mr'

M 1 1 "1
but a chapter in the complicated history of
atoteif the development of a more lifelike form of
art.

jyjij ANDREW MARTINDALE

Further reading. Hahnloser, H.R. Villardde Hon-
^B>
necourt, Vienna (1935). Rhein und Maas (2 vols.),
Cologne (1973). Sauerlander, W. Gothic Sculpture m
France 1140—12.70, London (1970). Swarzenski, H.

Bo llSM Nicola Pisano, Frankfurt am Main (1926).

w l«pf^

A The west front of T The Adoration of the Below right The Death An early example of
Reims Cathedral; 13th Magi, on
a relief panel of the Virgin, the Classical influence in the

century; upper gallery the Pisa Baptistry pulpit tympanum of the south Gothic period, the
and towers 5 th century by Nicola Ptsano; transept portal of Nativity from an
1

ci 158-60 Strasbourg Cathedral; altarpiece by Nicholas of des Chorherrenstiftes,

Verdun; 1 1 8 1 . Museum Klosterneuburg
600 GOTHIC ART

changes which by any pre- 19th-century standards would be (c 1 240). The V-shaped folds of the Amiens style became more

regarded as rapid. pronounced and enveloping, the figures more graceful and
The rather tight linearity of the Chartres convention had its animated, and a characteristic daintiness developed. This is
limitations. It could be worked into a portal of elaborate rich- really the general style of French sculpture as it remained for

ness at Avalon (c 1 1 50-60) in which all suggestions of decora- at least 100 years —
and is therefore a significant point of
tive restraint have gone; or it could be applied to figures like arrival. As a drapery and figure convention, it received some-

those of Senlis (C1175) whose strange, abrupt, and contorted what exaggerated expression in the Apostle figures of Louis
postures seem clearly designed to suggest drama and unease. It IX's palace chapel, the Sainte Chapelle, built in the 1240s.
was about this time that a new drapery style developed which By the time of Reims Cathedral, the St-Denis architect's

was quite unlike Chartres' and, in its own way, much more conceptions concerning the west front of a large church, while
realistic. This style is usually called, from its characteristic fold still recognizable, had been considerably modified. The main
pattern, the "troughed" style, or (in German) muldenstil, and change architects had to cope with was the increased height of
its origins appear to be in the region of the River Meuse. the buildings behind the facades; a long succession of ca-
One of its earliest and most complete statements is in an thedrals, including Laon, Chartres, Amiens, and Reims testify

ambo, later transformed into an altarpiece (Museum des to the various solutions tried. The chief problem was to estab-
Chorherrenstiftes, Klosterneuburg). This is dated 1181 and is lish a visual connection between the central rose window, of
the work of a metalworker called Nicholas of Verdun whose necessity just beneath the vault, and the portals at ground
subsequent career can be traced into the early years of the level beneath. The Reims solution is notable because the archi-
13th century. The muldenstil owes much to antique sculp- tect boldly increased the size of the central portal gable so that

ture — ultimately to sculpture of the 5th century bc, although it penetrates right up to the center of the rose window — and is

we are not sure whether this was known through originals or indeed freestanding in front of it. This contains the element of
Roman copies. The achievement of this style is to give credible an important idea in later Gothic architecture when architects
substance to the drapery (contrast the style of Chartres), to increasingly experimented with superimposed layers of de-
allow both a display of fold patterns and the form of the body corative work and tracery. At Strasbourg, the great central
to emerge from beneath the folds. Nicholas' debt to the portal gable became a part of this decorative fretwork.
antique is not especially surprising since there is spasmodic One further sculptural innovation from the early 13th cen-
evidence from earlier in the 12th century that Classical art and tury should be mentioned: the decoration of capitalsand roof
architecture had a continuing fascination. Nicholas' particular bosses with realistic carved botanical foliage. These are es-
achievement, however, was to extract, use, and (apparently) pecially prominent at Reims, but occur early at Chartres and
to popularize an antique drapery style without the least are to be found on a large number of French 13th-century
trace of arid antiquarianism. It is a tribute to the creative churches.
possibilities of this style that it could be used in very different In view of the enormous success of the St-Denis type of
circumstances —on the transept portals of Chartres (C1200— portal, and the extensive evidence of a lively and vigorous
10), for instance. In fact, it was not until its final phases sculptural tradition in France, it is surprising that foreigners
(C1220) that any sculptor thought of pressing the style's anti- reacted either slowly or not at all. The most complete imi-
quarian aspects to the limit to produce statues that look un- tation of a French portal occurs in Spain at Burgos Cathedral
mistakably antique. These well-known figures are to be found ci 23 5, where the Portada del Sarmental has close affinities to
on the west front and transepts at Reims (C1220), and include the west portals of Amiens. In England, there is little to sug-
the famous Visitation group. gest French Gothic influence until the 13th century; the first
The two stylistic trends so far described flourished in the surviving complex of Gothic sculpture is on the screen-like
provincial areas of France and the low countries. At this point, west facade of Wells Cathedral (begun 0225), an architec-
ci 200, Paris again became a focus of development. This is tural concept with clear Romanesque antecedents in the west
difficult to demonstrate: comparatively little good sculpture in of France. Although the sculptural style is reasonably close to
Paris survived 18th-century destruction and 19th-century res- contemporary developments in France, the architectural
torations. Thus, although the next important monument is the framework would hardly have been acceptable to a metropoli-
northwest portal of Notre Dame (C1205), the best surviving tan French mason. Something similar is true of the south
example of this new style is now the west front of Amiens portal of Strasbourg Cathedral (C1230). Here the sculpture, of
Cathedral (C1225). The taste exhibited by these figures is ex- the highest quality, is close in style to the graceful porch sculp-
tremely sedate and restrained. Nicholas of Verdun's drapery ture of Chartres. But architecturally, the doorway itself is a
troughs have vanished, almost as if they had never existed; strange mixture of elements with a strong Romanesque feel-
instead the clothes have voluminous folds. The origins of this ing. Equally strangely ambivalent is the sculpture of Bamberg
style could lie in 10th-century Byzantine ivories. Cathedral (C1235). The high quality, striking figures are
Ultimately, also probably in Paris and presumably out of carved in the almost outmoded muldenstil. But it is not at all
lew sculptural style, there developed a style best known clearwhat they were intended to decorate: several are inside
in the work of the so-called Joseph Master at Reims Cathedral the Cathedral in unrelated positions round the choir. Of all
theGerman early Gothic sculpture, the easternmost examples
areamong the most exciting. The Wise and Foolish Virgins of
Magdeburg Cathedral (C1245) demonstrate an extremely
exaggerated emotion, as yet unequalled. But the far more re-

strained drama of Naumburg Cathedral (C1245— 50) with its

large, illusionistically conceived statues of secular benefactors

round its west choir, is probably more arresting and memor-
able.
Twelfth-century European painting was, for the most part,
still dominated by varying degrees of Byzantinism. There is no
real equivalent to the Chartres style, nor any center or school
that produced work of the significance of the architectural and
sculptural complex of St-Denis. But the Klosterneuburg Altar
was composed chiefly of enameled plaques and, to that extent,
was pictorial rather than sculptural; so it is not surprising to
find the muldenstil being adopted by painters as well as by
sculptors. That it in any case achieved a two-dimensional
existence in masons' notebooks is clear from a remarkable

survival: the sketchbook of Villard de Honnecourt, a north-

French mason who visited Reims Cathedral 0220— about the
period when the so-called "classical" masters were at work.
But even before this at the beginning of the century, a sumptu-
ous Psalter was made for Queen Ingeborg of France (the In-
geborg Psalter; Musee Conde, Chantilly) in which pictorial
illustrations were executed in the same general style. The at-

traction of this style was probably the bulk, roundness, and

definition it gave the figures, as well as its decorative charac-
teristics. At all events, parallel development can be found else- The outpouring of the Holy Spirit at Pentecost, from the Ingeborg Psalter;
early }th century. Musee Conde, Chantilh
where C1200 in which a softer and heavier drapery style is
1

achieved by similar means, although without the ubiquitous

troughed effects of the muldenstil. This is particularly clear in series of illustrated Apocalypse manuscripts and further
a magnificent series of Psalters painted in England, and, sumptuous Psalters were similarly decorated. Some of this
indeed, changes in pictorial approach are virtually "chroni- English illustration takes the form of tinted outline drawing
cled" in a large work such as the Winchester Bible (Winches- (especially that of Matthew Paris), a curious and effective
ter Cathedral) in which the painting was done over a lengthy revival of an English tradition dating back to the nth century.
period. Here, the very latest contributions, made towards the Germany stood somewhat apart from this general develop-
end of the 1 2th century, are far removed from the Romanes- ment. In fact, the Byzantine tendencies of the 12th century
que style of the first illustrations. seem to have been reinforced in a book such as the Weingar-
In England and France, however, the pictorial style that ten Missal (.1216; Pierpont Morgan Library, New York; MS.
prevailed for much of the first half of the 13th century was a 710) and the ceiling of St Michael's church, Hildesheim
version of the muldenstil: the drapery, although no longer 230-40). Far from developing anything as graceful as the
(c 1

dominated by troughs and ridges, is still strongly curvilinear muldenstil, artists within the Empire produced a highly man-
in its patterns; the figures, as a complement, are arranged in nered version of stylistic elements, visible, for instance, in the
graceful, curving attitudes. This general style is strongly in 12th-century mosaics of Sicily or the 13th-century mosaics of
evidence in a number
sumptuous French books, including a
of St Mark's, Venice. Figures and drapery tend to assume angu-
series of Bibles Moralisees books of selected passages from— lar spiky shapes. One of the more striking manifestations of
the Old and New Testaments, each selection carrying with it this style is the painted altarpiece of the Trinity from Soest
an allegorical gloss —some of which were probably produced (Westphalia), probably c 1230-40 (Staatliche Museen,
for the French court. It is also the style in which a large Berlin). It flourished for about 80 years in the Rhineland,
amount of France's early- 13th-century stained glass was Westphalia, and Saxony, but eventually came to be super-
painted. It survived until the 1240s, and is found in the seded by something altogether more elegant and ultimately
window painting of the Sainte (hapelle and also in part ot an dependent on Paris.

Evangelary ordered at the same period by Louis IX for his new It is at about this point in the history of Gothic art that the
foundation of the Sainte ( hapelle. In England, it survived almost total absence of a contemporary tradition of literary
longer. It is the stylistic language of Matthew Paris, and a commentary on the aims and achievements of artists is strong-
602 GOTHIC ART

ly felt. All artistic production involves choice —by artists as

well as patrons. Human choice may not always be the product

of reason, but is often the product of argument. Some of the
arguments of the Gothic period, such as the aesthetic defensi-
bility of flying buttresses, must have occupied professional

architects at a general level over a considerable period.

Others, such as the employment of especially idiosyncratic
masters like the sculptor of Senlis, must have occupied the
Cathedral authorities there for a comparatively short time.
William of Sens at Canterbury is known to have been selected
from a large group of contending masons. But although we
can infer from the results the kind of aesthetic preferences
current during this period, we can hardly begin to reconstruct
the character of the argument by which these preferences were
defended or supported. It is clear from the results, for in-
stance, that during the first half of the 13th century, realism in
sculpture was much appreciated. Sculptors seem to have been
consciously attempting to impress the physical presence of
their work on the spectator by its realistic and humane qual-
ities. This is manifested as much in the extreme realism of
some of the carved foliage as in the sometimes startling essays
in emotional expressions. The statues of Wise and Foolish
Virgins on the portal of Magdeburg Cathedral show contrast-
ing degrees of smug self-satisfaction and despairing grief and
frustration of a sort probably never explored since Classical
Antiquity. The changing drapery conventions and the spas-
modic classicism may be seen as successive attempts to reach a Two wise virgins on the portal of Magdeburg Cathedral; C1237
realistic solution, without sacrificing the aesthetic demands of
decorative pattern. However, it is equally apparent that the The high Gothic period (outside Italy) 1250-1300. Up to
figurative arts were not in step. In the second half of the ci 230, the major architects of France had been preoccupied
century, the painters ultimately adopted a drapery style that with structure and engineering, following the liberating ac-
had much in common with that of the Joseph Master {fl. ceptance of the flying buttress. Around 1230, however, they
C1230-45). But as far as the ideal of realism went, earlier- must have realized that building enlarged versions of Chartres
i3th-century painters ignored the element of the third dimen- Cathedral could no longer constitute progress: in practice, the

sion almost entirely — although

was one of the things
this highest vault ever built, at Beauvais Cathedral — 158 ft

The jambs of the por-

sculptors were successfully exploiting. (48 —
m) later collapsed in 1284. Thus in the years after 1240
tals of Reims, for instance, became progressively more of a there was a radical reorientation of architectural thinking, and
stage on which action took place. The west choir of Naum- the first major building in which this is apparent is, again, the
burg Cathedral possesses a complicated series of cross- abbey church of St-Denis.
relationships between the carved figures which are set at At some date Abbot and monks decided to
after 1231, the
intervals round the making figures act
choir. But the idea of pull down the Carolingian church and rebuilt the nave and
and move in a spacially was almost totally
described setting transepts to form a more splendid link between Abbot Suger's
ignored by northern 13th-century painters. (It was eventually choir and the west front. The designer was Pierre de Mon-
developed in the quite different context of Italian wall-paint- treuil {fl. 1231-67). In its interior elevations, the church re-
ing.; The northern painters were self-evidently not insensitive, tains the clerestory-triforium-arcade arrangement of Chartres
and they were probably aware of the course taken by the but with an entirely new stress on glazing and tracery, though
sculptors. Yet virtually no steps were taken in the exploration window tracery first appeared on a large scale at Reims
of linear perspective, and the pictorial style as a
whole seems Cathedral. The architect of St-Denis realized that with the
to have been directed against the sort of experiments in facial main structural stresses and strains now concentrated in the

description and characterization common in sculpture. These major piers and buttresses, much of the wall space in between
differences point to a positive sense of fitness and taste, and a was superfluous for keeping the building up. Consequently, he
strong sense of tradition, to balance against the desire for dissolved it into window space, heightening the effect by
innovation. But the language in which these preferences and bringing the glazed area down into the triforium gallery. Thus
reservations were couched is now largely a matter for specula- the entire upper half of the main elevation of the interior of St-
tion. Denis is a succession of huge windows, filled with patterns of
 —

GOTHIC ART 603

window tracery. At the same time, huge rose windows were Chapelle must be one of the last major ecclesiastical buildings

inserted into the transept ends: it is this particular "radiating" in France in which expert performances in the various applied
feature that has given the name Rayonnant to the architec- arts were allowed to make a decisive contribution to the archi-
tural style as a whole. The
and grace of this type of
lightness tectural effect. This change of attitude, already mentioned,
architecture remained a feature of most subsequent Gothic must represent some sort of professional change within the
architectural development in France; the manipulations of masons' ranks. Those who designed buildings from the 1240s
two and the tracery
features of St-Denis, the tracery pattern onwards became increasingly preoccupied with the intellectu-
screen, became most occupied subse-
the preoccupations that al exercises of tracery patterns (and later, vault designs). From
quent masons. Of the numerous cathedrals and churches that ci 280 onwards, major works of sculpture seldom appear on
might be selected to show the course of this development, one architecture.
of the smaller and most complete examples is the church of St- Westminster Abbey followed the Sainte Chapelle to the
Urbain at Troyes, begun in 1262. One of the largest and most extent that most of its interior surfaces were either carved or
magnificent pieces de resistance of the style is to be found in painted. This love of rich surfaces was imitated, for instance,
the transept facades of Notre Dame, Paris (designed by Jean in the Angel choir of Lincoln Cathedral, begun in 1256; but in

de Chelles); the north belongs to the 1250s, the south was two respects Westminster was seriously out-of-line with Eng-
begun in 1258, and both were added to the 12th-century lish practice (and, perhaps, in line with that of France): it is

building to bring it more into line with current architectural sparing in the use of colonnettes and vaulting ribs. The fash-
practice. ion for both features continued in England up to the end of the
Outside France, the impact of this new style was very soon century, and when combined with the new possibilities of
apparent. Two large German buildings, Cologne Cathedral, window tracery produced some overwhelmingly rich in-

begun in 1248, and Strasbourg Cathedral, begun C1245, teriors, such as Exeter Cathedral, begun before 1280.
repeated the essential features of St-Denis —though on a colos- From some points of view, English architects lagged behind
sal scale. At Strasbourg, the west facade, planned in 1277 by a the Continent in their practice. It is true that England pre-
German architect called Erwin, shows an extraordinary vir- serves one of the last great assemblages of realistic botanical
tuoso use of tracery in windows and on screens of masonry. foliage sculpture at Southwell Minster, Nottinghamshire, ex-
The facade was later much modified, but even at this date was ecuted at a time in the 1 290s when it was falling out of fashion
intended to have its towers surmounted by slender, open, lan- elsewhere in Europe. It is also remarkable that tribune gal-
tern-like octagonal structures capped by spires. Spain also leries should have survived as an element in the elevations of

possesses a Rayonnant cathedral at Leon, begun in 1255, and large churches into the second half of the 13th century. How-
in England, the transept facades of Westminster Abbey (after ever, the intense amount of English experiment in tracery
1245) and the east facade of the medieval cathedral of St Paul design and vault patterning were very important, and, in both,
in London (begun in 1258), dominated by their great rose English architects made significant contributions to the de-

windows, would both have seemed familiar to a Parisian ar- velopment of European Gothic architecture.
chitect. This became apparent at the end of the 13 th century in the

Yet alongside these achievements, deeply rooted local pre- nave of York Minster (begun in 1291) which, with the palace
ferences persisted. In Spain, for instance, the great architects chapel of St Stephen, Westminster (begun in 1291, now
active 0300 reverted to the type of interior elevation domi- mostly destroyed) is perhaps the most important building
nated by a giant arcade: for example, Gerona Cathedral, towards the turn of the century. The architect of York
begun C1291, Barcelona, begun in 1298, and Palma de Mal- abandoned almost all the decorative features of, for example,
lorca, begun 0300. In the Empire, the chief type of church Lincoln, and also abolished the tribune gallery. The elevation
built from C1300 onwards was the hall-church as already seen came much Rayonnant conception and is by earlier
closer to a

in St Elizabeth, Marburg
most notable hall-churches
(the standards rather austere. However, the interior is roofed by an
belong to the 15th century); while in England, Westminster elaborate vault of intersecting tracery containing one of the
Abbey has always seemed to stand apart from the main line of first instances of lierne ribs. At St Stephen's, the architect com-
—
developments although it had great importance in some re- bined a lierne vault with the elaborate extensions of window
spects, such as the popularization of window tracery. tracery over wall surfaces in the form of tracery panels.
Westminster Abbey from 1245 onwards) was de-
(rebuilt Perhaps the best impression of this general effect can now be
signed by an architect called Henry of Reyns it is still not — gained from the choir of Gloucester Cathedral (refurbished
clear whether he was from Raynes (Essex), Reims, or some- soon after 1330). Gloucester choir is, of course, traditionally

where else. His building was nevertheless deeply influenced in known as one of the earliest examples of Perpendicular style

its interior effect by Louis IX's Sainte Chapelle, built in the from this it can be seen how Perpendicular is really the English

1 240s. This palace chapel, designed to house, among others, a equivalent of Rayonnant.
relic of the True Cross, was of unparalleled richness inside; in In the years following 1250, European sculpture ceased to
its wealth of carving, painting, and deeply colored glass, it was undergo the dramatic and rapid transformation that had been
unlike most other contemporary French building. The Sainte a characteristic of its history over the previous 100 years. The
 '^*»
te&V'.

1
1
t i

fe I
1 1
.-

'I
 1

GOTHIC ART 605

style visible in the later sculpture of Reims is not particularly ently less frequently built; but it seems that major sculptors
different from that of sculpture carved 100 years later. The were less willing to be involved in this type of work, seeking to
most interesting developments of that period relate not so make their mark in other fields.

much to the detailed appearance of sculpture as to the way in In fact, first-class sculptors seem to have moved away from
which it was used. There are indeed some notable exceptions architecture (perhaps with the encouragement of architects)
to these observations. The "leaves of Southwell" were perhaps and to have worked instead on smaller commissions for which
the last time in European art that capitals were given such they took full responsibility and control. By far the largest
minute individual attention. English figure sculpture in gener- surviving number of examples are sepulchral monuments.
al lagged a little behind French developments. The mid- 13th- Before 1250, the tomb as a work of art has a modest history in
century figure sculpture of Westminster Abbey contains none northern Europe. But part of the history of the secularization
of the heavy drapery folds of the Joseph Master; only with the of art lies in the increasing demand by secular patrons for
Angel choir at Lincoln, after 1256, did these enter the English personal memorials. Louis IX was an important figure in this

repertoire. respect since he reorganized the remains of his Capetian an-

One curious feature of this period is the virtual absence of cestors and his own family into two mausolea, at Royaumont
commanding portal sculpture. The extremely vivid and and St-Denis, and provided a series of monuments for many of
dramatic figures on the west front of Strasbourg Cathedral the remains. Unfortunately, French tombs as a whole suffered
(probably 0280— 1300) only make the general absence more irreparable damage during the French Revolution; the best
striking. It is true that major facades of this kind were appar- surviving medieval mausoleum is Westminster Abbey,

Left: Spanish Gothic: the choir and the ambulatory of Gerona Cathedral; English Gothic: the choir and part of the north transept of Gloucester
begun ci 29 Cathedral; mid 14th century
606 GOTHIC ART

followed closely by the 14th-century burial place of the roundness and substance of previous work and become some-
Despenser family, Tewkesbury Abbey, Gloucestershire. In what pallid essays in minute virtuoso penmanship. All these
Westminster Abbey, the most important monument for its features are visible in a Psalter done for Louis IX himself
style is that of Edmund Crouchback (ob. 1 296) which with its (Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris; MS. Lat. 10525) and in a
great canopy, multiple gables and pinnacles, numerous number of other books executed in Paris around this time.
figures,and lavish coloring set a standard of decorative osten- The position of Louis in this development is central because
tation which influenced English sculptors for the next half we know he began to build up a library of books specially
century. However, this particular decorative ideal had prob- executed for himself. Another early example of this style is in

ably in its turn been influenced by the work of some itinerant an Evangelary executed for the Sainte Chapelle (Bibliotheque
Roman marble-workers, brought to the Abbey during the Nationale, Paris; MSS.
Lat. 8892 and 17326); a further ex-
1 260s and 1270s to execute the presbytery pavement, the ample is done for his sister Isabella of France
in a Psalter

tomb of Henry III, the shrine of Edward the Confessor, and a (Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge; MS. 300). Moreover, the
number of lesser items. These survive, an oddly foreign con- center for the further development of this style remained Paris,
tribution to the ensemble. Henry Ill's tomb (which is a Roman and one of its subsequent exponents known by name is
altar made to contain relics and may have been originally Master Honore, an artist who worked for Louis IX's grand-
intended for the body of St Edward) was eventually completed son, Philip the Fair (1285-1314). Honore's documented
by Edward I with the addition of a bronze effigy of Henry by career belongs to the late 13th century; and while his painting
William Torel (active 1290s). has much in common with the so-called St Louis style, he
But even as this fashion for magnificence was being estab- managed by modeling his drapery into white highlights to give
lished in England, something more restrained and sober was it a bulk and solidity previously lacking. The discovery of light
being evolved in France where royal tombs were normally as a pictorial factor should, from every point of view, have a
composed of alabaster effigies on black marble sarcophagi. European and it is a teasing problem that its dis-
significance
Color was in general limited to costume detail, accoutrements, covery is evident at about the same time in Italy in the painting
and heraldry. The best examples of this ideal also survive in of Pietro Cavallini (C1250-1330). This could be early evi-
England, one of them, in Westminster Abbey, to Queen
Philippa of Hainault, actually designed and made C1365-7 by
A folio from the Psalter of Louis IX; 1253-70. Bibliotheque Nationale,
the French court sculptor Jean Hennequin de Liege (/?. 1361—
Paris
82). In the same tradition is the monument to Edward II (in
Gloucester Cathedral; 0330-5); but this has in addition a
fantastic canopy which, apart from a few English derivations
and some unexplained parallels at Avignon, stands outside the
canon of general European taste. These tombs were intensely
personal memorials, and predictably heraldry as an or- —
ganized system virtually a creation of the 13th century
played an important part. Louis IX's monuments included
sarcophagi some of which were decorated with small figures,
traditionally called "weeper-figures" and intended to remind
the spectator of the relatives of the dead person. But the most
striking piece of personalization, which became common from
now on, lay in the treatment of the effigy itself. Here half a
century of experiment in facial characterization now bore
fruit in the endowment of effigies with "portrait" faces. In
many cases, of course, there is no evidence that a face is a real
portrait, but often a face displays distinct characterization
aimed at making it look different from other faces, and so
unique. Ultimately (towards the end of the 14th century) evi-
dence indicates that artists could and did take death masks.
Around 1250, Parisian court painting acquired many of the
characteristics of the sculptural style of the Joseph Master and
the sculpture of the Sainte Chapelle. Almost all trace of the

muldenstil finally disappeared and was replaced by a type of

"broad-fold" drapery, soft and voluminous, which hangs
rather than clings, and which tends to fall in the V-shaped
folds already familiar in sculpture. At the same time, figures
tend to become daintier, and faces in particular lose the
 GOTHIC ART 607

dence of stylistic influence of Italy on northern Gothic art, but

the firm testimony of dated work is unfortunately lacking.
Nevertheless, the influence of Italian art became a pervasive
factor in 14th-century Paris. The reasons for this were in part

ones of circumstance. It is not known when Honore died,

although his workshop tradition was presumably continued
by his son-in-law, Richard of Verdun (/?. 1288-1318). At this
time, three Roman painters were living in Paris where they

had moved when the Papal court left Rome for the south of
France (1305). They were employed in Paris for two decades
and it is hard to believe that their work (now entirely de-
stroyed) did not make some sort of impact. No work by
Richard of Verdun is known; but his successor as court paint-
er, Jean Pucelle, was very much a student of Italian art. Pucelle

is now known to have died in 1334 and his working life seems

to have been comparatively short. During the 1320s, however,

he probably supervised the production of a small number of
important manuscripts, especially for members of the royal
family: his workshop was apparently active up to the middle
of the century. Pucelle introduced Italianate perspective into
Parisian painting (he could have been to Italy and known
Duccio's Maesta). He also popularized a fashion for mono-
chrome painting (usually called grisaille) which followed the
developments under Honore: it necessarily entailed the de-
scription of forms chiefly in terms of shadows and highlights.
There are distinguished earlier examples of grisaille painting

in Giotto's Capella dell'Arena at Padua (c 1305— 10). These

importations were of great consequence because they
launched northern painting, in the wake of the Italians, in the
pursuit of realistic pictorial space. The advance was gradual,
and, once again, the pressure of tradition and, presumably,
ideas of pictorial decorum were always important, but the
change of direction is clearly perceptible.
The distinguishing features of the St Louis style appeared in
English court art during the third quarter of the 13th century.
A book such as the so-called Douce Apocalypse (before 1272;
Bodleian Library, Oxford) has the soft hanging drapery with
the V-shaped folds, and also the minute, carefully drawn
faces. This book seems to have been intended for Edward I,

before his accession. Another important book in a similar

style is a Psalter (British Library, London; MS. 24686) begun
for Edward I's son Alfonso (ob. 1284). In England, a unique
group of large-scale paintings in the same style and from a
similar date survives in Westminster Abbey, including notably
the so-called Westminster Retable. This is a large panel-paint-
ing, meticulously and finely painted, with the heavy modeling
associated with Master Honore's work.
In following this English style into the 14th century, the
formal characteristics of the decorated manuscripts become
more important than the exact way in which the figures are
painted. The so-called East Anglian School of manuscript
painters is distinguished by the elaborate quality of its border

Right: S( Peter, a panel of the Westminster Retable; late 1 ?th century.

Westminster Abbey, London
English Manuscript Painting
the emphasis is on delicacy and restraint.

c 1280-1350 Border decoration

in the
is far less
works already noted, and the colors
exuberant than

By any standards, the late 13th century and particular potential that many of the subse- are less brilliant and strident. In general, their
the first halt of the 1 4th must count as one of quent manuscripts excelled. aesthetic impression is more in keeping with
the golden periods of English painting and One group of these manuscripts, a reason- the contemporary Parisian style of Master
figurative design. Works of the highest quali- ably coherent one, is associated with the Honore and Jean Pucelle.
ty survive in all manner of different media. Abbey of Peterborough and a number of These works form only a small part of a
including manuscripts, panel-painting, neighboring institutions. Probably the oldest, total output. Many of the others are well-
stained glass,and needlework. The various and certainly the most sumptuous, member known. A late example from this period is
media are and together offer a
interrelated, of the group was actually made for the Abbot the Lurtrell Psalter British Library, London),
beautifully complete partem of artistic pro- of Peterborough. Godfrey de Croyland the not perhaps of the highest quality but famous
duction. Peterborough Psalter; Bibliotheque Royale for its border paintings showing scenes from
The period is best seen as one in which a Albert I, The painting shows a
Brussels ';. everyday life. The patrons for whom these
number of individual artists with their work- vi\ id awareness of the visible world, and a manuscripts were produced varied consider-
shops responded in various highly personal remarkable observation of human beings, ably. Some were ecclesiastics like Godfrey de
ways to the style associated with the royal animals, birds, and plants. Even more elabor- Croyland. Others seem to have been laymen
court and abbey at Westminster. Important ate are two books from a different group and women — often of considerable means,
in the exposition of that style is the Psalter associated with the diocese of Norwich: the since the most elaborate of these books have
begun tor Edward Ps son, Alphonso, shortlv Ormeshv Psalter Bodleian Library, Oxford) characteristically been the possessions of rich
before his death in 1 284 the Alphonso and the Gorleston Psalter 'British Library. people. The geographical distribution of
Psalter; British Library, London . This has London . these patrons is of some interest: many of the

much in common with contemporarv French The richness of the inspiration underlying
art, particularly in the delicacy of the figure English painting becomes clear when these
drawing and painting. But the vitality and books are contrasted with a further contem-
variety of the border decoration go far porary group of manuscripts of which the
beyond anything in contemporary Parisian most exquisite example is the Queen Man
work, and it was in the development of this Psalter British Library, London . In these.

< An illuminated minal

SfSfSsanms. from the Gorleston
Psalter; (1300—25.
British Library. London

An illuminated initial

from the Alphonso

Psalter, painted shortly
he-tore 1184. Bnnsh
Library, London

VA detail from a
-
processional scene in a t.-T-'mitflntttn
border of the Lutrrell
uts cctttrftts acrttdtttm
Psalter; c 1 ,4c. British
Libran London
, \ tabu tn rammr ftt net

no:* tffqurm ctrrntin fupcrtimrn

trea/mi
Ilui6inftli06fili0iu:

fmiantrritamamm
>fummrniO<fflKiim

jnon rtlntr m tonftlto imptonwv

im uid pcrratmum turn ftrar \
mmilicoid pdhimar non (com
 GALLERY STUDY

rams mr
qui non a^
btittnton

mtoimpt^
tnammd
mnwn
nonftm

Dia prfhimut non fant Jfeasaaffag rer

Id at liar tommi tioluntas mis: tt in S>*^
Lflii liutmaoratroif arranrw^
ait tomquam ugtuun quo) plant
mm (ft fens antrfirs aqimmnrqua) fair

i
fmimiaiutut
folium mis uon afiuct: it omnia

mmiH fantfpiofpttaommir....
^
11 fir tmpti non fir: fco tampam pti
BMip2oint munis a fear tui cr

i, ^ -
"~

SWBSnfe •
'-'

<A folio showing the Above left Italian An early folio from the
more restrained style of influence, the Sienese- St-Omer Psalter; C1330.
tctouosi the Queen Mary Psalter; style leaf added to the British Library, London
ci 300-10. British Gorleston Psalter;
i&cfrlmnoqtttuulnutam:
Library, London c 1 ^00-15. British
ttoi© tutor tono&iCTawa^ Library, London
jpBrolnlr Ittigtuini tuatn a maimer
books have connections with the eastern quent developments is already clear in the
labia ma nrioquiinnm tolunum counties of England, which leads to the later manuscripts, c 1 320. They amount in
JDuctrramaloifhttomitiKinqtuit proposition that here we are dealing in some various forms to Italian influence. An added
jwnn crpafcnuctr ea nuzBBn sense with an East Anglian school of leaf in the Gorleston Psalter shows a very
nut tomtm fupn-ntibein-atit^a'
1
painting.
The tendency in the past has been to
Italianate Crucifixion reminiscent of Sienese
art; the earliest work in the St-Omer Psalter

Zytlnieautnn tomimfup fattens
ntaUruxurcurtrtma mctmxtiatt.
Bftimattormfti crtominue ran
tlitur ©en eromnite mimlatotiifo
jBtna rfVtomintrfbitenutrnbulin)
fuirtrotft:ilumitu»fpufahtal7tr.
emphasize the role of East Anglian religious (British Library, London) shows, within the
houses in its development. But virtually no traditional ornate border setting, figures
documentary evidence about the artists sur- whose foreshortened limbs and modeled
vives, and current scholarly opinion tends to faces with beady, black eyes represent a
play down both the importance of monasteries general reappraisal of the importance of
in general, and East Anglian monasteries in structure in pictorial composition. The prece-
particular, as decisive factors. These books dents for this also lie in Italy. Thus these
were probably the product of groups of manuscripts offer hints of the direction taken
secular painters, often trained in London, by painting in the second half of the century.
who worked either there or in important ANDREW MARTINDALE

t provincial centers such as Norwich.

actual impetus towards change and develop-
The
Further reading. Medieval Art in East Anglta
1510, Norwich (1973). Rickett, M. Painting in
noo—

r" ment probably gathered

too.
force in the capital
Britain: the Middle Ages, Harmondsworth (1965).
Sandler, L.P. The Peterborough Psalter in Brussels
Some indication of the nature of subse- and other Fenland Manuscripts, London (1974).
6lO GOTHIC ART

decorations and the inventiveness of its grotesques. Many of In fact, Italian architectural ideals were totally different

the manuscripts (chiefly Psalters) have definite connections from those of northern masons, and in many ways much sim-
with East Anglia, interpreted to include Peterborough as well pler. Window tracery, the glazed triforium, vaulting patterns,

asRamsey and Norwich. Others, such as the so-called Queen and multi-storey elevations played virtually no part in Italian

Mary Psalter (British Library, London), may have been court building. Architects made almost no use of flying buttresses,
works done in London; indeed, aesthetically this manuscript but this did not stop them building large buildings —the nave
has much in common with Pucelle's work (it is probably ear- of Florence Cathedral, built in the late 14th century, is as tall
lier). English painting of the first part of the 14th century as most French naves. most part was put
Italian expertise for the

frequently exhibits minor Italianisms, mainly of figure-style; into providing wide churches with enormously high arcades.
one leaf added to the Gorleston Psalter (probably C1330; Brit- —
The most striking the cathedrals of Florence and Orvieto, S.
ish Library, London) is painted with a Crucifixion strikingly Croce (in Florence), and S. Petronio in Bologna among them
reminiscent of Sienese art. Yet, on the whole, Pucelle's pen- offer the visitor height and spaciousness, but not much else.

etrating grasp of the rudiments of Italian spatial construction Against this general background, a few of the essays in
is not found in England until much later in the 14th century. external adornment stand out. The campanile of Florence
The attractions first of the St Louis style and then of Italian Cathedral was originally intended, in the 1330s, to have an
art are also in evidence in the Empire during this period; some octagonal openwork tower on its top, capped with a spire, in
of the paintings added to the Klosterneuburg Altar (1324-9), a manner Cologne and Freiburg. Siena
similar to the spires of
for instance, contain some very obvious examples of Italian Cathedral has a facade whose lower half, begun in the 1280s,
iconography. The tiny faces and dainty gestures remain a has three deep gabled porches similar to French portals of half
legacy from the 1 3th century. In Spain, on the other hand, the a century earlier. Orvieto Cathedral has a facade begun in
impact of the Italian Trecento (14th century) style seems to 1 3 10 which comes closest to a piece of Rayonnant architec-
have been more profound and far-reaching. In particular, the ture with large porches and gables thrusting through into the
works of Ferrer Bassa (C1290-1348) are thoroughly Italian- upper stories. The impression this creates, however, is of a

ate —they might almost be mistaken for the work of a provin- than a development backed
series of individual essays rather

cial Italian (but Ferrer Bassa came from Barcelona); and this up by any coherent community of thought.
striking Italian bias remained a characteristic of Spanish By contrast, the history of sculpture offers a quite coherent
painting for the remainder of the century. story of development —even if it is conducted on a regional
basis. Once again, Italian Gothic developments are somewhat
Italian Gothic Art to 0350. We have postponed a considera- later than those in the North: the earliest indubitably Gothic
tion of Italian Gothic art for two reasons. First, in European sculpture appeared around the middle of the 13th century in
terms it developed at a comparatively late stage; second, its the work of Nicola Pisano (/?. 1258—78). The circumstances in

characteristics set it apart from the developments so far con- which Nicola was trained to carve are entirely mysterious.
sidered. There were, some tangible physical differences
in fact, Nothing survives in which re-
Tuscany from before this date
about Italian art. Sculpture was mainly in marble, buildings motely touches his imaginative powers and expertise. The
were predominantly of brick, and the most important pic- pulpit in the Baptistery of Pisa Cathedral (signed by him in
torial work was on a large scale —panel or mural. However, 1259) combines the heavy V-shaped folds of mid-i3th-cen-
Italy's geographical position must also be taken into account. tury drapery with some remarkable imitations of Classical
Italy is a Mediterranean country, and in the figurative arts, at heads and other antique features. Nicola's narrative reliefs,

least, the influence of Byzantium remained strong until the moreover, bear little resemblance to northern reliefs, but seem
middle of the 13th century. to be constructed after the principles of Classical sarcophagi.
The gigantic differences between Italy and the North It is interesting and reminiscent of Nicholas of Verdun, that
emerge immediately one looks at the history of Italian Gothic Nicola should have gone to Classical art when evolving a
architecture. Elsewhere in Europe, there is evidence that in realistic sculptural style; and, as with Nicholas of Verdun, his
most countries there were architects interested in and ready to later sculpture is less Classical than his earlier work and in
experiment with the Rayonnant style. This feature is almost many details more like northern Gothic.
entirely missing in Italy. In the North, the Cistercians, in the A combination of documents and signatures give us some
1 2th century, played a modest role in the dissemination of idea of the composition of Nicola's workshop (contrast those
basic Gothic moldings, pointed arches, and ribbed vaults. In of the northern masons). From his next monument, the pulpit
Italy, a small number of Cistercian churches, although later of Siena Cathedral, a contract survives in which the sculptors
than their northern counterparts, stand out as exceptional in a are named as Nicola, his son Giovanni, Arnolfo di Cambio,
country in which the characteristics of Romanesque architec- and Lapo and Donato (otherwise unknown). Both Giovanni
ture survive up to the end of the 13th century. A church such and Arnolfo were still alive and working 30 years later
as Fossanova (Cistercian, consecrated in 1208) will seem rev- (C1300), each with an individual style which may nevertheless
olutionary
in a century that in 1290 was still producing the be seen to emerge from Nicola's training. This type of infor-
enormous Romanesque nave of Orvieto Cathedral. mation can presumably be applied in northern circumstances
The nave, the aisles, and apse of Florence Cathedral; late 14th century

and to northern monuments. furniture and tombs, adapting to his own uses much of the
Within Nicola's family circle, the speciality seems to have brilliant decorative ideas of the local cosmati mosaic workers
been pulpits. He and his son Giovanni (with assistants; be- already familiar in this context from their almost concurrent
tween them produced four; the last (in Pisa Cathedral, of work in Westminster Abbey). Some of his work is startlingly
1302-10) by Giovanni is artistically the least interesting. In magnificent and highly imaginative, for instance the tomb of
sheer size, however, it must be one of the largest pulpits ever the Cardinal De Brave (ob. 1281) in S. Domenico, Orvieto.
built, and it has many curious details and a very elaborate Late in life i 2.96 Arnolfo was recalled to Florence, his origi-
iconography. Giovanni's greatest work, however, is the truly nal home, to design the new cathedral. He built part of a new
monumental facade of Siena Cathedral, built in the 1 280s and west facade, though little of this now survives; but the event is

1290s. Unfortunately, the upper half was not completed at of some interest because elsewhere in Europe the employment
this time and only the portals with figure sculpture can be of first-rate sculptors as architects seems bv this date to have

considered as Giovanni's. But the application of the enormous been uncommon.

figures above the portal gables is highly original, and the The sculpture on the west facade of Orvieto (ci 3 10-30) is

extraordinarily dramatic twist given to the whole ensemble normally attributed to the master mason Lorenzo Maitani fl.

shows Giovanni Pisano to be an impresario and stage man- 1302-30J. Some of it is reminiscent of the style of Giovanni
ager of a high order. Pisano, but it demonstrates a regard for low relief and fine
Giovanni Pisano specialized in pathos, emotion, and deeply finish which suggests the sculptor in charge had a different
cut dramatic drapery. B\ comparison, the work of his contem- training. However, the immediate origins of both the style of
poraries and successors seems rather tame. Arnolfo di Cambio the sculpture and the way it is applied to the facade in large
went to Rome in the 1 170s where he, too, established a flour- reliefs flanking the portals are very tar from clear. The Or\ ieto

ishing workshop. His style, more solid and pedestrian than sculpture is not alone in this. Another high-quality work, the
Giovanni's, is nevertheless at its best of an extremely high •
>f bronze doors by Andrea Pisano {fl. 1330-49) on the
technical order. In Rome, he became a designer of church Florentine Baptistery (1330-6), also has an enigmatic quality.
6l2 GOTHIC ART

and fashion led to the production of two memorable family

mausolea: of the Angevins in Naples and of the Scaliger family
in Verona.
The changes in Italian painting C1240-1340 were in their
way as complete and dramatic as the development between
the sculpture of the west front of Chartres Cathedral and the
work of the Master of Naumberg a century later. At the same
time, however, the propensity of Italian artists to sign their
names, coupled with considerable survival of documentary
evidence, means that the study also becomes transformed. Far
more than in the North, the historian is dealing with names
and artistic personalities. The general outlines of the study,
however, remain clear. The change is from the stylization and
decorative patterns of an art still dominated by Byzantine
traditions to something in which lifelike qualities were ac-
cepted as desirable. Given the preceding developments in the
North and the example set by the Tuscan sculptors, the fact
that this happened at all is not surprising. The models avail-
able to the painter, however, produced a development
towards realism that achieved a scale quite different from
anything that had happened in the North. It is still not clear
how far the impulse towards the particular sort of change
came from Constantinople itself, and how far it was stimu-
lated by the study of late antique frescoes in the basilicas of
Rome. The result, however, was a new appreciation of the
role of light and linear perspective in the manipulation of
space, and a new vocabulary of gesture and expression in the
human figure. Large losses of wall-painting in Rome have
permanently deprived the historian of much of the evidence
for the precise course of these changes. But they may still be
perceived in the Basilica of St Francis, Assisi. The most impor-
tant personalities known to us who worked on a large scale
were Pietro Cavallini (c-1250— 1330), the so-called Isaac
Statues carved by Giovanni Pisano for the facade of Siena Cathedral; Master [fl. late 13th century), and, of course, Giotto (1266-
in the foreground, Mary the sister of Moses; marble; height 194cm (76m);
1337)-
late 1 }th century. Museo dell'Opera del Duomo, Siena
The upper church of St Francis, in Assisi, decorated prob-
ably c 1 280- 1 300, demonstrates many of the novel features of
Andrea Pisano was a designer of the first order who, perhaps this extraordinarily rapid development. The work of the Isaac

more than any other artist, exploited the economy and direct- Master shows an astonishing grasp of form and great sensi-
ness of Giotto's early style. His name indicates he came from tivity to the nuances of human reaction. His dramas are re-

Pisa, and documents make it clear he was a goldsmith; but lated with fine economy and directness. The chief master of
although his style contains reminiscences of the Orvieto re- the St Francis cycle was a very different character. The first
liefs, the material as a whole produces no conclusive evidence striking feature is the remarkable illusionistic architecture
about his original training. Taking his work and the Orvieto with which he surrounded his scenes. But the scenes them-
sculpture together, we are merely left with the impression that selves, although they never attain the dramatic intensity of the
there is a missing chapter in the development of Italian Gothic Isaac Master's, display an exciting command of different types
sculpture which ought to complement the pervasive influence of setting and different interpretations of narrative. Clearly,
of Nicola Pisano and his workshop. he was a man with a lively imagination. At the same time, the
This influence, indeed, extended throughout the first half of whole ensemble demonstrates the problems of realistic rep-
the 14th century, visible alike in the work of Giovanni Balduc- resentation and the choices painters faced. The interpretation
cio in Milan
{fl. 1315-49) and Tino di Camaino in Naples of the "real world" merely adds another dimension to the
—
z 95 1337) and of their respective followers. The general artist's ever-present problems of choosing what to represent
development is similar to that of northern sculpture. There are and how to represent it.

very few stylistic surprises, and the main interest lies not in the
way sculpture is carved but how it is applied. Prevailing taste Right: The Capella dell'Arena, Padua, frescoed by Giotto c 1 303-6
614 GOTHIC ART

At the start of his carer, Giotto's solution to the problem of Giottesque selectivity and intensity as in the Holy Family.

choice was simplification. His tour de force in this respect was Walker Art Gallery, Liverpool, and again to scenes of high
the Capella dell'Arena, —
Padua and this achievement has an pathos and drama (as in the polyptych of the Passion; panels
air of austerity and singlemindedness which has always been divided between the Royal Museum of Fine Arts, Antwerp,
treated with respect by artists and with reverence by non- Staatliche Museen. Berlin, and the Louvre, Paris). But the con-
artists. It was not. apparently, the most likable solution at the cept of a Sienese style is probably best exemplified work
in the

time, and in many ways the imaginative extravagance of the St of the brothers Ambrogio and Pietro Lorenzetti Ambrogio
Francis Master has greater relevance to future developments. ob. M348; Pietro <:ii8o-?i348) in both the lower church of
Even Giotto, in the late Peruzzi Chapel frescoes (S. Croce, and the Sala della Pace in the Palazzo Pub-
St Francis, Assist,

Florence), was developing a more discursive and experimental lico. Siena, where new realistic devices were devoted to

sort of narrative; this became far more apparent in the works characterizing the towns of Good and Bad Government
of his most important followers, such as Taddeo Gaddi (1338-40).
(1300—66). However, it is also a development particularly
associated with the painters of Siena. European art ci 350-1420. European art of the second half of
The history of Sienese Gothic art traditionally starts with the 14th century has received extremely varied treatment at
Duccio 1/1155-13 19), an artist belonging to a rather older the hands of historians. It is the half century of moral, politi-
generation than Giotto. In many ways his ultimate achieve- cal, and economic crisis following the Black Death in the
ments are even more remarkable than those of Giotto and it is middle years of the century. Various attempts have been made
a pin that so
-
little is known about his painting until the very to demonstrate the presence of moral and political uncertainty

end of his life when he was working on the Maesta Siena and, indeed, also class distinctions and struggles in the forms
Cathedral, 1308— 11). Duccio combined in this enormous of art produced. Even attempts to show that the plague seri-
altar a purely material magnificence with a sparkling display ously interrupted the production of art are unconvincing.
of storytelling which has never been surpassed. It is true that Florence Cathedral is primarily the creation of Francesco
his work never has the gravity of Giotto's, but it makes up for Talenti 1300—69) in the second half of the 14th century
re

this in the enormous variety and liveliness of the spectator's years that also saw the immensely individual creations of
experience. Tommaso da Modena (1325-76), Guanento (fl. 1338-68),
The priority given to pictorial variety and description in and Altichiero //. 1369-90). In the Prague of the Emperor
Duccio's painting became an important feature of scene paint- Charles IV (1355—78), there sprang up a new cultural center
ing, although a great artist like Simone Martini (1280 J— with its own vital, novel, and interesting style. Attempts to
1
344) seems to have been able to shift at will from this to a discern peculiar spiritual or political values in the art of this
period merely draw attention to the general problem of the

The Temptation of Christ, a panel from Duccio's Maesta; 1308— 11.

medieval period — that of interpreting an art for which there is

Museo dell'Opera del Duomo, Siena almost no contemporary literary comment.

The general character of this half-century is one of synthesis
leading to what is commonly called the International Gothic
style. This was mainly a court, aristocratic style promoted in

Paris, Prague, London, and Milan. Its artists exploited the

grace and elegance of France combined with the realistic tricks
learnt from the Italians. In much of this, there seems to have
been a real interchange of ideas; the resulting rapprochement
of style offers a European phenomenon of interest and rarity.

III The like was not to be seen again until the i-th century, when
Europe once more achieved an international style following
the inspiration of the Italian Renaissance and the an of Anti-
quity

European art in the 15th century. The phenomenon of the

International Gothic style had a comparatively short exist-
ence, and by C1420 new approaches to painting and sculpture
were emerging. Florence parted company irrevocably with the
North, and although in the work of north Italian artists of the
generation of Antonio Pisanello (0395—1455) and Jacopo

Right: Thief on the Cross b> the Master of Flemalle: c 1425-30.

Stadelsches Kunstinstitut, Frankfurt am Main
^^H| V

/I

kv

t
\ v~ I

^ >
616 GOTHIC ART

Bellini (ci 400-70/1) many of the characteristics of the

International style continue, their work came to be much
influenced by the specifically Florentine preoccupation with
pictorial structure, foreshortening, and one-point perspective.
In the North, the most striking changes in the first half of
the 15th century took place in the Low Countries. The whole
linguistic area of Low Germany during this period is interest-

ing. From the late 14th century, it was able to "export" major
artists or potential artists who became famous
trained and
elsewhere. Thus Burgundy was
the court of Philip the Bold of
served by some distinguished Low Germans Jean Malouel —
{fl. c 1 390-1 4 1 5), the Limburg brothers, Claus Sluter,
Melchior Broederlam {fl. C1381-1409) among them. With the
exception of Broederlam, it seems clear that those who were
left at home, such as Conrad von Soest {fl. C1390-C1425)

were of the second rank. But in the 1420s Philip the Good of
Burgundy abandoned Dijon irrevocably as a political center
and moved to Brussels. This led to that area becoming one of
the most important centers of patronage in Europe.
A number of specific features contribute to give Flemish
painting of this period its peculiar character. New facial types

and characterizations appear in the work of Robert Campin

(the Master of Flemalle; 1 378/9-? 1444) and his workshop
which exercised great influence throughout the century. A
new distinctive "crumpled" drapery was devised C1420.
Many painters developed a particular sensitivity for landscape
settings, taking further ideas that had already received atten-
tion in Parisian art of the International style. Precise fore-
shortening and one-point perspective do not on the whole
seem to have attracted much attention, or to have been seen as
possessing any special merit. But one area in which Flemish
artists excelled was in their observation of the effects of light.

This was not simply a matter of correctly painting the fall of

shadows — was often faulty. It
their observation in this respect
concerned much more the effects of light on landscape and
distance, on interior settings, and on different substances and
materials, such as metal, brocade, or wood. The unsurpassed
genius in this art was Jan van Eyck {fl. 0391 — 1444).
Nevertheless, the most influential northern artist of the first
half of the 1 5th century was probably Rogier van der Weyden
(C1399/1400-64) who had a long life and an extensive work-
shop and output. It was Rogier who painted the portraits of
Philip the Good, his family, and his courtiers, and his work-
Madonna inChurch by Jan van Eyck; 31 x 14cm (12X5^);
shop is an early example of one that provided precise, high- originally the left wing of a diptych; c 1425-30.

quality replicas of its own works. Rogier's work, though Staatliche Museen, West Berlin
doubtless very expensive, was much
demand; and Rogie-
in
rian conventions of presentation and mark for
style left their an interesting Only with painters like
line of stylistic descent.
the rest of the century. They are clearly visible in the work of Geertgen tot Sint Jans (C1455/65-C1485/95), Hieronymus
Dieric Bouts (ci.415-75) and Albert van Ouwater {fl. 1430- Bosch (0450-1516), and Joachim Patenier {fl. 1515-25) do
60), and, to a lesser extent, in the more eccentric work of we reach a style of painting that seems substantially "foreign"
Hugo van der Goes (C1436-82). At the same time, the con- and different.
tinuing impact of van Eyck's painting cannot be entirely dis- The impact of the new control over lighting effects achieved
counted, especially in the subsequent painters of van Eyck's in Flemish painting was extremely important. It had almost
home town, Bruges. Petrus Christus {fl. 1444-72/3), Hans incalculable consequences on religious subject-matter, be-
Memling {c 1440-94), and Gerard David (C1460-1523) offer cause all the symbolic detail —and the paintings of the Campin
 (.o i inc. art 617

workshop and Jan van Eyck contain a great deal came to be — zation, and minutely worked surfaces finds many echoes sub-
incredibly sharply focused, and the scenes themselves were sequently in the century, if few direct imitators. The most
bathed in an intense other-worldly light previously unim- striking creations of the second half of the 15th century and
agined. At the same time, portraiture assumed a new dimen- the early 16th are a series of carved altarpieces, some with
sion. From being routine exercise in familial piety by which painted wings. These show not merely extraordinary auth-
the general appearance of a family's members might be ority in the handling of materials —usually wood—but often
handed down, it became a far more aggressive projection of a bewildering combination of elaborately carved figures with
the sitter's presence behind the picture frame. complicated tracery work in the carvings: see, for example,
The lighting effects seem to have first caught the attention the St Wolfgang Altar of Michael Pacher (1471-81; St Wolf-
of non-Flemish artists. One of the earliest instances is the gang, Austria). A similar aesthetic approach is visible in the

Tiefenbronn Altar of Lukas Moser (1431; in Tiefenbronn tombs of the period, notably in Gerhaert's monument to Fre-
parish church) which strongly suggests that Moser knew the derick III in St Stephen's Cathedral, Vienna, begun in 1469;
work of Campin's studio. Another brilliant, if eccentric, in- and it may also be seen in the notable Sacrament tabernacle of
terpreter of the Eyckian style was Konrad Witz (c 1400— 45) Adam Krafft in the church of St Lawrence, Nuremberg
seen, for example, in his Altar of St Peter, Geneva, of 1444. In (1493—6). These works, and those of Tilman Riemen-
the south, an uncertain chain of Eyckian characteristics leads schneider (0460— 1531) and Veit Stoss (0447-1533),
via the Master of the Aix Annunciation (from Eglise des Pre- demonstrate the summits of imaginative invention reached
cheurs, Aix-en-Provence; wings in Brussels, Amsterdam, and in this style. Moreover, this fashion in monumental compo-
Rotterdam; 1445) and Colantonio {fl. 1440—70) to Antonello sitions was exported to Spain where German or Flemish
de Messina (C1430— 79). The brilliant interplay of light and sculptors are often in evidence (for instance in the high altar
shadow and contrasted texture is also a feature of the work of of Toledo Cathedral, begun in 1498).
Master Franke (active 0405— post 1424) and Stefan Lochner
(C1400-51). Moses, on the Well of Moses by Claus Sluter; 395—1403.
1

In practice, however, art is not simply a matter of technical Chartreuse de Champmol, Dijon
brilliance; in the long run, was probably the compositional
it

style and emotional range of Rogier's painting that had more

general influence. A long list of names spread around Europe

testify to this fact —
a list including artists like Hans Pleyden-
wurff (0420-72) and Martin Schongauer (0430-91) in the
Empire, and Nuno Goncalves {fl. 1450-71) in Portugal. The
painters of the chapel of Eton College, Windsor, (0480)
spread this style to England. It is hard to generalize about the
contribution made by these artists to the development of this
although it seems clear that to the German-speaking
style,

community, "progress" meant exaggeration (often to the

point of grotesqueness) of the finely balanced emotional tone
of Rogier's art.
The history of 15th-century sculpture is usually taken to
start with the work of Claus Sluter. Although he died in 1 406,
his style was carried forward into the 15th century by his
nephew Claus de Werve {ob. 1439), and (less certainly) by
Juan de Huerta [ob. 1462). The relevant sculpture is all in
la

l)i|on (Musee des Beaux-Arts and the Chartreuse de Champ-

mol). It is by no means clear that it forms an adequate intro-
duction to the line of distinguished German sculptors which
begins with Hans Multscher (c 1400-67) and Nikolaus
Gerhaert van Leyden (c 1430-73) in the middle of the century
(from the areas of Ulm and Leyden respectively). We are
almost totally ignorant about the sculpture of Brussels in the
time of Philip the Good (Duke of Burgundy 1419-67). But
the appearance in the sculpture of Multscher and Gerhaert of
the "crumpled" drapery of the Flemish painters suggests that
the role of Flanderswas important for sculpture, too.
In many ways, however, Sluter set the tone lor what was to

follow; his preference for fantastic drapery, strong characteri-

 GOTHIC ART 619

The 15th century was, above all, a century of tracery and Nevertheless, if we review north-European achievements of
vaulting. Many of these experiments had already been sug- the late 15th —
and early 16th centuries at least in sculpture
gested in the work of English masons C1300; it is a matter of —
and architecture it will be apparent that there is a remark-
dispute how far the Parler family, for instance, was aware of able community of taste. This becomes clear when we com-
their work. It is clear, however, that from the late 14th cen- pare the chapel of Henry VII at Westminster, the chapel at
tury onwards we find in Germany a considerable development Brou (Franche-Comte; 1513-32), Pacher's St Wolfgang Altar
of high vaults, with intersecting tracery, followed later in the (1471-81), or the pulpit in St Stephen's, Vienna, by Anton
15th century by pendant vaults, and vaults whose ribs de- Pilgram (1512-14). Commitment to vivid, lifelike sculpture
scribe fantastic curvilinear patterns (for highly developed ex- goes hand-in-hand with a desire to display intricate, decora-
amples see the Annenkirche at Annaberg, begun in 1499, and tive richness in the setting of the sculpture. The result com-
St Barbara's, Kuttenberg, begun in 15 12, both in the eastern bines in extreme form the virtuoso treatment of the sculptural
part of the Empire). These experiments were frequently car- surface found earlier in the work of Sluter with all the tricks
ried out in hall-churches in which the equality of height be- and contrivances designed during the course of the 15th cen-
tween nave and aisles offered a considerable area of more or tury by architects. This type of visual excess was not by any
less continuous surface on which the designs could be dis- means universally perpetrated. The funerary chapel of
played. Notable intermediate examples exist at Landshut, Richard Beauchamp, Earl of Warwick, at Warwick (C1450),
Spitalkirche, St Martin; Nuremberg, St Lorenz, St Sebaldus; presents a reasonably restrained balance between accessory
and Munich, Frauenkirche. sculpture, stained glass, and sepulchral monument, and in
Extraordinary displays of tracery continue to be found France in particular there are monuments, like the castle
throughout the late 14th and 15th centuries. Gigantic towers chapel at Chateaudun (ci.425), where the primacy of the
with spires were planned (many were only finished in the 19th sculpture over decoration is established. But, on the whole,
century) following the earlier precedents of Cologne and visual richness was demanded and enjoyed.
Strasbourg cathedrals. In fact, the present spire of Strasbourg The study of the late 1 5th century tends to be permeated by
represents a redesigning of the late 14th century by Ulrich von a sense of impending doom —
to the extent that we have fore-
Ensingen (c 13 50— 14 19), who also designed the tower and knowledge of the change of taste that occurred c 1500-50. So
spire ofUlm. Other examples exist at St Stephen's, Vienna, it is important to emphasize that 15th-century northern art
and Prague Cathedral. At the same time, especially in France, exhibits enormous vitality. It is true that it is still an "inarticu-
architects were developing the tracery screen. This is evident late" vitality: only fleetingly can we find direct evidence of the
in some notable facade elevations as at Rouen Cathedral way in which contemporaries evaluated their art. The archi-
(early 15th century) and St Maclou, Rouen (ci 500-14), and, tectural drawings from the lodge of St Stephen's, Vienna, and
on a much smaller scale, on some secular architecture. The the treatise of Matthaus Roriczer (ob. C1492/5), On the Ordi-
best surviving example is the chimneypiece in the Due de nation of Pinnacles, for instance, give some idea of the pre-
Berry's great hall at Poitiers (1384-6), but more important for occupations of professional architects. Artists' responses to

future fashions was the main staircase of the Louvre Palace Italian art can offer similar information. Where artists bor-
(1363—6; now destroyed), a circular structure apparently en- rowed from Italian art, it was (as indeed it always had been)
cased in tracery and niches in which stood statues of the royal from a position of strength: Italian elements were used as a
family. The curvilinear, flame-like patterns developed by means of securing a wholly individual end. This is particularly

French architects during the 15th century have imparted to apparent in painting. Ever since the generation of Jean Pucelle,
their style the name "flamboyant". Milan Cathedral in Italy Italian art had exercised an influence on northern painters
(begun 1387) was designed (at least, its exterior was) by
in without, however, in any sense taking over. This type of crea-
somebody entirely in sympathy with this general taste. tive response continued throughout the 15th century, and is

With much of this development English art seems out-of- visible in ways in the paintings of Jean Fouquet
different

step, chiefly because many of the crucial developments in cur- (C1420-80), the Rene Master, and Michael Pacher. Some
vilinear tracery had happened much earlier, to be superseded similar process was at work in the creation of the Shrine of St
by the more rectilinear approach of the so-called Perpendicu- Sebaldus by Peter Vischer the Elder (1508-19; St Sebaldus,
lar style. English tracery from C1350 right through to the 16th Nuremberg). The extra Italian dimension offered by these
century holds few surprises. The main English invention in works to some extent facilitates conclusions about good and
vaulting, the so-called fan vault, as seen in the cloisters of bad practice, orders of priority and, in general, the preoccupa-
Gloucester Cathedral, constructed by 1377, although a pre- tions of those creating the art.
cocious development when it first appeared, by the time of its It is therefore misleading to think of non-Italian art as being
16th-century versions presents a distinct atmosphere of de'ja m some sort of decline c 1 500. However, a change of taste was
vu. occurring, and symptomatic of this was the tendency of non-
Italian monarchs to invite Italian artists to their courts. This

Left: I'hc St Wolfgang Altar by Michael Pacher; 1471-81. had hardly occurred during the earlier Gothic period. But in
1 hurch of Si Wolfgang am Ambersee, Austria the late 15th century, Andrea Sansovino (C1467-1529) went
62.0 GOTHIC ART

to serve King John II of Portugal, and at the beginning of the So we come back to the only real failure of Gothic art: it

next century Pietro Torrigiano (1472-1528) worked for Eng- never achieved an intellectual dimension. Of course, the work-
land's Henry VIII. However, it was the French court under ings of the Vienna masons reveal some highly involved and
Louis XII and then Francis I that was probably most influen- abstruse thought, and the painting of Jan van Eyck, with all its
tial in this respect. Louis' own tomb was designed by the exotic and antiquarian interests, is plainly aimed at an intelli-
Giusti brothers 515-31) and a long line of distinguished
(1 gent, sensitive public. But Gothic artists generated no discern-
Italians, includingLeonardo da Vinci (1452-15 19), Rosso ible body of theory suitable for propagation by educated
Fiorento, Primariccio (1504-70), and Benvenuto Cellini laymen; they possessed no sanctions derived from some
(1500-71), worked for Francis. It was especially at the French remote and venerable past. Nor, in spite of their respect for

court that the idea of the inherent desirability of Italian art tradition, did they develop a sense of their own history. These
was propagated. The general reason stemmed from the belief things are not essential for the production of good art and
that Italian art represented the revival of the art of Antiquity. architecture, but from C1500 onwards their existence was to
This had little or nothing to do with any general search for be more and more taken for granted. Their apparent absence
purity, restraint or balance. What came north was basically in the Gothic period may have contributed to the later im-
the art of Rome, Raphael (1483-1520) and Giulio Romano pression that Gothic art was uncouth. Whatever the truth, art
(C1499— 1546); in their density of visual interest, the Borgia derived from Classical Antiquity possessed all those things,
apartments (Vatican) or the Palazzo del Te (Mantua) yield and from C1500 the lands of the Gothic North passed rapidly
very little to the German altarpieces of C1500 or Henry VII's into the era of the Renaissance.
chapel (Westminster Abbey). But the architectural and figura- ANDREW MARTINDALE
tive conventions used by the Italians carried with them all the
now had Bibliography. Ars Hispaniae Vols. VII-IX, Madrid (1952—6). Aubert,
sanctions of the Antique which by the support of
M. La Sculpture Franqaise au Moyen Age, Paris ( 1 946). Boase, T.S.R.
about a century and a half of humanist propaganda. By the
English Art 1100—1216, Oxford (1953). Brieger, P. English Art
early 16th century, the Italians were thoroughly articulate on
1216-1307, Oxford (1957). Frankl, P. Gothic Architecture, London
the subject of art; tor the first time in the post-Classical ;i96i). Male, E. The Gothic Image, London (1961). Meiss, M.
period, principles in art emerge and aesthetic distinctions of French Painting Time of jean de Berry, Vol. I The Late Four-
in the

right and wrong are enunciated in literary form. It seems to teenth Century, Vol. II The Boucicaut Master, Vol. Ill The Lim-
have been felt that the Italians, by their near monopoly of bourgs and their Contemporaries, London (1967, 1968, 1974).
ancient art, also possessed the key to what was right and Panofsky, EL Die Deutsche Plastik des 11. bis 13. Jahrhunderts, Flor-
ence and Leipzig (1924). Panofsky, E. Early Netherlandish Painting,
desirable. The antagonisms this situation might have pro-
Cambridge, Mass. (1964). Pinder, W. Die Deutsche Plastik des 14.
duced were probably felt mainly among critics and patrons.
Jahrhunderts, Florence and Leipzig (1925). Pope-Hennessy, J. Italian
Artists from the different traditions were certainly capable of Gothic Sculpture, London (1955). Porcher, French Miniatures
respecting each other's talents — remember the mutual admir- J.

from Illuminated Manuscripts, London (i960). Rickert, M. Painting

ation of Albrecht Diirer (1471-1528) and Raphael, and in Britain: the Middle Ages, Harmondsworth (1965). Ring, G. A

Diirer and Giovanni Bellini. It is also clearly not the case that Century of French Painting, London (1949). Sauerlander, W. Gothic
Sculpture in France1 140-1270, London (1972). Stange, A. Deutsche
Italian art was desirable only for its classicism. Whoever was
Maleret der Gotik (1 1 vols.), Munich (1934—59). Stone, L. Sculpture
able to afford to employ Cellini, for example, was a very lucky
Middle Ages, Harmondsworth 1 972). Wagner- Rieger,
in Britain: the (

person. But it did mean that the formal conventions of antique

R. Die Italtemsche Baukunst zu Beginn der Gotik, Graz and Koln,
art and architecture quickly came to supplant those native to
(1956). Webb, G. Architecture in Britain: the Middle Ages, Har-
the North; and, with the change, came a critical language in mondsworth (1965). White, J. Art and Architecture in Italy: 12 jo—
which the transformation might be explained and justified. 1400, Harmondsworth (1966).
 33

THE SURVIVAL OF ANTIQUITY

A Roman copy of The Death of Laocoon and his Sons by Hagesandros, Polydoros, and Athanodoros, of cioo BC,
rediscovered in January 1506; marble; height 240cm (94m). Vatican Museums, Rome (see page 638)
622 THE SURVIVAL OF ANTIQUITY

The rebirth of interest in the culture

Greco-Roman Antiquity which we call the "Renais-
and ideals of of Giotto (1266-1337) and ended about the time of the death
of Raphael (1520). In Northern Europe, on the other hand,
sance" is too wide a phenomenon to be defined solely the art of Albrecht Diirer(1471— 1528) provides the first pro-
in terms of the history of art: it embraces the study of law, longed attempt to assimilate Classical models into a Northern
language and literature, stagecraft and philosophy, as well as style. While a Renaissance style flourished in Italy during the

various antiquarian interests —epigraphy, numismatics, top- 15th century, the North accepted the influence of the Antique
ography, and the collecting of antiquities. In Italy, where anti- only in the 16th century (see The Northern Renaissance).
que traditions were strongest, the revival began about the time However, the term "Renaissance" is often used loosely to

The Massacre of the Innocents by Giotto, a fresco panel in the Right: The Marriage of the Virgin by Raphael; oil on panel; 170X 120cm
Capella dell'Arena, Padua; 198 x 180cm (78x71m); C1303-6 (67X47111); 1504. Pinacoteca di Brera, Milan
 VftyflW^j^^^ F*- •:
• •

I
The Madonna of Chancellor Rolin by Jan van Eyck; oil on panel; 66x62cm (26x2401); C1435. Louvre, Paris

mean "a new departure", "something different". Doubtless, (1401-28) is immense: given a comparable skill in perspec-
the art of the early Flemish masters like Jan van Eyck (C1390- tive, lighting, the articulation of the human body, and the
1441) and Rogier van der Weyden (1399/1400—64) is rad- suggestion of thoughts and emotions, the former draws on the
ically different from earlier traditions in its mastery of the heritage of Gothic, the latter on Classical Antiquity.
techniques of perspective and oil painting, and in a new con- The concept of "Renaissance" is, indeed, a difficult one,
cern for the depiction of the world, especially of the human because it is emotive. It assumes resurrection following death,
figure, which such techniques permit. These qualities have and this in its turn implies a value judgment: after the "Middle
elements in common with Italian preoccupations. Indeed, the Ages" (a term devoid of color), art, or literature, or scholar-
Southerners were fascinated by the Northerners' ability to ship, was "reborn" miraculously, after the yawning gulf be-
capture light and to depict nature and human physiognomy in tween Antiquity and Renaissance which was the "middle"
detail. Nevertheless, the difference in intention between a Age. The Renaissance becomes good and progressive, the
painting by Jan van Eyck and one of similar date by Masaccio Middle Ages are consequently labeled retardataire. Also im-
 THE SURVIVAL OF ANTIQUITY 625

plied is a notion of total change, from old to new: such overt

simplification is perhaps inevitable if the Renaissance is seen
as a period rather than as a variety of style.
The feature of the Italian Renaissance that distinguishes it

from preceding renaissances and depth of its

is the extent
devotion to Classical Antiquity in many fields. By comparison,
the Carolingian and Ottoman renaissances were incomplete;
they did not embrace such a range of antique subject-matter,
nor did they create a distinct and thorough-going classical
style. Rather they imitated a variety of styles, usually from late

Antiquity and confined to easily transportable objects. Sculp-

ture in the round was rare, as was the use of Antiquity in
architecture. Although study and comparison clearly reveal
the antique sources of much Carolingian and Ottonian work,
most pieces do not proclaim their "Antiquity" at first glance.
But they embodied ideas of the importance of ancient
—
Rome, city and civilization ideas which continued essentially
unchanged into the Italian Renaissance. A study of Carolin-
gian ideas on the importance of Rome quickly shows that the
Renaissance as revival must comprehend the concept of sur-
vival as well: Charlemagne saw himself as a Roman Emperor,
and perhaps appreciated antique art not just for aesthetic
reasons, but for its political implications. When, therefore, he
sought permission from the Pope to transport marble and
columns from Ravenna to beautify his palace chapel at
Aachen, he was stating in artistic terms the legitimacy of his
rule. To emphasize still further his Imperial numen (spiritual
power), he brought an equestrian statue (supposedly of
Theodoric) from Ravenna and set it up outside his palace
which he called the Lateran.
Although ruling from Rome was not a practical possi-
itself

bility, every Emperor longed to be crowned on the Capitol.

Otto III even dreamed of building himself a palace on the

Palatine Hill, and Ludwig of Bavaria, who entered Rome in
triumph in 132.8, may indeed have been crowned on the
Capitol to shouts of "Long Live Caesar", rather than in St
Peter's. Ludwig emphasized his connection with the city by

having its image on his seal, with the legend roma caput
mundi regit orbis frena rotundi ("Rome, the head of the The Holy Trinity and the Virgin by Masaccio; fresco; 667x317cm
world, controls the reins of the round sphere"). (263 x 125m); c 1426-8. S. Maria Novella, Florence

If the Emperors did not make Rome their permanent seat,

the popes did —

at least until they fled to Avignon in 1308. If the city of Rome provided such a wealth of monuments
They converted pagan buildings, and raised new structures at and associations, why should this be so? The answer lies in the
the inevitable expense of the ancient monuments which pro- backwardness and instability of Rome throughout the 14th
vided a handy source of ready-cut stone. They were just as century and in the first decades of the 15th. The popes, by
interested as their secular rivals in the implications of Roma going to Avignon, deprived the city of stable government; its

caput mundi, and at least two popes had themselves buried in economy did not flourish and it had a miniscule population.
second-hand Imperial Roman sarcophagi. If Christians of the One historian (Rodolfo Lanciani) has assessed this as about
Counter-Reformation found pagan objects distasteful, most zo,ooo at the beginning of the 1 and written that
5th century,
educated men of the Middle Ages and Renaissance were fasci- "three quarters of the space within the walls was put under
nated by their beauty or associations. Both secular and religi- cultivation. The inhabitants, stricken with fear and poverty,
ous rulers could find a complete vocabulary of triumph and lived like their prehistoric ancestors in mud huts." The popes
glory in antique art, which therefore shapes the nature of both finally returned 111 1420, and slowly put hand the reno-
in

religious and secular art. This is particularly true of Florence, \ ation of the city; the jubilee year of 1450 was a spur to the
where the Renaissance was, 111 effect, born. refurbishing and building of a modern city. The officials of the
The Flagellation of Christ
figures while emphasizing their difference in

scale,and its effect is to stress the relation-

ship between the two groups.
Dismissed for centuries as little more than an watch two soldiers scourge Christ, who is Piero was originally a mathematician, and
ingenious exercise in perspective drawing, bound to a column. in preparation for the Flagellation he de-
The Flagellation of Christ (Galleria But in the right foreground are the looming signed an architectural setting — so exactly
Nazionale della Marche, Urbino) is today figures of three bystanders, and it is almost that it is possible to reconstruct the ground
w idely regarded as one of the greatest mas- certainly the spatial relationship existing be- plan and precisely locate the figures.
terpieces of 15th-century Italian painting. It tween thisgroup and the flagellation scene The identity of the bystanders, upon which
is admired chiefly for the perfect delicacy of that is central to the work's intended symbol- the symbolism and narrative meaning of the
its painting. The dramatic use of mathemati- ism; for as a painting of this time, the work turn, continues to tantalize art his-
cal perspective at once creates and helps to Flagellation would have a subject and a torians. They are not the conventional spec-
resolve a compositional problem of daunting purpose to which every device and detail has tators; nor are they readily identifiable New
complexity, and the fascination of the work a calculated relevance. Testament figures —although the central
is intensified by the enigma of its symbolic Perspective is used by Piero in a strikingly figure has been variously associated with the
meaning. original way. A more conventional perspec- risen Christ, the Apostle Peter, and the repen-
The nominal theme is the Flagellation of tive drawing would have placed the "vanish- tant Judas.
Christ —ordered by Pontius Pilate before the ing point" at the theological center of the The figure on the right is often thought to
Crucifixion. Piero show s the paved courtyard picture: Christ's head. But in the Flagellation, be a portrait of Ludovico Gonzaga, III

of Pilate's palace in Jerusalem. On the left is a Piero places the vanishing point unexpectedly Marquis of Mantua, 141 2.-78, possibly the
judgment hall enclosed by a colonnade of low down to the right of the flagellator in artist's patron. The figure on the left may be a

Corinthian columns. There the enthroned green. This minimizes the apparent distance theological interpreter or, more particularly,
Pilate and a turbaned, unidentified figure between the foreground and background Ludovico's astrologer Ottaviano Ubaldini.
But it is on the blond youth that the riddle
•< The Flagellation of centers. Who is he or what does he signify? Is

( hnst by the School of he an object of filial loss — known to have

Pietro Lorenzetti; fresco;
ci 325. Lower church of
S. Francesco, Assisi
been suffered by both Ottaviano and
Ludovico? Or is he an allegorical figure or a
symbol of more universal significance?
Perhaps there is a clue in the fact that both
the supernaturally immense laurel that
frames his head and the statue above Christ
are symbols of glory.

TA detail from Piero Earlier works depicting the Flagellation

della Francesca's The provided Piero with much of the raw ma-
Hagellation of Christ ; terial for his composition. One of themost
the blond youth framed
important examples is the Flagellation
wirh laurel

A Byzantine Emperor
John Paleologus and his A medallion portrait
entourage in Florence, a of Ludovico III Gonzaga,
bronze relief by Filaretc; Marquis of Mantua; a
(1439-45. St Peter's, t an original by
Rome Pietro da Fano; c 1452—
A The Flagellation of
Christ by Piero della
Francesca; oil on panel
58x8zcm (ijx ;nn
C1460. Gallena
Nazionale della Marche
Urbino

(c 1 325) by the School of Pietro Lorenzetti.

His asymmetrically organized fresco on the

vault of the transept of the Lower Church of
St Francis in Assisi would have been familiar
to Piero. The reconstructed
The costumes of all except the second and ground plan of The
Flagellation of Christ
third bystanders reflectcontemporary Byzan-
showing the locations of
tine fashions. They closely resemble costumes
the figures after R.
worn by the Eastern Emperor John Palcolo- Wittkower and BAR
gus and his entourage at a unification con- Carter in Journal of the
gress in Florence (1438—9), as recorded on Warburg and Courtauld
Institutes, vol. 16
Filarete's bronze doors at St Peter's, Rome.
PP294/. 1953
Piero, who studied and worked in Florence as
a young man, may himself have been an
eyewitness. Another source may have been
the council of Mantua in 14S9 called by Pope
Pius II in response to the Turks* conquest of
( onstantinople in 14s J.
6z8 THE SURVIVAL OF ANTIQUITY

Papal Curia were often learned men, and their number in- rather more advanced than painting in the sense that it adopts
cluded some of the most eminent humanists of the day, such the Renaissance style more speedily and comprehensively.
as Poggio Bracciolini (1380-1459), the great hunter of ancient The development of a classical style in architecture pro-
manuscripts, and Leon Battista Alberti (1404-72), artistic ceeded at an intermediate rate. The transalpine extravagancies
theorist and architect. Such a group was inevitably a civilizing of Gothic never took a firm hold in Italy, and certainly not in
force; we know, for example, that Pope Nicholas V sought Florence where the conspicuous churches were in a Roman-
Alberti's advice over the replanning of the city. esque style which Alberti was to find particularly congenial as

But the main reason for the preeminence of Florence proves the basis for his own formal experiments. There was, then, no
that Renaissance art cannot be treated in a vacuum. Her pri- basic incompatibility between Romanesque and ancient
macy stems from the activities of intellectuals like Petrarch, Roman architecture which the 1 5th century wished to imitate:
Boccaccio, and Coluccio Salutati, whose study of the Antique the one stems from the other. And yet there were substantial
and its relevance to contemporary life in fields as diverse as problems in adapting Roman architecture to modern use. The
philology, epigraphy, law, and mythology in the 14th century unsettled political situation for much of the 15th century
prepared the way for further emulation of antique art. There meant that palaces were built in towns and, for all their
is no satisfactory explanation of why was not
a classical style Renaissance detailing on the inside, tended to resemble the
conclusively adopted in the age of Petrarch; or of why, after medieval fortresses from which they derived: the airy external
the work of Nicola Pisano (fl. 1258-78) and Giotto, the pre- loggias and broad walks of ancient Rome would have been
ferred style of the 14th century should be a version of Gothic, too dangerous. The palace at Urbino exemplifies these
which survived into the 15th century (and then formed an features: it sits on an impregnable rock, its only external deco-
important element in the style of Lorenzo Ghiberti (1378— ration a rather bleak triumphal arch motif. Yet inside is a

1455), as International Gothic). One suggestion has been that courtyard, by Luciano Laurana (1420/5?— 79), of measured
a return to traditional modes of art was a consequence of the beauty and delicacy —partly derived, of course, from the
Black Death. medieval cloister. A design by a Florentine architect, Antonio
Changes in the study of available antiquities are directly Filarete (C1400— 69), of C1460/64 and therefore contemporary
linked to the development of the Renaissance style. The pace with the courtyard at Urbino, shows how his ideal palace
of excavation, deliberate or fortuitous, is in its turn linked to looked: the sheer walls and small windows are replaced by
the rate of building activities on Roman sites. The rebuilding elegant arched windows, echoing the continuous colonnaded
of a splendid city like Rome had unfortunate consequences for loggia which surrounds the ground story.
those interested in ancient art: building required lime, which To turn a building "inside out" in this manner would be
was easily obtained from hewn marble, so that the ancient city possible only with the coming of political stability; it is there-
shrank while the new city expanded. With the destruction fore not until the first decades of the 16th century that the
went many examples of Roman and Early Christian wall- Renaissance villa own. This was often based on
comes into its

painting and mosaic, whereas items that could be reused like — the ancient Roman villa in plan and motifs, for there were
columns and capitals, decorative friezes and sarcophagi plenty of ruined examples available for imitation. The harbin-
were preserved, usually incorporated in Christian buildings. gers of the new type were Poggio a Caiano (built 1480 on-
Sculpture in the round, so easily transported to the lime kilns, wards), Poggio Reale, near Naples (C1490 onwards), and the
and in any case more breakable than relief work, was scarce in Vatican Belvedere (1484 onwards; much altered). All these
Rome until C1450, when the popes began their large building use a central portico —the type from which Andrea Palladio
programs. From then on, with certain curbs on the destruction (1 508—80) was to develop his series of villas in the Veneto, the

of antiquities and with the spread of collecting mania, the vogue for which soon spread all over Europe. It has been
freestanding statue again assumed its natural importance. suggested that such a villa type with portico and loggia is a
Because of the paucity of painted remains, the Renaissance Venetian tradition persisting from Antiquity; we add to this
if

grew up on a diet of sculpture, mainly in relief; sarcophagi Palladio's extensive researches into ancient Roman architec-
and other reliefs were the most important element in the de- ture, the antique nature of his inspiration is doubly plain.
velopment of Nicola Pisano's style, and the same is probably If the antique models for secular architecture were easy to
true for Giotto and Masaccio: not enough likely painted find, such was not the case with churches. The origin of the
sources remain to show otherwise. Thus painting, as well as aisled nave was clearly the Roman basilica, but the height of
sculpture, was almost predisposed to a sculptural style be- the nave presented problems if the facade was to look antique.
cause the exemplars were predominantly in that medium. The Alberti solved the problem in two different ways: for the
development of a painterly vocabulary for representing in two church of S. Francesco at Rimini, which he rebuilt C1450, he
dimensions the effect of a three-dimensional object subjected demonstrated how the Roman triumphal arch, with its three
to light is thereby linked to sculptural models. And because it entrances, one large and two small,was suited to the scheme
is more difficult to reproduce in one medium effects which of nave and aisles; at S. Sebastiano, Mantua, he used the
hitherto had been totally strange (and which involved the antique temple front as the portico to the church. It is vari-
device of perspective), we might expect sculpture to be at first ations on these solutions which provide the vocabulary for
 THE SURVIVAL OF ANTIQUITY 629

The main courtyard of the Palazzo Ducale, L'rbino, designed by Luciano Laurana; c 1464-6

church architecture until the end of the Neoclassical period. For the Renaissance architect, geometry was important for
'Indeed, the temple front is also an important element in the plan and elevation for two reasons. It provided him with a
villa architecture of Palladio.) repertory of shapes which symbolized the Godhead. Aided by
A constantly recurring ideal for Renaissance architects was mathematics, provided him with shapes which were numeri-
it

the church in variations of a centralized plan: the structure and therefore beautiful. Today, we know that
cally rational
might be circular, hexagonal, octagonal, or a Greek cross the human eye cannot perceive intricate relationships between
(cruciform with equal arms). Philosophers from Plato on- shapes and volumes, and we doubt whether beauty is the
wards saw the on earth
circle as the perfect shape, a reflection direct result of mathematics. For the Renaissance, the math-
of heavenly perfection. In the 15th century the Neoplatonic ematical was beautiful.
and Christianized version of this idea, enunciated by such The case of the central-plan church underlines another way
writers as Marsilio Ficino (1433-99), declared that God is the in which information about the ancient world reached the
center of the universe, the hub of the world, and yet encom- Renaissance. For architectural detailing, the investigation of
passes that world. The human shape itself can be contained actual remains would provide plenty of motifs; but the ques-
within the circle, as demonstrated in the figure of the "Vitru- tion of the derivation of the plan is complicated. Few round
vian man", whose outstretched limbs touch the circumference temples survive from Antiquity, and there is no reason to
of a circle of which his navel is the center. believe that the position was substantially different in the 1 5th
 century.Most old central-plan buildings were Early Christian
churches; some of them, it is true, derived from Roman circu-
lar mausolea, of which there were many examples in and

around Rome. The 15th century was unclear about the true
nature of the Early Christian churches, believing them to have
been Roman foundations which had undergone a change of
usage. The error is pardonable even in such a scholar as
Alberti, who restored some of the early churches of Rome;
but it does demonstrate the difficulties Renaissance men had
in dating sources — sufficient historical equipment was as yet
nonexistent. The main source for the Renaissance central-plan
building was theoretical, and found in the only architectural
handbook to have survived from Antiquity: the De Archi-
tectura of Vitruvius, of the 1st century bc. This had been
known in the 9th century by Einhard, Charlemagne's biog-
rapher, who had used Vitruvian principles in an attempt to
erect truly antique architecture for his lord. Manuscripts of
the work were rediscovered at the beginning of the 15th cen-
tury, and architects studied it with enthusiasm: it provided a
complete course of instruction — from the theory of siting a
town or a building to the different types of construction — as
well as information on how and when to use the orders de-
pending on the purpose and type of work undertaken.
One drawback impeded a straightforward transposition of
Vitruvius' theories into buildings: the illustrations which were
evidently intended to accompany the text were lost and had to
The facade of S. Sebastiano, Mantua, by Alberti; begun in 1460. be supplied by editors. Unfortunately, the Latin of Vitruvius is
It only partly reflects Alberti's original plans
far from clear and many of his prescriptions allow a wide
latitude of interpretation. From the first printed edition of
"Vitruvian Man", a study of human proportions after Vitruvius i486, each architect-editor provided new suggestions so that a
1 st century BC) by Leonardo da Vinci; drawing; ?4X25cm (13 x ioin);
Vitruvian canon of what was or was not "correct" architec-
c 1 492. Gallerie dell'Accademia, Venice
tural practice developed without much reference to the text.

Thus, the very drawback of having no ancient illustrations

provided the Renaissance with an authentic antique textual
tradition which they themselves could add to and develop; it

endowed Renaissance architecture with both the sanction of

Antiquity and a creative flexibility. Vitruvius, as it were, pro-
vided the ingredients and the Renaissance made up the pre-
scription to suit themselves: but they could still claim that
their architecture was formed in the antique mold.
The flexibility of the early years of the Vitruvian tradition
did not outlive the High Renaissance. The whole point of
Mannerist architecture is that it deliberately breaks the rules
in the search for emotional effect or even shock:
Michelangelo's vestibule to the Biblioteca Laurenziana (152.4
onwards) exemplified this trend. But contemporary with
Mannerism is an inclination to codify Vitruvian "rules" into a
pedagogic system; such anti-mannerist retrenchment is a fea-
ture of the thought if not the practice of Pirro Ligorio (C1500—
83), the designer of the Villa d'Este at Tivoli (0565-72). We
should call his architecture "mannerist", but he speaks of
"stupidities" in the work of his contemporaries and continu-
ally looks back to the achievements of the High Renaissance.
Attitudes such as this help to maintain the potency of the
Renaissance tradition.
 —a

I HI SURVIVAL OF ANTIQUITY 63 I

Padua (by C1306), or extol the power of the state through

personifications and allegories, as in the notable episodes from
Florentine history that Leonardo and Michelangelo were com-
missioned to represent in the hall of the Great Council in the
Palazzo Vecchio in Florence (1503/5 and 1504 respectively).

Such desire for simplicity and antique grandeur is bound up

with the Renaissance's own conception of Man and his poten-
tialities. That such a desire was attainable is a result of the
Renaissance ability to reconstruct the past, to write and think
historically. When Hamlet exclaims in act two, scene two, of
Shakespeare's Hamlet

What a piece of work is man! How noble in reason! How

infinite in faculties! In form, moving, how express and admir-
able! In action how like an angel! In apprehension how like a
god! The beauty of the world! The paragon of animals!

he does so in frustration rather than in admiration, but the

substance of his eulogy in the world
is the position of Man —
commonplace to be works of men as different
found in the as
Pascal (1623—62), or Alexander Pope (1688-1^44)

Created half to rise, and half to fall;

Great Lord of all things, yet a prey to all;

Sole judge of truth, in endless error hurled:

The glory, jest and riddle of the world!
(An Essay on Man II. 13; 1733—4)

Man is seen as occupying a middle place in the scheme of

A central-plan church: the tempietto at S. Pietro in Montorio, Rome, things: a rational being, he can strive to be like God, but the
by Bramante; dated 1502 nature of Man. him
"in endless error hurled", often steers
towards baser things. An essential element in this scheme is
If we except the occasional fresco, painters had to study the the notion of free will, not in the theological sense of Man's
literary accounts when they wished to discover what antique ability to choose between good and evil, but rather the poten-
painting had been like. Vitruvius provides the source for the tial that willpower gave him to change himself and the world

architects; for the painters, it was the Natural History of Pliny around him for the better.
the Elder (completed in ad 77), an encyclopedia containing Given the potentialitv of Man to incline either to base plea-
descriptions not only of artistic techniques but also of famous sure or toward higher things, it was naturally the latter which
paintings. With Pliny's help, artists could imitate not only the presented the Renaissance with their ideal man, the hero,
forms of antique art, gleaned from their study of sculpture, formed from the antique mold. A hero was not simply bold,
but also capture the spirit of Antiquity from accounts of strong, and ingenious in battle, but led a life which reflected
works such as the Calumny of Apelles. This is best known in the nobility of his soul, his high morality, and his wisdom: he
the painting by Alessandro Botticelli 1444-1510) in the was magnanimous in his relations with others, and conducted
Uffizi, Florence, (C1495?), but was suggested as a suitable himself with dignity. All his actions were founded in reason,
sub]ect by Alberti in his /)< Pictura of 1434, and very popular on the domination of the emotions by the will. During the
thereafter. Epic and lyric poetry, as well as episodes from 15th century the cult of the hero, of the comparison of ancient
ancient history, provided another source. prototype with modern men, would become a feature of art as
fresco painting was one of the techniques described by it was of literature; the very idea of comparison could be seen
Pliny: throughout the Renaissance, from Giotto onwards, the in Plutarch's Lives (a clear source for stories of nobihtv .

majority of great commissions were tor work in fresco. Vasari where eminent Greeks are paired with Roman counterparts,
maintained that the technique of buon fresco was the greatest and then compared.
test of an artist's skill, for it required a certain breadth of Epithets of the hero are applied to art and architecture
treatment, allied to a grandeur of conception, which was particularly to the latter, the public art par excellence. "Let
neither necessary nor possible when making smaller, more us", writes Alberti in his De Re Aedificatoria (finished 14^1 .

private, works in which the artist might choose to display his "erect grand buildings, so that we might appear magnanimous
skill in details, frescoes were usually made on large surfaces, and powerful to posterity." And Lorenzo de' Medici (1449—
for places essentially public: the) might exalt or teach the 1 1 ius of the "pomp and other honors, and public magni-
faithful, as m Giotto's series m the ( apella dell'Arena in ficence such as piazzas, temples, and other public buildings
The Calumny of Apelles by Botticelli; tempera on panel; 62x91cm (24x36m); C1495? Uffizi, Florence

which denote the ambitious men, and those who with great ing of Roman history, was
care seek honor." Naturally, a man desiring to be known for
Written in the in that part of Italy and in that
land of the living,
antique rather than specifically Christian virtues will prefer his city in which I am now
and where thou wert once born
living
art and architecture in a classical style. and buried, in the vestibule of the Temple of Justina Virgo, and
The architectural style of an Alberti, a Bramante, or a in view of thy very tombstone ... (Familiar Letters, XXIV. 8,
Raphael has characteristics that link it to the heroic ideal it is trans. Cosenza, M.E. in Petrarch's Letters to Classtcal Authors,

intended to reflect. Magnificence is a public activity, and Chicago, 1 9 10.)

virtue is thereby proclaimed abroad. The forms of a work Such an evocative attitude towards ruins of Antiquity was
must be grand and dignified: magnificent in materials, choice unusual in the 14th century; much more common and long-
and learned in decoration, yet not over-decorated in a way lasting was superstitious awe which tended to see the remains
that would lead to vulgarity. Just as a man obeys the rules of as the creation of giants or devils, and to attribute magical
conduct laid down by reason, so the architect must work powers to the great figures of Antiquity. Throughout the
according to the rules of Vitruvius: supplementing them by Middle Ages and into the 16th century, Virgil, for example,
observation and imitation of the grandiose ruins of Antiquity. was popularly believed to have been a sorcerer; Alexander the
The process of renascence, of "rebirth", requires a mul- Great, about whose historical conquests sufficient written tes-
titude of skills. These include a determination of the evidence timony remained, was transmuted into a chivalrous knight
on which to base a reconstruction, an understanding of why and his adventures recited to medieval audiences alongside
the facts, beliefs, or objects culled are of importance, and also those of Charlemagne, Roland, and Tristan and Iseult. These

an ability to set them in order. Above all, the practice of vacuum; even La Chanson de
stories take place in a historical
history requires historical perspective: a desire to understand Roland, concerned as it is with the fight against the Moors,
how and why events or styles or beliefs are linked together. In dresses Charlemagne and his knights in 12th-century costume
the middle of the 14th century, Petrarch was deeply aware of and makes them behave strictly in accordance with the dic-
the gulf separating his generation from the antique writers he tates of chivalry. Similarly, the ruins of Rome were generally
admired. Indeed, he wrote letters to classical authors, letters considered throughout the Middle Ages as places with magi-
which were more than literary exercises because the conceit cal rather than historical associations. Indeed, a type of guide-
was the assumption that he himself was their contemporary. book so popular that it lasted into the 18th century was called
The letter to Livy, whose work was crucial for an understand- The Marvels of the City of Rome; in some printed editions, it
 THE SURVIVAL OF ANITQUITY 633

includes, for no particular reason, a list and description of the Petrarch's interest in the dignity of Latin style could have
Seven Wonders of the World. but an indirect effect upon the development of art; his concern
Petrarch tends to be called — in an anachronistic and ques- with antique topography —with the layout of the City of
tion-begging epithet — the "first modern man"; there is a grain Rome, and determining what monuments were to be seen
of truth in the notion, apparent when his lively attitude to there in any span of years —
was much more important. He
ancient Rome is compared with that of his great predecessor, tried, in Book Eight of his epic poem Africa, to describe a tour

Dante Alighieri (1265-1321). Dante's Divine Comedy, for all of Rome made by the envoys from Carthage to the Senate
its connections with antique literary forms, shows little inter- including only those monuments standing under the Scipios.
est in the monuments of Roman civilization, for Dante's He was only partially successful, but he made the attempt.
preoccupations were Christian; Petrarch, on the other hand, We can parallel his topographical interests with the better-
recognizes them, together with surviving manuscripts, as the informed and more comprehensive surveys of the 15th and
essential elements in the revival and imitation of Roman forms 1 6th centuries.
and ideas. While bearing in mind the constant leitmotiv of the medi-
Petrarch cultivated what we might call an historical mental- eval and essentially non-historical Mirabilia tradition, it is

ity; he knew that not all things were possible in any one time, easy to show the advances in historical scholarship made
that style and practice developed and changed, and that so- during the 15th century —often by scholars attached to the
ciety institutions changed as well. When, therefore, in
and papal Curia. Flavio Biondo was one such scholar who was
1355 the Holy Roman Emperor Charles IV asked him working in Rome by 1433 (Alberti was another). About 1446
whether he thought a document exempting Austria from Im- Biondo wrote his Roma Instaurata in which research not only
perial rule was genuine, Petrarch examined the manuscript amongst the monuments themselves but also in literary
and pronounced it a forgery. He understood Roman forms of sources enabled him to rebuild the ancient city in words. He
address, and complained that the supposed author of the was also the first to write the history of Italy, in his Italia
document, Julius Caesar, did not use the royal "we", or call illustrata (completed in 1453). Biondo's successors include
himself "king", or even "Augustus": such terms were anach- men Andrea Fulvio, who was to write one of the most
like

ronistic. Furthermore, every Roman letter bore the exact day popular books of historical biography illustrated from coins,
on which it was written, and the consuls in office at that time: both real and imaginary, the lllustrium Imagines of 15 17; and
this one did not. His knowledge of the Latin language told also Raphael, who was commissioned in 15 19 to prepare an
him that "Austria" derives from the word for south: since the ideal view of ancient Rome. We know no more about this
land concerned is north of Rome, the letter must be a non- scheme than about Alberti's scheme for a plan of the city
sense. Petrarch therefore demolished the letter by both inter- (which could have been of ancient or modern Rome).
naland external proofs, by applying to it the entire range of Such projects are indications of an historical state of mind,
his antiquarian knowledge. The clinching proof is, for him, as well as of the frequent difficulty of disengaging scholarly
what he calls the "barbarous and modern" style in which it is from artistic activities. For it is thanks to the expanding know-
written. ledge of Antiquity during the 15 th and 16th centuries that
Petrarch's main concerns were literary ones. Monuments artists were commissioned to represent ancient Rome in their

interested him because they called to mind the age of his work, as a suitably grandiose setting for the action of the
Roman heroes. He was and he does not seem to
not an artist, painting or bas-relief. Perhaps the best known reconstructions
have collected anything except books, of which he formed a in miniature of cities in the antique manner are those seen in
fabulous library. Inscriptions on monuments interested him stage sets, particularly the permanent one designed by Andrea
greatly, but he was even more concerned with what coins and Palladio (1508-80) for his Teatro Olimpico at Vicenza
medals could him of antique practices. He was probably
tell (opened in 1585); of the scena tragica suggested by Serlio in
involved in the scheme for decorating a room in the University his influential L'Architettura, issued in six parts between 1531
of Padua with images of famous antique figures. This, the Sala and 155 1. We can usefully compare the latter with Serlio's
Virorum lllustrium ("Room of Illustrious Men"), follows the prescription for a set for comedies: whereas that for the high-
scheme of his De Virts Illustrtbus ("Of Illustrious Men", com- est dramatic genre is an august Roman street with palaces and
posed ci 3 38), a book planned along the lines of his beloved monuments, the lighter manner is provided with buildings in

Livy. Although the famous men in the room are in 14th- the Gothic style.
century costume, their iconography, and the appearance of A guide and range of any culture's interest can
to the nature
the Roman monuments in some scenes, stem from the study of be found in what it considers worth collecting. The Middle
numismatics and actual monuments. Examples of such collab- Ages indulged in the habit, although motives then were notice-
oration between a scholar and an artist (anonymous in this ably different from those of later centuries — at least as far as

particular case) could be multiplied through the Renaissance can be judged from the meager references. The majority of
period. It is for this reason that the activities of Petrarch and such collections were put together more for religious than
his fellow scholars are crucial in the development of a Renais- aesthetic reasons: relics were regarded as possessing powers,

sance attitude toward art. rather than as representative objects from a past culture.
Renaissance Portraiture

Portraiture developed during the Renaissance

from the Gothic depiction of people as
generalized types to the representation of
individuals whose characters and per-
sonalities were expressed in their faces. In-

creasingly, Italian artists attempted to por-

tray their subjects accurately and even
revived the ancient Roman practice of ob-
taining a likeness from a life or death mask
cast in plaster. This method was especially
popular with sculptors. But unflinching re-

alism was avoided: Italian portraiture was

also influenced by profiles on Roman coins
and by Roman sculpted portrait busts. It was
widely believed that character was revealed
in the profile and that the possession ot
proper moral qualities was expressed in the

structure of a classical Roman face. A classi- A I he Roman model: a A self portrait in

portrait bust of Agrippa;
cal profile in a woman attested her puntv. relief f>y Alherri;

marble; early i st century bronze; 16X i icm

In Italy the leading political, mercantile,
Bi . 1 ouvre, Pans (6x jin ; < 14 <K. C abinet
and had por-
intellectual figures regularly des Medailles, Paris
traits painted, whereas elsewhere in Europe

most subjects came from royal families,

(jerman artists preferred to represent the In Italy, Roman coins and portrait busts Two drawings by Pisanello of Eilippo
faces of their rulers truthfully rather than established a type of appearance —the lofty Maria Visconti, Duke of Milan, show how
idealize them, and in England the royal forehead, the high cheekbones, the straight Pisanello changed the features and apparel of
portrait principally celebrated the pomp and long nose, the firm mouth to which every- — his subject —
whom he drew from life into —
prestige of the monarch. The Erench tra- one wanted their pictorial representation those of a distinguished-looking ruler. Most
dition was more naturalistic hut still elabor- adjusted. Leon Battista Alberti's self portrait, sitters were transformed in this way; Pisanel-
ated the trappings of monarch\ ( 445, derives from the profile image on a
1 lo's drawings are a rare surviving example of
Classical gem or coin. Alberti's conception of how it occurred. A death mask of Lorenzo
himself was as a noble Roman in antique the Magnificent of the Medici family was cast
dress with hair cropped short, and whose from his face immediately after his death, in
upright sharp profile presents him as a stern 1 492, to record his features for painters and
and serious individual. sculptors. In a subsequent portrait bust, his
nose, mouth, and eyebrows became more
handsome and his cheekbones more promi-
nent.
Settignano's bust of Marietta Strozzi and a
portrait of a young girl by Pollaiudo depict
charm and innocence. In contrast to the
elaborate hairstyles and costumes the facial
features are simple and delicate while the
skin is very subtly portrayed. In Raphael's
portrait of Pope Leo X, the Pope is seen with
his two nephews. Endowed with qualities of
Classical portrait busts, the three men ac-
quire the dignity and gravity of Roman rulers
while yet displaying their own powerful
personalities. In the English tradition, Henry
VIII is rendered by Holbein as a glorious
ruler: his power is conveyed by his bulk and
his magnificent costume, which dramatically
emphasize the authority of his glance.

Lorenzo the
Further reading. Pope-Hennessy, The Portrait in the
Magnificent: left a death |

mask; 1491; Pal

Renaissance, London ! 1 966).

Medici, Florence. Right a

1
149S-1 500;
 (, \l 1 I KY ST I m
•* Two drawings of A portrait of a young
Filippo Maria Visconti girl by A. Pollaiuolo;
by Pisanello; C1440. panel; 46x34cm
Louvre. Paris : ;in ;
-
t 1 _
Museo Poldi Pezzoli,
Milan

•* Marietta Strozzi. a
bust by Settignano;
marble; height 52cm
;ci45 -"-60.

P\ Staatliche Museen. West

Berlin

\
LI
T Leo X with Cardinals
Giulio de" Medici and
Luigi de" Rossi by T Holbein's wedding pera; S6x-,-cm
Raphael; panel; portrai: of Henrv YII1. 1539 4°- .

h;i'i 19cm 6oX4-m ;

copv probably by Gallena Nazionale
m 518. Uffizi, Florence Holbein; oil and tem- d'Arte Antica. Rome

Pv» • *f I -I

5 - ' " -
6^6 THE SURVIVAL OF ANTIQUITY

\
•

EXIT
 a

THE SURVIVAL OF ANTIQUITY 637

When Classical antiquities were collected — and they certainly

were treasured — it was generally for beautification probably
associated with magical power, as, for example, in the cameo
of Augustus set into the Cross of Lothair (Domschatzkammer,
Aachen). The main example of what we would recognize as a
collection put together presumably for aesthetic reasons was
that of the Bishop of Winchester, Henry of Blois (Bishop,
1 127— 71), who imported antique statues from Rome; no trace

of his collection remains, so we cannot assess its nature or its

size.

We are similarly restricted in our knowledge of collections

before the later Quattrocento, although written accounts
make it clear that the collecting of classical antiquities was
popular with humanists and useful to artists long before 1400.
We have an account of the visit of a follower of Petrarch,
Giovanni Dondi, to Rome C1375; he took measurements and
copied inscriptions, and also wrote of contemporary interest
in antique sculpture

. . . those which have survived somewhere are eagerly looked

for and inspected by sensitive persons and command high
prices.And if you compare them with what is produced nowa-
days, it will be evident that their authors were superior in
natural genius . . . when carefully observing ancient buildings,
statues, reliefs and the like, the artists of our own times are
amazed . . . (As translated in Panofsky, E. Renaissance and Re-
nascences in Western Art, Uppsala, i960, ppzo8— 9.)

This passage is important for the several hints it gives: evi-

dently people were collecting antiquities, for high prices were

offered for them; artists were looking to antique works be-
cause they realized their superiority; the study of such pro-
ductions would help them to improve their own style. This is

the spirit in which we may imagine Nicola Pisano, Giotto, or

Ghiberti visiting Rome, and we might wonder whether the
progressive artists described by Dondi were not, like himself,
Florentines, for whom Rome meant an essential part of the

developing civic humanism of their native city.

One early Quattrocento artist known to have collected an-

tiquities was Lorenzo Ghiberti, the winner of the competition
in 1 40 1 for the Baptistery Doors in Florence. His relief won,
partly because of the beauty of his main reference to the

Antique in the torso of Isaac; he made use of his collection in

his laterwork, particularly in the Gates of Paradise. Although
his collection must have been in part a "paper museum" of —
drawings from sarcophagi and statues, notes on architecture
and perhaps sketches of the work of modern rivals—we know
he possessed a big marble vase (supposedly from Greece), a leg
in bronze, and many fragments of statues. His most important

possession was one of the versions of the Bed of Policleitos —

work responsible for several popular motifs in Renaissance
and post-Renaissance art. We may assume that Donatello
(c 1 3 86-1 466), whose art is similarly couched in the Antique,

also collected; and Vasari reports that it was he who inspired

an enthusiasm for collecting in Cosimo de' Medici the Elder
The stage set designed for the Teatro Olimpico, Vicenza, by Palladio;
opened in 1
s^S
6}8 THE SURVIVAL OF ANTIQUITY

R., The Renaissance Discovery of Classical Antiquity,

Oxford, 1969, P191). It was followed, ci 506, by the building
of a "museum" specially for the purpose of housing antiqui-
ties —the state court of the Vatican Belvedere, which housed
theLaocoon after its discovery in January of that year, and
where other now famous works, the Cleopatra, the Apollo,
and later the Torso, were exhibited to an eager world.
We should view the statue court, like the Capitoline
Museum, not as a collection of aesthetic objects, but as works
evocative of ancient Rome. They were not an isolated
phenomenon in the Vatican, but part of the creation of a
modern version of a classical villa as described by Pliny part —
of the area of which was organized to act as a theater for the
production of antique plays. Their main effect on artists, how-
ever, (after the virtual destruction of the idea of the villa by
rebuilding in the 1570s) was as individual exemplars of excell-
ence in modeling, form, and expression. More than the works
of any other collection, those of the statue court provided a
standard of excellence which was as revered in the days of J.J.
Winckelmann (1717—68) as it had been in those of
Michelangelo and Diirer. A
walk through any gallery will
—
show the effects often quite obvious, and intended to be
so— of studying the Apollo Belvedere, or the Laocoon, avail-
able in plaster casts in art schools throughout Europe. We
know, for example, that Titian had a plaster cast of the Lao-
coon in the 1 520s, and although he is not an artist who at first
The Sacrifice of Isaac, one of two reliefs produced by Ghiberti for the sight appears as a great imitator of antique sculpture — as is

competition held
commission;
in Florence in 1401 for the Baptistery Doors
45^X4o6cm (180X i6oin Museo Nazionale, Florence
plainly the case with, for example, Michelangelo — a study of
.

his work demonstrates that it is permeated by the Antique. In

other words, some artists assimilate the Antique into their
—
(1389— 1464) the possible origin, that is, of a collection style to such an extent that the original sources are hard to
amongst which Michelangelo received his early education. ascertain.
Florence was not the only center of collecting, though the With the quickened pace of urban change in the Rome of
craze probably spread from there to Rome — perhaps helped the High Renaissance, the collections of antiquities increased
by the curial many of whom were Florentines. One
officials, enormously. Such collections were not private in the modern
was Poggio Bracciolini, who had been trained by the Chan- sense of the word, for collecting proclaimed the taste of the
cellor of the Florentine Republic, Coluccio Salutati, at the collector and artists must have found it relatively easy to gain
beginning of the century-. He used his spare time hunting for access even to the noblest homes —
some of which, indeed, had
manuscripts of the Classics; he also sought antique statues their own "house" artists, librarians, and scholars.
with persistence (several of his letters on the subject survive), The invention of printing, and its diffusion throughout
and was able to furnish his garden with antiquities. Europe in the 1460s, was a decisive influence in the dissemina-
But the first important collection in Rome, antedating those tion of the Renaissance, but did not immediately transform its

of the great Roman families by half a century, is that pre- basic nature. For the first books printed were religious or
sented by Pope Sixtus IV to the town councillors of Rome, the popular, and inevitably expensive. The diffusion of the Clas-
Conservatori, in 1471, to place in their recently completed sics (without which the spread of the Renaissance would have
palace on the Capitol where it remains to this day. This collec- been slower) belongs to the end of the century; early items,
tion, which includes the famous she-wolf with 16th-century like Cennini's edition of Virgil Florence, 1471— 2) were lux-
figures of Romulus and Remus suckling), and the Spinario uries with restricted circulation.
fused by Brunelleschi in his relief for the 1401 competition for There are two distinct stages, therefore, in the physical ap-
the Baptistery Doors), is really the first modern museum. But pearance and hence in the diffusion of the printed book. At
the importance of the exhibits was emotional rather than first, printing was envisaged as a less costly version of the
aesthetic, "tangible witnesses of Roman magnificence in the manuscript which, with the aid of decoration, and capital
very seat of the city's government, so that visitors could be letters separately inked in bright colors, it sought to imitate.
impressed by such relics of what Rome had been, almost, one The use of parchment made the imitation more convincing.
might say, by a museum of former Roman splendour" (Weiss, But by the end of the 15th century' the price of paper had
 THE SURVIVAL OF ANTIQUITY 639

ly copied manuscripts, teeming with stupid mistakes eternally

recopied and enshrined in tradition: given a sensible editor
consulting a cross-section of early and reliable manuscripts, a
good version could be established and, after proof-reading
(which Eramus did on the spot), transformed into an inex-
haustible supply of printed sheets, all of which were identical.
This factor was the main advantage (apart from price) of
printing over the manuscript.
The same period saw the rise of repeatable reproductions in
both woodcut and engraving, and the same reasons ensured
their popularity. Woodcut is the earlier technique: the first
dated print is a German St Christopher of 1423 (John Rylands
Library, Manchester). Initially it is the more useful: it is a
relief technique requiring relatively little pressure to print, and
itcan be set up alongside text to print illustrated books. Most
woodcuts are very crude because of the difficulties of produc-
ing fine, expressive lines standing in relief from a block of
wood; the technique, except in the work of Diirer and a few
others, tends to remain in the domain of the popular print,
crudely done and cheaply sold.

St Christopher, the earliest known dated woodcut; 1423.

John Rylands Library, Manchester

The Spinario or Young Man taking out a Thorn, a Roman bronze copy
of a ^rd-century BC original; height 73cm (29m). Palazzo
dei Conservatori, Rome

dropped, and printers like Aldus Manutius in Venice were

producing works with typefaces imitating the ancient Roman
and Carol ingian scripts — faces cheaper to cut because less

fussy than the Gothic faces which nevertheless remained

popular in the North. Aldus also perfected an italic face
which, aesthetic attraction apart, meant more words per line

than a standard face and thus lower costs.

We tend to underestimate the speed with which images and
ideas could spread in earlier centuries. Printed sheets, usually
packed in barrels, were sent to fairs and publishers all over
Europe, perhaps to be bound on arrival. The absence of effec-
tive international copyright laws aided copying and imitation,
and ensured the spread of Renaissance forms from Italy to the

North.
One of the first men to grasp the power of the new inven-
tion was Erasmus (0466-1536). His main works, written
after 1511, are religious polemics, contributions to the debate
on the Catholic Church; they prepared the way for the Refor-
mation itself, and without the printed word, would have
reached a far smaller audience. Cone was the age of imperfect-
Q p
'r:i>ofo' mfQuacunu'rimms-:-
[ jUrinm^r^mwirntaUnoarmuimfiv,
nlit'fftmo crrc"
*•*" mno :<^~
64O THE SURVIVAL OF ANTIQUITY

Engraving produced much finer lines, and gave the artist the Why, then, is the Italian antique manner so often misinter-
chance of capturing expression and detail — totally lost in preted, even mangled, in the North? The answer lies in the
most woodcuts. This enhanced "aesthetic" quality and, be- nature of the Renaissance style which is a spirit, a way of
cause prints were produced separate from books, engravings doing things, rather than just a collection of motifs. Repro-
tended to become autonomous works of art. ductive illustrations, whether of figures or details or whole
Artists were quick to see the usefulness of prints. From the buildings, can convey only motifs, not essential principles:
later 15th century onwards they formed an important method these can be thoroughly grasped only by studying antique art
by which styles could be diffused and assimilated. The copy- and Italian productions in situ. The North, with fundamen-
ing of sketchbooks —
a practice which continued provided — tally different traditions from the South, attempted to graft
the same problems as that involved in dealing with other Renaissance motifs on to a preexistent style; the result was
manuscripts. The reproductive print is not as foolproof as the often a confusing mixture of old and new, of Gothic and
photograph: a work of art is transformed in being copied by Renaissance, without those qualities of unity and simplicity
another and copies of prints could be made and sold by
artist, so sought after by the Italians. Only when northern artists be-

artists who had never seen the original model. Nevertheless, gan to visit Italy in large numbers, from about the middle
prints meant that artists and connoisseurs could build up port- of the 1 6th century, did this state of affairs change.
folios of reference material. Such material might range from MICHAEL GREENHALGH
versions of drawings by Raphael (sometimes for unexecuted
projects), reproductions of completed fresco or architectural
Bibliography. Avery, C. Italian Renaissance Sculpture, London
designs, pictures of objects in private collections or otherwise The
(1970). Baron, H. Crisis of the Early Italian Renaissance, Prince-
of difficult access (like the top of Trajan's Column), to designs ton (1966). Blunt, A., Artistic Theory in Italy, 1450—1600, Oxford

for decorative art. (1940). Burckhardt, J. The Civilisation of the Renaissance in Italy

It is via the graphic arts, therefore, including printing, that (illustrated English edn), London (1945). Burke, P. Culture and So-
ciety in Renaissance Italy, 1420— 1540, London (1972). Burke, P. The
the North learnt about the Italian Renaissance. Diirer, for
example, paid large sums for Italian prints — and the Italians
Renaissance Sense of the Past, London (1969). Ferguson, W.K. The
Renaissance in Historial Thought, Boston (1948). Freedberg, S.J.
of the Mannerist period were even keen to copy his own very
Painting in Italy: 1500—1600, Harmondsworth (1979). Gombrich,
northern designs. He complained to Willibald Pirckheimer in E. H. Norm and Form:
Studies in the Art of the Renaissance, London
1506, from Venice, that many Italians "are my enemies and (1966). Hay, D. The Italian Renaissance in its Historical Back-
they copy my work in the churches and wherever they find it; ground, Cambridge (1961). Heydenreich, H. and Lotz, W. Archi-
and then they revile it and say it is not in the antique manner tecture in Italy: 1400—1600, Harmondsworth (1974). Panofsky, E.
and therefore not good". His widow was to have many prob- Renaissance and Renascences in Western Art, Uppsala (i960). Pope-

Hennessy, J. Italian High Renaissance and Baroque Sculpture,

lems trying to copyright his prints, so widely were they imi-
London (1971). Pope-Hennessy, J. Italian Renaissance Sculpture,
tated. Little information survives about collections of prints
London (1971). Weiss, R. The Renaissance Discovery of Classical
from the late 15th and early 16th centuries, but we may Antiquity, Oxford (1969). Wittkower, R. Architectural Principles in
assume that most artists collected prints as avidly as we know the Age of Humanism, London (1962). Wolfflin, H. (trans. Murray,
Rembrandt to have done. L. and P.) Classic Art, London (1952).
 34

RENAISSANCE STYLE

Lady with an Ermine by Leonardo da Vinci; panel; 54x39cm (21 x 15m); C1483-4
Czartoryski Gallery, Krakow (see page 651)
642 RENAISSANCE STYLE

recent times we have come to question the usefulness of Antonio Pisanello's development of the medal form as a ve-
IN the term "Renaissance" as applied to the visual arts of hicle for portraiture and allegory is contemporary with the

early modern Europe. The literal application of a word northerner van Eyck's use of what was probably the most
that originated to express the revival of, and building upon, refined technique of painting in oil known in Europe at that
the art of Antiquity after centuries of neglect has been chal- date, in order to render as faithfully as possible his extraordi-
lenged as we have recognized more clearly the lines of con- nary observations of the world around him.
tinuity between the arts of ancient civilizations and those of During the longer period from the early 14th to the early
the medieval period. But this challenge cannot ignore a wealth 1 6th centuries, there are two truly international styles —one
of contemporary written evidence about works of art which which we call "International Gothic", and another which
evinces to an extraordinary degree the concern of this period marks the dawn of a culture more generally indebted to Italy
to be articulate about its own achievements. It is the kind of which spread to other parts of Europe after 1 500. The former
commentary that is unprecedented in previous centuries. Re- was a last and splendid flowering of a common style based on
naissance writers believed they could identify a degree of the idea of Europe as a single Christian Empire, with such
progress in the arts that distinguished their own time from common aims as had expressed themselves in the repeated call
what had come before. This sense of mission, of there being for a crusade to deliver from infidel occupation those eastern
certain goals to strive for, leads us back to the works of art Mediterranean lands in which Christianity was born. The
themselves in search .of some justification of the self-con- second marks the emergence of Europe as a pattern of aggress-
fidence displayed by their earliest critics and admirers. ive nation-states with imaginative horizons beyond the

We find that the visual arts became the vehicle of a new confines of Europe toward trade and empire overseas. Both
expression of certain ideals about man and society, and offer a these styles thrived on a common court culture and became
new vision of the established beliefs of the Christian faith disseminated by the procedures and protocol of court society
through the common vocabulary of human experience that in the exchange of works of art —
and indeed artists as diplo- —
their beholders share. Renaissance art demonstrates how the matic presents from one ruler to another. In the early 16th
search for the idealization of form itself can be a spiritual century, it was a pattern about to be fragmented and then
exercise, summoning up for the onlooker a sense of the perfec- given new alignment by the coming of the Reformation.
tion of God via the perfection of the idealized human figure or If it has generally been asserted that Italy was the chief stage

the proportions of a building. The preliminary and most im- on which the Renaissance was played out, it is because it is
portant stage of this exercise was the reexamination of nature from Italy that we possess the greatest concentration of works
bv artists on whom new demands were being made in terms of of art and writing about them; together, these form a cumula-
skill and aesthetic judgment. The literature on art between tive achievement of a consistent kind. The lack of written

about 1300 and the early 16th century also tells us that atti- commentary from northern Europe in the 15th century and
tudes toward artists as social and creative beings changed the destruction of a much greater part, through centuries of
significantly as a response to their success, so that by the end religious conflict, of the North's native artistic heritage, make
of the period the personal style of an individual artist was as the lines of development less clear. The powerful city-states of
much the key to a widespread admiration of his work as his late medieval Italy patronized artists in the production of ob-
technical competence or ability to work to order. We may no jects that are an important vehicle of propaganda, in the
longer believe in the anonymity of the medieval artist, but the widest sense, on behalf of rulers, governments, and local cor-
fragmentary evidence we have of him tells a very incomplete porate bodies. The Church in each community also sought the
story beside the fame of the artist and his place in the literary artistic embellishment of its buildings as a means of increasing
traditions of art criticism that characterize the Renaissance prestige vis-a-vis its neighbors. There subsequently developed
period. a healthy competitive artistic spirit between city-states, and
The concept of Renaissance became confused and has often between corporate and individual patrons within them. This
been discredited because it has been much abused in the encouraged the interchange of necessary expertise when re-

widest European context. Outside Italy, it has been applied quired.

not only to that period when, selectively, the surface qualities The first set of bronze doors commissioned C132.9 for the
of Italian achievement, particularly ornament, were grafted on Baptistery of Florence from Andrea Pisano (cizyo- 1348/9)
to native artistic styles, but also to earlier periods when Italy can be seen as a deliberate attempt to rival the splendor of the
and other parts of Europe were achieving different things. The bronze doors at Pisa, and it is indicative of the search for
parallels across Europe in the 15th century, for example, are skilled hands that Florentines originally looked to Pisa or
not always to be found in an. thing we might readily identity Venice for an artist to execute them. Moreover there was, as a
as a common "style*' but rather in a common attitude towards kind of impetus to this sense of competitiveness, a common
expanding the possibilities of artistic expression. In both Italy cultural identity between Italian city-states in their links with
and Flanders in the first half of the 15th century, artists were a common Italian past. Though politically fragmented at this
looking with scrupulous care at the world around them and time, Italians possessed the common heritage of the most
forging new techniques to embody their findings. The Italian numerous and splendid remains of the civilization of the
Roman It can be shown by reference to contemporary
Empire.
writing, and to the iconography of artistic commissions, that
leading Italian cities wished to see themselves individually as
the true heirs to the role of ancient Rome as the political and
cultural arbiter of the civilized world. Thus the role of Classi-
cal Antiquity as inspiration and mentor to that of Renaissance
Italy was a fundamental and long-formative process.

The medieval historian would rightly point out here that the
concern with Antiquity had never been totally eclipsed in Italy
or anywhere else in Europe. Yet it was the Renaissance that
examined anew the form and subject matter of surviving
antique art as an entity, and realized the importance of the
essential indivisibility of spirit and function. The attraction of
the gods and heroes of the Classical world for Christian
society had long been rooted in the belief that there were
worthwhile parallels in the Antique for the virtues of the
Christian world. In medieval art, we invariably find that Clas-
sical subjects are dressed in contemporary costume to equate
them in a direct sense with the world and teachings of the
present. In the Renaissance, by a reexamination of the visual
representation of the same figures, aided by archaeological
discovery which clarified the varied vocabulary of antique art,
and further by the correction of corrupt texts, the Classical
figure was represented more accurately and with a sense of
history. This meant in turn that the early Christian saints
could be viewed historically as late antique figures. Donatel-
lo's St George for the armorers' guild (on the exterior of Or-
sanmichele, Florence) is shown in a freely imagined version of
antique armor that renders him at once the Christian knight
and an historical personage. By the later 1 5th century, Andrea
Mantegna 143 1— 1506) had
( sufficient confidence in his ability
to handle antique source material to recreate the antique
world Triumph of Caesar series of paintings for the
in his

Mantuan court (now in Hampton Court Palace, London). As

Antiquity became a touchstone by which contemporary arts
were judged, as a standard to be matched and hopefully sur-
passed, so contemporary writers encouraged the belief that
the age had particular and identifiable links with Antiquity
across the gulf of medieval society. It was the 16th-century
artist and historiographer Giorgio Vasari (151 1—73), whose
Vite (Lives of the Artists, 1550; second edition 1568) formu-
lated a persuasive image of the Italian Renaissance as a resto-
ration of the values and improvement of the achievements of
antique art. But Vasari was only codifying and systematizing
with a wealth of biographical material ideas that had long
been current in Italy; he also gave them a particularly Tuscan,
and therefore patriotic, dimension. The tradition begins, argu-
ably, with Petrarch, though his concern for a revival of antique
ideals is rooted mainly in hopes for political regeneration and
a purification of language based on close attention to the
modes of the ancient world. By the mid 15th century, the
sculptor Lorenzo Ghiberri (1 378—145 5), in his Commen-

St George by Donatello, carved for Orsanmichele, Florence; marble;

height 208cm (8lin); C1417. Musco Nazionale, Florence
644 RENAISSANCE STYLE

taries, asserts that art had

dormant for 1,000 years before
lain

the arrival of Giotto. His contemporary Matteo Palmieri

wrote
Where was the painter's art till Giotto tardily restored it! A
caricature of the art of human delineation! Sculpture and archi-
tecture, for long years sunk to the merest travesty of art, are
only today in process of rescue from obscurity; only now are
they being brought to a new pitch of perfection by men of
genius and erudition.

This "new pitch" implies the setting of higher standards of

achievement, engendered by the essentially competitive spirit

already mentioned. This needs further definition, and the city

of Florence provides the greatest evidence of its artistic results.

Here there were open competitions for major public projects,

one of the most famous being that for the second set of bronze
doors for the Baptistery, announced in 1401, from which of
the seven original trial reliefs only those of Ghiberti and
Brunelleschi survive. A different kind of competition is evident
from the degree of one-upmanship between the major guilds
of Florence in the commissioning of statues for their respective
niches on the outside of the guild-hall of Orsanmichele, one of
which was the St George of Donatello. In 1423, a political
body, the Parte Guelfa, commissioned from Donatello a statue
of St Louis of Toulouse for their niche, specifying it was to be
in bronze, and fire-gilded, in order to surpass in splendor the
statues of other guilds to be seen on the building.
At yet another and more fundamental level, we can perceive
a conscious rethinking and reworking of previous achieve-
ment by Florentine artists that seeks to build on the experience
of others and depends for artistic merit partly on the recogni-
tion by its audience that this is in fact what is happening. Thus
the role of informed beholder is crucial. Donatello's bronze
David (Museo Nazionale, Florence) has eluded precise defini-
tion as to meaning and narrative content because the ambigu-
ous, introspective mood of the sculpture makes it somewhat
inscrutable. Its novelty as probably the first freestanding nude
sculpture of its time asks the viewer to walk around it and
admire the technical accomplishment. The exact date and
circumstances of the commission of this work are not known,
but it is first recorded in the Medici Palace in 1469, by which
time Andrea del Verrocchio (1435-88) had cast his bronze
David (Museo Nazionale, Florence) for the same family. Ver-
rocchio rethinks the idea, primarily it seems in response to
different circumstances of display since his work is not to be
seen in the round, but also to turn the introspection into immi-
nent action. To this end, he makes the sinuous Donatello
outline into something more angular and assertive. Contem-
porary Florentines doubtless discussed the differences, and
Verrocchio would have relied on the sense of dialogue with a
previous idea for artistic impact.
The artist's concern to use the skills of the spectator based
on his previous visual experience is one key to artistic criti-

David, by Donatello; bronze; height 1 $8cm (62m); c 1430.

Museo Nazionale, Florence
 RENAISSANCE SI VII 645

cism. By the time Vasari was writing in the mid 16th century,
there appears to have been much credit to be gained by the
concealment of effort in the creation of the work of art: by a
display of effortlessness of both design and technique. Vasari
seeks to persuade us there had long been a desire on the part
of the artist to court the spectator's admiration by offering
him the most complex solution available, or even a variety of
answers to the problem. In his Life of Masaccio, Vasari de-
scribes the painter's skill at foreshortening and mentions a
now-lost work by him (possibly recorded for us in a copy in
the Philadelphia Museum of Art) which he commends for its
ingenuity for "besides the Christ delivering the man possessed,
there are some very fine buildings so drawn in perspective that
the interior and exterior are represented at the same time, as
he took for the point of view not the front, but the side, for its

greater difficulty." Vasari is using the terminology of his own

period, but he reminds us of the fact that Masaccio is able to
exploit the potential of perspectivized space because he him-
self has helped, through previous pictures, to ensure this is

something the spectator would now take for granted in rep-

resentation.
The perspectivized picture was one result of the recognition
by Renaissance artists that the spectator needed a frame of
reference with which to understand and interpret works of
art, and that the world of visual experience needed to be
ordered along recognizable and decipherable lines. It was a
means by which the artist demanded of the viewer that he
refer back to the real world, to check the fiction before him
against his own experience. Primarily, that experience was
focused on man himself and his central place in the order of
things. In his book On Painting (Latin version 1435; trans-
lated into Italian 1436) the humanist Leon Battista Alberti
(1404—72) outlines a way of constructing perspectivized space
in painting by mathematical means. To arrive at this, he re-
commends the artist to use the figures in the painting as the
means of establishing the unit of measurement; hence one
third of the height of a figure in the foreground of the picture
becomes the means of calculating distances and the relative
position of one thing to another. Man is therefore seen as the
determinant factor in this imagined world, echoing his sup-

posed place in the real world of which the painting is con-

ceived as the mirror image.
This was equally true with reference to man's physical pro-
portions and particularly relevant for the devising of architec-
ture. The Renaissance took its cue from the Classical writer
Vitruvius, who, in his De Architecture! (1st century ad) had
argued that the proportions of the human form should serve

as the paradigm for the proportions of man's creations. Per-

fection would result from the respect paid to this and the
resulting symmetry: "since nature has designed the human
body so that its members are duly proportioned to the frame
as a whole, it appears that the ancients had good reason for

David, by Andrea del Verrocchio; bronze; height 126cm (50m); c 1465.

Museo Nazionale, Florence
646 RENAISSANCE STYLE

invitation to a spiritual response via an intellectual one, was

perhaps best expressed in the concept of the centrally planned
church. The visual inspiration for this came largely from the
antique, from the round temples dedicated to pagan deities,
but the form was sanctioned by some of the earliest Christian
buildings also, particularly those commemorating death by
martyrdom. Subsequently, it was the form consciously chosen
by Donato Bramante [c 1444-15 14) C1500 for his Tempietto
at the church of S. Pietro in Montorio, Rome, which tra-

ditionally marked the site of the martyrdom of St Peter. We

know from 16th-century sources that Bramante intended to
complete his scheme by an enclosing circular courtyard. A few
years after this, the little-known architect Cola da Caprarola
designed the church of S. Maria della Conciliazione at Todi,
begun in 1508. The very isolation of this building underlines
the impact of the centrally planned form. We are somehow
acutely aware this is a building that will not suffer additions
or subtractions to the fabric without being destroyed, in an
aesthetic sense, in the process. The design of the medieval
cathedral allows the eye to wander over its constructional and
decorative features, but here the formal quality of design not
only directs the eye in a very specific way but immediately
gives us a sense of how the building fits together as interlock-
ing regular shapes of circle and square.
Man could not only translate his physical shape and pro-
portions into an understanding of what visually confronted
him; often his own physical presence was positively necessary
to complete the artistic idea. The viewer's involvement with a
picture could be of a directly prompting kind; Alberti re-
commends there should be a figure in the painting gesturing to
the spectator to encourage his participation in what was
S. Mana della Conciliazione, Todi, by Cola da Caprarola; begun in 1508 before him. This is best exemplified in large altarpieces of the
Madonna and Child with Saints by the practice of having one
their rule, that in perfect buildings the different members must of the forward saints beckoning to us, imploring us to share
be in exact symmetrical relations to the whole general the visionary experience. The artist could also be sensitive to,

scheme." In a building such as the Pazzi Chapel, Florence, of and exploit, the viewer's surroundings, so that the visual ex-
Brunelleschi, the clarity of design is immediately comprehens- perience in paint is part of the wider experience of setting.
ible by a display of architectural logistics in the repetition of a This could take the form of allowing the natural light in the
module, or standard unit of measurement. This determines the room or chapel from window or door to determine the fall of
height and width of the entire space and the relationship and light on the painted architectural surrounds to pictures; this
spacing of the architectural members, emphasized here by the occurs in the early 14th century in Giotto's famous fresco
choice of materials so that the gray pietra serena marble of cycle in the Capella dell'Arena at Padua. More than a century-
pilasters, base, and cornice stand out against the whiteness of later, in 1420s, Masaccio (1401— ?z8) and Masolino
the
the wall. We know that the building was barely begun at the (1383-1440/7) used the light from the window above the
time of the architect's death in 1446 and that its basic plan altar to determine the directional fall of light in their frescoes
was probably largely determined by the preexisting layout of of the life of St Peter in the Brancacci Chapel at S. Maria del
the friary of which it was to become part. These factors under- Carmine, Florence. Here, therefore, additional credence is of-
line firstly the essential logic of structure, since it was possible fered to our experience of the painted world as actually hap-
to bring the building to completion out of the designer's pening behind the plane of the wall.
hands, and secondly the ability of the individual architect to Planning works of art for the beholder also reveals itself in

overcome constraints and still create something new and in a the artist's sensitivity to viewpoint. In different ways, Donatel-
personal idiom. This, too, is what Vasan would have called lo's entire work in sculpture considers and continually re-
part of the "difficulty" that roused the artist's sense of chal-
lenge. A \ iew of the interior of the Pazzi Chapel, S. Croce, Florence,
The Renaissance expression of order in architecture, the by Brunelleschi; begun C1430
RENAISSANCE STYLE 647
 with Donatello's completion of bronze reliefs and standing
figures for the high altar of the Basilica of Sant'Antonio at
Padua, the painter Andrea Mantegna, in many ways Donatel-
lo's truest artistic heir, began his frescoes for the church of the
Eremitani in the same city, with scenes from the lives of saints
Christopher and James (destroyed in the Second World War).
James led to Martyrdom, Mantegna not only quotes
In the St
from and rethinks Donatello's St George but also exploits the
viewpoint for the work which was on the side wall of a chapel
above eye-level; hence the subject is shown in sharp receding
perspective. At the same time, he stresses the contact with the
chapel space in which we are standing by the ambivalent pre-
sence of the forward soldier's foot which projects over the
painted architectural framing.
A sense of illusion is also used by Mantegna for a secular
setting, the so-called Camera degli Sposi in the Ducal Palace at

Mantua. Here, painted Active curtains cover two walls of the

room; on the others the curtains are pulled back to reveal the
Duke and his court, so holding up a mirror to those who
would frequent the room. The result is something part im-
—
agined and possibly part record of actual events, though this
has never been agreed. The way Mantegna turns the awkward
presence of a fireplace breaking into the design to advantage
by painting steps either side, so that we read the top of the
fireplace as part of a platform,shows a further dimension of
the consciousness of the need to maximize the potential of the
room setting. In the early 16th century, Raphael used similar
limitations of wall space and shapes to advantage in the
Stanze of the Vatican. The art of fresco, by which so much of
the painted achievement of the Renaissance in Italy is carried,
demanded a constant awareness of the need to overcome limi-

tations by ingenuity and turn them into the impetus of design.

The Camera degli Sposi is unique in the history of wall-
painting in terms of its content; in terms of its more general
function, it served the purpose still largely filled at this time by
tapestries or other wall-hangings. The fresco cycles in the
St John the r\jngtlist bv Donatello; marble; height 209cm (82m); 1408. great churches and public buildings of 1 4th- and 1 5th-century
Museo dell'Opera del Duomo, Florence
Italy had a more didactic message. The upsurge of building
activity in the cities of northern and central Italy — particularly
thinks this problem. It is indeed present from his earliest in the cities of Florence, Siena, Padua, and Assisi —provided
work. The St John the Evangelist of 1408 (Museo dell'Opera large churches for the preaching orders; these required some
del Duomo, Florence) is characterized by certain figure distor- visual commentary within the building on their teachings.
tions —such as the length of the torso and beard — to take This commentary depended for its source material on the
account of its intended high position on the facade of Florence Bible and other sacred texts on the one hand, and on the
Cathedral; there the distortions would be corrected, and so popular, semi-apocryphal tales of the saints of the Christian
justified, in the eye of the viewer. His later St George for calendar, such as those found in the 13th-century collection,
Orsanmichele (Museo Nazionale, Florence) points out to us the Golden Legend, on the other. For the large, new public
and then emphasizes the preparedness and alertness of the buildings, such as the Town Hall of Siena, wall-paintings were
figure by turning him slightly forward of the shallow niche called for to demonstrate the dispensing of justice and the
toward the spectator advancing along the street beneath him. benefits of wise and beneficial government as a means of guid-
For a decade or so, from 1443 to 1453, Donatello worked ing the actions of the city authorities foregathered there. Wall-
in the north Italian city of Padua. It is interesting that Vasari
claims Donatello decided to return to Florence because he
StJames led to Martyrdom, by Mantegna; fresco; width 330cm (130m);
missed the critical artistic sensitivity of his native city which c1445—6. Formerly in the church of the Eremitani, Padua;
induced him to further study and achievement. Contemporary destroyed on 11 March 1944
Kl NAISSANCE STYLE 649
Ludovico II Gonzaga and his court on a wall of the Camera degli Sposi, Ducal Palace, Mantua, by Mantegna; fresco; width of base 6oocm (236m);
completed in 1474

The Tribute Money by Masaccio; fresco; 255 x 598cm 100 x 235m);

( c 1425. Brancacci Chapel, S. Maria del Carmine, Florence
 RENAISSANCE STYLE 651

paintings of a similar kind were commissioned in Flanders at the Classics, and he draws extensively on Classical writings
this time; Rogier van derWeyden (ci 399-1464) painted now- about celebrated pictures long since lost. If we examine a
lost sceneson the theme of justice in the Town Hall at Brus- major example of an Albertian religious image, Mantegna's
sels, and two painted panels by Dieric Bouts (C1415— 75), print of the Entombment, all the ingredients are there: the
commissioned as part of a set of four by the city fathers of the economical number of figures, the rendering of human emo-
same city, survive in the Musees Royaux des Beaux-Arts de tion through a variety of gesture, the convincing landscape
Belgique, Brussels. The message and necessary ingredients of setting which reinforces and explains the story. But what is

such paintings were codified out of an already developing also clear is that Mantegna has looked closely at antique
practice by Alberti in Delia Pittura {On Painting; 1436) sculpture for his hard-edged style of linear description (the
where he suggests guidelines for narrative art. same is where sometimes he seeks to
true, too, for his painting
In Alberti's words, the greatest work of the painter is the simulate the actual appearance of relief sculpture) and that
istoria or history picture, the depiction of narrative subject antique texts have provided as much inspiration for his use of
matter which will serve as moralistic guide to the observer. He gestural language as the Biblical story.
outlines, in written form, much was already becoming
that The ability' to select from available visual material became
current practice in the Florence of his day and indeed had been the means by which some Italian critics judged the work of
anticipated in the work of Giotto and his school a century Flemish artists and found them wanting. They marveled at the
before. The istoria should be clear and instructional as an superlative control of the oil technique, and the ability to

exemplar of human behavior; must be easy to

to this end it paint the infinitesimal with exactitude; but the giving of equal
read as narrative, and the sense of action must not be con- care and attention to all went against the
parts of the picture
fused. Alberti recommends that pictures should be quite large, advice of directing the attentions of the spectator that formed
and that the relative sizes of figures and surroundings should an essential part of the making of the history picture. Now we
approximate reality. The spectator's empathy with the scene see this in a very different light, for the unity of a Flemish
represented will be best engaged by an economical number of picture such as Jan van Eyck's Arnolfini Wedding of 1434
figures, each of which should tell, by stance and gesture, of his (National Gallery, London) rests with his care not simply to
emotions and reactions to the event taking place. Since the render minute detail for its own sake, but in order to give
narrative should be uplifting, the figures themselves should be every object in the picture a spiritual significance which
idealized; to this end, the artist should pay close attention to reflected the sacred rite taking place. Rather than exclude or
nature, and correct where she has faltered in creating that generalize, van Eyck uses the whole range of his observed
which is most perfect. A significant recent work that Alberti world as a celebration of divine presence and creativity. This
would have known, completed perhaps less than a decade selection process was less important for more straightforward
before the completion of Delia Pittura, was Masaccio's The portraiture, a lower genre in the hierarchy than narrative sub-
Tribute Money in the Brancacci Chapel, S. Maria del Car- jects; it is no accident that Flemish portraits were especially
mine, Florence. Here the language of gesture and reaction, the influential on Italian art, particularly in the closing decades of
broadly sculptural rendering of the figures to give them weight the 15th century.
and dignity in the consistent light and shade the artist uses, The surviving evidence, from the 15th century especially,
and the perspectivized outdoor landscape, all help to unify the not only provides us with a wealth of painted portraits in

three episodes of the story into a total design. numbers hitherto unknown, but also with an interest in the
The implications of Alberti's demands on the artist's imagi- personalized physiognomy of the famous that is less stressed

nation and resourcefulness in the creation of the istoria are in medieval representation. The personalized portrayal is

far-reaching for the status of the painter and his art in relation achieved at the expense of rank and station, so that the face
to craft skills and their social standing. The kinds of decision and expression of the sitter now compete for prominence with
the artist here needs to make about his work and his source the accoutrements of dress and perhaps regalia or some other
materials are achieved by inviting criticism, which, in turn, symbol of office that denote a role in the world. One of the

implies development of style rather than a repeated display of chief sources of medieval portrait representation is that of

technical expertise. Moreover, Alberti seeks for the artist a tomb which we can categorize quite easily into types of
effigies

kind of criticism that can only be found in intellectual circles king, bishop, knight, and so on, by dress. Renaissance painted

— for he encourages the artist to frequent the society of poets portraits strike out in new directions of individual commem-
and philosophers. His vision, therefore, of the artist's life-style oration and suggest the dimensions of personal interest and
suggests the patronage of the humanist prince and the world environment. Several of Botticelli's portraits of the Medici,

of the princely court rather than that of the city. "For their and other leading Florentine families, tell us little about the
own enjoyment," Alberti says, "artists should associate with rank of the sitter, but suggest a contemporary room setting

poets and orators who have many embellishments in common and a certain transience of facial expression and pose. During
with painters and who have a broad knowledge of many the years he worked at the court of Milan, Leonardo da Vinci

things." It is dear from Alberti's constant reference to antique [451-1519) painted the portrait now in Krakow (Czartoryski
example that these "many things" will include a knowledge of Gallery), known as the Lady with an Ermine. This is usually
Renaissance Armor

The importance of hunting and warfare in manufacturers of plate armor. Milan was the
pre-modern society meant that weaponry leading Italian center and here the Missaglia
and protective clothing commanded a high famil) were the most sought-after armorers,
degree of technical expertise not alw ays rivaling leading painters in fame and enjoy-
found contemporaneously in other areas of ing the confidence of princes. The kind of
applied knowledge. In the Renaissance, lead- armor produced in Italy, as shown by Man-
ing artists Mich as Leonardo da Vinci and tegna's painting of St George from the 470s 1

Michelangelo turned their attentions to the (Gallerie dell'Academia, Venice with its

problems of siege machinery and architec- smooth surfaces and rounded edges, con-
tural fortification as the need arose and their trasts with that produced by leading German
patrons required. The Renaissance suit of manufacturers, notably at Nuremberg, which
armor was. in practical terms, a highlv ef- w as more angular and decorated by fluting.
ficient piece of machinery. Its fully developed Armor was. like the other arts, open to the
form, designed to give the wearer the maxi- direct influence of political circumstances.
mum freedom of action, closely followed the Following the French invasion of Italy in
shape of the human figure. This expression of 1 and
494. the differing traditions north
the actions and flexibility of the man beneath south of the Alps came together to form the
generally contrasts with the armor of Eastern style known as "Maximilian" after the Em-
civilizations.The effect of strangely anthro- peror of the time. Here German fluting was
pomorphic form is captured by Paolo Uccello applied to Italian form, though continuing to
1;9"-i4"^ in his painted vision of the follow the basic contours of the design.
Battle of Sjn Romano National Gallery. Sixteenth-century developments remind us
London). that this was a time of fundamental transi-
Arms factories were found everywhere in tion in warfare since it was the last period in
Europe, but during the i >th century certain \X estern Europe when suit armor had any
cme> enimed a particular reputation as direct usefulness. As firearms developed and

^A detail from Paolo St George by

Uccello's Battle of San Mantegna; tempera on
Romano; panel; height canvas; 66 x 32cm
about 14SCIT1 N~in . 26X 1 ?in ; i4~os.
National Gallerv. Gallerie delPAcademia,
London Venice

Halt-armor dated
1555 with etched
decoration, by Michel
Witz ot Innsbruck.
Wallace Collection
London
 GAM. KV STUDY
I

4A Gothic suit of armor

of £1475— 85 from south
Germany. Wallace
Collection, London

The Judgment of Paris

by Lucas Cranach the
Elder; panel; s 1x38cm
(20x15m); 1527. State
Art Museum,
Copenhagen. Paris, on
the left, wears German

fluted armor adapted to

Italian form

Below right An example

of puffed and slashed
armor of the early 1 6th
century, a German suit
of ci 520. Wallace
Collection, London

T A fanciful helmet from

Augsburg, C1530. The
visor takes the form of
an eagle's head with
etched plumage. Wallace
Collection, London

the pattern of military engagement changed, as a print medium was under experimenta-
so suit armor became increasingly redundant. tion at this time. Decoration could take the
Hence many features that developed for form of figural representation, perhaps of
purely practical needs in the previous century central Christian themes, or of saints, be-
became part of the trappings of court life and lieved to be protective in times of danger or
ceremonial, denoting rank and heraldic combat. Decorative motives increasingly
achievement. Suit armor underwent final took forms familiar to other kinds of Re-
changes for the needs of the tournament, but naissance applied ornament, notably running
in the 1 6th century it tended to take on shape vine and acanthus. This common vocabulary
and contour more akin to other forms of marks a further stage of the absorption of
dress, sometimes expressing soft materials armor into the mainstream of applied design.
and their effects, such as puffed and slashed MAURICE HOWARD
garments. Thus the unity of function and
materials of the i 5th century was lost. Indi- Further reading. Blackmore, H.L. Arms and Armour,
vidual pieces of armor, particularly helmets, London (1965). Ffoulkes, C.J. Armour and Weapons,
Oxford (1909). Ffoulkes, C.J. Arms and Armament,
became less practical in their ceremonial
London (1945). Laking, C.F. A Record of European
guise and took on more fanciful and bizarre Arms and Armour, London (1920). Mann, J. G.
forms. "Notes on the Armour of the Maximilian Period and
These developments encouraged more or- the Italian Wars", Archaeoiogia, London (1929).

namentation. This could take the form of M.inn.J.G. "The Etched Decoration of Armour",
I'm, .clings of the British Academy, London (1940).
inlay or etching. It is no accident that the
latter armorial skill developed in those same

< ierman cities where the potential of etching

6^4 RENAISSANCE STYLE

thought to be a portrait of Cecilia Gallerani, the mistress of century later, even though it seems he never saw the original.
Duke Sforza. The and challenge of the portrait rests
liveliness Since we know very sitter herself, it would
little about the
in the turning pose, placing of the ermine which
in the parallel be true to say that Mona
was made more famous by
Lisa
appears to be part symbolic, part wordplay on the sitter's Leonardo's portrait of her than she ever was in real life. It is a
name, and the sense we get of her reaction to things outside prime example of art taking the lead from history, making its
the picture space. The quality of immediacy is underlined for own heroes out of painter and painted. This could operate at
us when we learn that in 1498, some years after the picture the highest political level and not simply among the kind of
was painted, the sitter warns Isabella d'Este that when she sees urban merchant class to which Mona Lisa belonged. In the
the portrait she should bear in mind shows her younger and
it annals of Renaissance history, we could well say that Leonardo
not as she now appears. So this is not a timeless image in the Loredan, Doge of Venice from 1500 to 15 16, is remembered
medieval sense, summarizing the sitter's rank. Its creation was not for his political or personal actions but as a haunting
conditioned far more by the painter's reaction to the sitter and portrait by Giovanni Bellini in the National Gallery, London.
his concern to galvanize the spectator's reaction to the sense of The fame of an artist's personal style could be established as
movement —of her being, as was said of many Renaissance much by the skill with which he handled his medium as by
portraits in their own time, "about to speak". nature or novelty of the represented image. Certain technical
That portraits were believed efficacious in prompting skills, means by
particularly that of fresco painting, were the
worthy attitudes in the viewer is shown by the original fittings which an showed whether he was worthy of inclusion in
artist

for Duke Federico da Montefeltro's study in his palace at the most important traditions of art. As new kinds of rep-
Urbino where, above the and cupboards hold-
inlaid paneling resentation developed, so new skills arose to express them.
ing his books, there were portraits of famous scholars of the Portraiture itself provides one highly significant example of
past as an inducement to study. The virtuous prince was no this in its a means of commemorat-
promotion of the medal as
longer simply warrior and law-giver, but scholar and thinker ing the famous. As a multiple and portable object, the medal
in his painted representations. The search for new guises led to became in the Renaissance a means of disseminating not only
a consequent revival of quite specific antique forms — notably the likeness of the famous but also the virtuosity of the medal-
the sculpted portrait bust, a portable object for portraying the ist's skill. Pisanello led the way in this development, and his

powerful, or the simply worthy and respected like the Floren- employment at various Italian courts in the first half of the

tine doctor Giovanni Chellini in the bust by Antonio Rossel- 15th century meant he recorded many leading figures in his
lino in the Victoria and Albert Museum, London, dated 1456. medalic portraits. One of the most interesting is that of the
Many Renaissance portraits remain anonymous to us where Eastern Emperor, John Palaeologus, made when he visited

both the history of the picture gives no clues and the proper- Italy in 1438. This work particularly illuminates the way in

ties of insignia or coats-of-arms are also missing. The portrait which medals could become historical and physiognomic
played an important role in establishing the personal style, source material: the Emperor's profile and tall headgear

and thus fame, of the Renaissance artist because it was gener- became the prototype for many representations of Eastern
ally more portable than a large-scale historical or religious figures in Italian narrative painting.
subject. Leonardo's portrait of Mona Lisa (Louvre, Paris) was The development new media encouraged new habits of
of
painted in Florence in the first years of the 16th century. It collecting works of came to be admired and so
art, as skill

became very famous in its day; its format was copied and enjoyed for its own sake. The print media of woodcut and
rethought by artists at work in Florence during the few years it engraving embraced new forms of subject matter, and took on
was there, for Leonardo took it with him to France in 1 517 a new degree of linear sophistication in the second half of the
and it later passed into the French royal collection. The pic- 15th century. The emergence of the single print, liberated
ture is rapturously and intimately described by Vasari half a from accompanying text, begs interesting questions about the
potential market for sale and its subsequent function in pri-
Pisanello's medal to commemorate the visit of the Eastern Emperor
John Palaeologus to Italy in 1438; bronze; diameter 10cm (4m). vate hands. The print could demonstrate the artist's capabili-
Museo Nazionale, Florence ties at full stretch to a wide audience. At the same time, since it

is not an object intended for public display in the manner of a

painted altarpiece, it must have been passed from hand to
hand, and discussed by small groups of expert admirers. It

certainly played an important part in encouraging special ex-

pertise on the part of the consumer in one particular area of
the visual arts. We know that prints traveled relatively long
distances very quickly. Drawings by Albrecht Diirer (1471-
1528) confirm he was familiar with the prints of the Italians

St Jerome in his Study, an engraving by Albrecht Diirer;

25 x19cm (10x7m); 15 14
 RENAISSAN< F. STYLE 655

^1 -'

>A
656 RENAISSANCE ST^ I 1

-ffs»

Mantegna and Pollaiuolo before his first visit to Italy in the

mid 1 490s. Later, when Diirer himself had become established
as themost celebrated print-maker in the Europe of his day,
he had a swift and direct impact on leading Italian artists.
Vasari grudgingly admits that Diirer's work is commended in

Italy for its "diligence" in engraving, and acknowledges his

influence even though it undermines his concept of the art of
central Italy as self-perpetuating and self-inspiring. Looking at
one of Diirer's finest, fully mature works, the engraving of St
Jerome in his Study of 15 14, we can see the qualities that
enthralled contemporaries. With every turn of the engraver's
tool, Diirer has rendered by line and density of shadow an
enormous range of texture and surface, of light and shade.
Even in the highest realms of narrative picture-making,
where subject matter is often especially traditional and there-
fore delimiting, there comes a point at which the skills of art
begin to upstage the image represented. Vasari tells us that
when Leonardo was in Florence in the first years of the 16th
century, he executed a cartoon, or life-size preparatory draw-
ing, of the Virgin and St Anne with the Christ Child "which
not only filled every artist with wonder, but, when it was

finished and set up men and women, young and old, flocked to

see it for two days, as if it had been a festival, and they

marveled exceedingly." We know that the cartoon to which
Vasari refers cannot be the one now in the National Gallery,
London, because his further description of the activity con-
tained in the cartoon seen publicly in Florence contains essen-
tial differences. Yet the probably earlier work (in London)
must have provoked similar reactions when it was first seen, Cartoon for a Madonna and Child with St Anne by Leonardo da Vinci;
in the city of Milan where Leonardo created
almost certainly charcoal heightened with white on brown paper; size of cartoon
it.
140X 100cm (55 x39m); C1495. National Gallery, London
The quality at which we marvel is not based at all on any
obvious truth to nature for which the earlier 15th century The dimension of time has been similarly excluded from
might have striven. It is rather Leonardo's own summation of Michelangelo's contemporary sculpture group, the Pieta in St
narrative and figurative expression via a knowledge of the Peter's, Rome, where the Virgin is as youthful and ageless as
natural world — a knowledge he now takes for granted is the dead son she silently mourns. In 1504, Leonardo and
within our understanding. On this he builds to explore new Michelangelo were engaged in the preparation of cartoons for
things. It is significant that Leonardo was largely responsible two scenes of famous Florentine victories in battle, to be
for a revolution in the potential of drawing as a means of frescoed on the walls of the Great Council Chamber in the
thinking out compositional problems. The London cartoon is Palazzo Vecchio, Florence. It was surely the greatest ever com-
but one complex and obviously highly-worked idea in a long petition between two leading Renaissance artists, all the more
series of attempts to resolve the difficulties and challenge of competitive because there would be no declared winner, only
combining several figures into a satisfactory compositional everlasting debate about their respective merits. Their think-
and spiritual relationship. As we see here, the drawing already ing out of the narrative possibilities, as well as their personal
tells us of a great sophistication and range of tone through styles, had a great impact on the young Raphael — already
effects of light and shade that would, if transferred to the with several large altarpieces to his credit in his native
medium of paint, be rendered as a convincing three- Umbria —on his arrival in Florence at this time. Under the
dimensionality not conceived of by his 15th-century prede- impetus of these and other Florentine achievements, Raphael's
cessors. Leonardo has barely begun to draw the landscape style of painting changed quite dramatically and he prepared
surrounding the figures, but we can be sure, from the relative himself for the ambitious projects he found himself facing in
size of figures to picture field, even if we did not possess other, Rome from 1509. In the sense that he feels free to choose a
painted works by him, that it would not have been a carefully better or more intellectually rigorous style, to learn from
perspectivized setting. Figures are placed in landscape not to others as the route to more perfect solutions, Raphael demon-
suggest actual physical surroundings as such, but to em- strates inan emphatic way the artist's liberation from ad-
phasize their timelessness. herence to one singular, unchanging skill.
The Pieta by Michelangelo in St Peter's, Rome; marble; height 173cm (68in); 1498—9

Raphael's absorption of the lessons to be learned from picture from those artists capable of realizing them in paint.

Florentine contemporaries was intensive and quickly put to Prominent among these types were small pictures of landscape
use when the opportunity presented itself. In Venice at the and poetical subjects, and they evoke the kind of picture
same period, we find the aged Giovanni Bellini (0430-1 516) always associated with the names of Giorgione and the young
both instructing and learning from younger Venetian artists Titian. Once these artists had established their reputations in
and striving to keep abreast of the times and the changing these fields, we find that the rarity value of their individual
fashion in pictures. Fashion here is not at all a trivializing term attainments begins to supersede the subject they are painting;
to use, for it is in the Venetian school in particular that we find collectors become anxious to acquire whatever works by their
direct evidence, in the early years of the 16th century, of pat- hand are available. We should beware of too simplistic a
rons and collectors seeking out certain new types of subject- notion of the independent artist here. Venetian painters con-
658 RENAISSANCE STYLE

tinued to seek prestigious commissions for churches and point where such structures were being built to look modern
public buildings, and remained aware of their public role, but by the application of Italian ornament.
they also became famous for pictures that in type and some- England was to make other false starts before establishing

times in size were a far cry from Albern's notion of the artist's her own from a mixture of native and conti-
"classical" style
true and worthy pictorial goals. nental forms. Not only do we miss here the refinement of
Part of the growing personal reputation of the artist, as the ornament and design through materials as we find, for ex-
1 6th century progressed, was based on the growing interna- ample, on an important 15th-century Florentine tomb, but
tional reputation of Italian art. Leonardo passed the last years also a confusion of traditions through the lack of an intellectu-
of his life in France under the protection of King Francis I, and al exercise —a process that would not have occurred to the
he was to be followed there in later years by other leading craftsman at Boxgrove. Bernardo Rossellino (1409—64) con-
Florentine and Roman artists. From the period following the ceived and carried out the tomb of the Florentine chancellor
French invasion of Italy in 1494, Italy came to have a signific- and humanist Leonardo Bruni in the church of S. Croce in the

ant influence on the arts of France and other areas of northern late 1440s. Bruni's book De Studiis et Litteris had defended
Europe. Sometimes Italian craftsmen worked in these places, the study of Classical authors, sought to demonstrate the core
but the influence shows itself in a more widespread fashion in of truth in their writings as supportive to the Christian faith,
the adoption by native-born craftsmen of Renaissance orna- and advocated education and knowledge as the keys to human
ment — particularly in architectural decoration and interior creativity. His monument thus seeks to show us his elevation
design. Later in the century, this was to be codified through to heaven through a use of antique architectural forms and
pattern books of ornament. Perhaps the greatest impetus in ornament more archaeologically purist, and governed by the
came from the decorative concerns of Raphael
this direction eloquence of restraint. Both the inscription and the manner of
and his workshop in their great religious and secular Roman his dress tell us it is his intellectual standing, rather than his
commissions in the second decade of the 16th century and social rank, that is the basis of his fame. The balance of forces
beyond. Their style was based on a wide vocabulary of dec- here between figures and architectural setting, between the
orative forms after the antique, especially from newly-dis- appropriateness of one form to another, between the portrait
covered excavated material in Rome from such late antique image turned toward the spectator and the sacred image
buildings as the Golden House of Nero {see Roman Art). above, all prompt our recognition of the Renaissance concern
The use of Renaissance motives in England in the early 1 6th for order, for the conjunction of real and mystical and their

century, carried out either by name craftsmen or by craftsmen expression through each other, that inspired the greatest
far from direct contact with Italian sources, look to us certain- achievements of the visual arts of the age.

ly bold, perhaps even imaginative, but also unsophisticated MAURICE HOWARD

beside Italian examples. The chantry chapel made for the de la
\\ arr family at Boxgrove in Sussex is a particularly exuberant Bibliography. Baxandall, M. Painting and Experience in fifteenth
example of its kind, where Renaissance ornament in the form Century Oxford (1972). Benesch, O. The Art of the Renais-
Italy,

of cherubs and decorative motives are applied as a busy sur- sance in \orthem Europe, London (1965). Blunt, A. Artistic Theory
in Italy 1450—1600, Oxford 1940). Burckhardt, J. The Civilization
face to what is essentially a Gothic canopied shape. Its impact
of the Renaissance in Italy illustrated English edn), London (1945).
is one of vitality, of a certain brinkmanship on the vulgar,
Gombnch. E.H. Xorm and Form: Studies in the Art of the Renais-
emphasized originally by vibrant color. The chantry func-
sance, London (1966). Gombnch, E. H. Symbolic Images, London
tioned for a very short time, as it was suppressed along with 19-i). Panofsky, E. Renaissance and Renascences in Western Art,
hundreds of other large and small religious foundations in the New York 1965). Seymour, C. Sculpture in Italy: 1400—1500, Har-
England of the 1530s. Continuity was broken therefore at the mondsworth (1966).
 35

THE NORTHERN RENAISSANCE

Presumed self-portrait by Nikulaus Gerhaert van Leyden; sandstone; C1464

Musce de I'Ocuvre Notre-Dame, Strasbourg
66o THE NORTHERN RENAISSANCE

THE ly
Northern Renaissance is the overall heading usual-
given to non-Italian Western European art of the
nique of
once again
oil painting, the early Netherlandish masters were
in advance of their Italian contemporaries. Al-

period C1420—C1600. It therefore parallels the Italian though Northern and Italian artists chose widely different
Renaissance and, like it, overlaps the so-called International modes of expression during the 15th century, their achieve-
Gothic at the beginning of its development and the Baroque at ments remained complementary: both ultimately fed the de-
its end. As in Italy, the later stages of this period tend to be velopment of Western European art.
absorbed by the so-called Mannerist style (see Mannerism). In his masterful exposition of the Renaissance and Re-
The concept of '"Renaissance" is based upon the idea of a nascences in Western Art (published in i960) Erwin Panofsky
rebirth of interest in the forms and content of Classical art, suggested a distinction between a "Naissance" without or
and was originally formulated with specific reference to Ita- even against Antiquity in 15th-century Northern art, as op-
lian culture of the 15th and 16th centuries. However, North- posed to a Renaissance of Antiquity in that of Italy. This
ern art of this period developed in a very different way. subtle but crucial differentiation allows us to separate the
During the 15th century, the Northerners remained totally "birth" of naturalistic values in Northern art from the "re-
uninterested in the rediscoveries of the Italians. In the early birth" of a classicizing style incorporating naturalistic values
years of the 16th century, their outlook altered dramatically: During the 16th century, a rapprochement be-
in Italian art.

the Italian manner, previously shunned, was enthusiastically tween North and South took place, setting the scene for the
accepted almost overnight. So whereas Italian art of c 14 2.0— truly European style that followed: the Baroque.
ci6oo reveals a comparatively unbroken continuity of stylistic
development, that of the North may be divided into two dis- The International Gothic. The International Gothic may be
tinct phases. Many historians prefer to term 15th-century characterized as a tendency towards extreme elegance of
Northern art "Late Gothic", in distinction from a 16th cen- form, combined with an often acute attention to naturalistic
tury "Northern Renaissance". detail, which flourished in Western European art of the later
We look in vain for an awareness of the idea of cultural 14th and early 15th centuries. This movement —too disparate
rebirth in Northern writings of the 1 5th century. By the end of to be readily termed a style — was "international" in manifest-

his life, Albrecht Diirer (1471-1528) had formulated such a ing itself in widely separate localities, notably Paris, Prague,
notion, borrowed from Italian theory, but even he had only a London, and Milan. It was "Gothic" in springing directly
very dim idea of the history of art as such. Carel van Mander from the 14th-century tradition. Although the International
(writing in C1604) and Joachim von Sandrart (writing in Gothic was not a new departure in the same sense as the
1675—9) were the Northern art historians. Both were
first realistic styles that arose in Florence and Flanders during the
heavily influenced by Vasari's Vite (Lives of the Artists) (1st second and third decades of the 15th century, it fostered an
edn 1550; 2nd edn 1568) which perpetuated the fame of Ita- interest in naturalismwhich did much to prepare the ground
lian Renaissance art, to the detriment of that of the North for the twin Renaissances of Italy and the North.
which was generally stigmatized as retrogressive. This outlook The International Gothic was essentially a court art; its
was connected with that which regarded all medieval art with decline coincided with a series of political crises which shook
disfavor; bothhad an extremely long currency. Jakob Burck- the major European courts in succession during the early 15th
hardt in Die Kultur der Renaissance in Italien (The Civiliza- century. With a few notable exceptions, the major surviving
tion of the Renaissance in Italy, i860) viewed the Renaissance monuments manner are all illuminated manuscripts.
to this
as an almost exclusively Italian phenomenon, and even as Many important works in other media have been destroyed,
great an apologist as Johan Huizinga (in The Waning of the but the illuminated manuscript remains a particularly suitable
Middle Ages, 1924) thought that 15th-century Northern art medium for that combination of fine detail, delicate decora-
was the autumn fruitfulness of a dying mode of artistic expres- tion, and glowing color which remains the supreme achieve-
sion. The fundamental problem was that the roots of art his- ment of the International Gothic.
torical terminology were Italian based, and consequently A vitally important unifying factor in European art of the
lacked an appropriate vocabulary to express a positive opin- later 14th century was the heritage of early Trecento Italian
ion of 15th-century Northern art. painting, which had been assimilated throughout most of the
Yet much Northern art of this century can be considered North one way or another. However, the Parisian portrait
in

"progressive". Contemporary Italian commentators were of John the Good (c 13 56—9; Louvre) and the panels by
united in the high esteem they felt for Northern painting; they Master Theodoric in Karlstein Castle, near Prague (C1357-
do not appear to have considered it in any way inferior to that 67) reveal a weighty modeling of form which goes beyond
of their own country. Quattrocento patrons paid large sums Italian models. The dedication miniature of the Bible of King
for Flemish paintings, and Italian artists frequently drew upon Charles V (1371; Rijksmuseum Meermanno-Westreenianum,
Northern models. Such quintessentially "Renaissance" depar- The Hague) by Jean Bondol (fl. 1368-81) united this plasticity
tures in 15th-century art as portraiture and the accurate de-
piction of landscape depend primarily upon the Northern The Flight into Egypt from the Hours of the Marechal de Boucicaut by
tradition. As the inventors and propagators of the new tech- the Boucicaut Master; c 1405-8. Musee Jacquemart-Andre, Paris
662 THE NORTHERN RENAISSANCE

with a clearly defined spatial setting. This remarkable natural-

ism was not immediately followed. Illuminations produced
for the Psalter of the Duke of Berry (c 13 80-5; Bibliotheque
Nationale, Paris) (c 13 30— 1400) and
by Andre Beauvenu
Master Bertram of Hamburg's Grabow Altarpiece (C1383;
Hamburger Kunsthalle, Hamburg) incorporate voluminous
figures within a two-dimensional setting which uncomfortably
belies their weight. The illuminator of the Brussels Hours
(C1385-1402; Bibliotheque Royale Albert I, Brussels), who is

sometimes identified with Jacquemart de Hesdin, turned re-

peatedly to the problem of rendering three-dimensional space.

His work was, however, overshadowed by Melchior Broeder-
lam's Dijon Altarpiece shutters (C1394-9; Musee des Beaux-
Arts, Dijon). These large panels exhibit a monumentality of
form and a sureness of compositional and spatial handling
which transcends their models.

The Boucicaut Master {fl. c 1400-20) was heir to the

achievements of the late 14th century, and, in his perspectival
skill and precise observation of the and color,
effects of light
he was the prophet of early Netherlandish painting. Without
his Hours of Marshal Boucicaut (0409; Musee Jacquemart-

Andre, Paris) the work of the Master of Flemalle and of Jan

van Eyck would be unthinkable. His sometime colleague, the
Bedford Master (//. 1405-35), was less innovatory, working
in a related style which endured until the 1430s. The anony-

mous Master of the Rohan Hours [c 14 10— 25) was a totally

different personality, who perfected an expressionistic style
which almost burst asunder the essential restraint of the Inter-
national Gothic and the confines of the illuminated page to
which it was so intimately linked. When all is said and done,
elegance both of form and color were a keynote of the Interna-
tional Gothic. In Northern Europe, its supreme achievement
was probably the last manuscript of the Limburg Brothers, the
Tres Riches Heures of the Duke of Berry (C1416; Musee
Conde, Chantilly). Although the illuminations in this book
include accurate landscapes and impressive night scenes, it is
primarily memorable for its exquisite color harmonies and
unfailing gracefulness of design.

The formulation of a new style. With the revival of the

Hundred Years War (1337— 1453) and the rise of an inde-
pendent Burgundian state in the second decade of the 15th
century, the epicenter of Northern art moved from Paris to
Flanders. Throughout the century, the Netherlands remained
a hive of artistic activity without European parallel. Tapes-
tries, sculpture, paintings, and illuminated manuscripts were
exported from there to every part of the West. Itinerant Flem-
ish masters found employment in foreign cities, and artists

from as far away as Spain and Italy visited the Low Countries
to learn their trade. Netherlandish art found some degree of
acceptance in every country in Western Europe and came to
constitute the single most cohesive force in the style of the
earlier Northern Renaissance.
In 1 3 80, Philip the Bold, Duke of Burgundy and future ruler
of the Netherlands, founded a Carthusian monastery at
 THE NORTHERN RENAISSANC1 663

Champmol, near his capital of Dijon. This charterhouse fall of light upon different surfaces the van Eycks attained an
became a center of ducal patronage, providing employment analytical representation of nature which has, in its own way,
for a galaxy of major artists. The greatest of these was the never been surpassed. The old belief that they did so by the
Dutch sculptor Claus Sluter (ci 3 50— 1406). Although he died "invention" of oil paint is an oversimplification which can no
as early as 1406 Sluter's surviving work marks a dramatic longer be supported, but it is clear that they grasped the lumi-
break with the still-flourishing International Gothic. Gone is nary, tonal, and textural possibilities of the oil medium in a
the elegant flowing line; in its place is a bulky sense of mass. new and innovatory way.
Sluter's weighty figures anticipate the gravity of Donatello by Although Jan van Eyck made exceedingly important excur-
more than a decade. At the beginning of the 15 th century their work remained
sions in the field of portraiture, his large-scale
grim realism, which remains startling even today, must have tied to the fundamentally religious context of most 15th-
seemed a revelation. century patronage. The remarkable realism with which he and
A painter who may have worked at Dijon and who was his contemporaries depicted their subjects endowed the often
certainly impressed by Sluter's work was the Master of hackneyed old motifs of Christian art with a pervasive new
Flemalle (identified with Robert Campin, active in Tournai force. As became saturated with symbolism, so new
reality

ci 406—44). Although many of his works retain the traditional devices were introduced to express ever more complex and
"space-defying" gold ground, his figures are always massive, exact levels of meaning. Thus the fall of light through a crystal
swathed in voluminous robes like those of Sluter's statues. vase of sparkling water could evoke the mystery of the Virgin
Some of his paintings, such as the Dijon Nativity (ci.420; Birth; or the accurate distinction between a Romanesque
Musee des Beaux-Arts), incorporate landscape backgrounds colonnade and a flamboyant Gothic portal express the super-
which reveal the Master's indebtedness to International session of theOld Testament by the New. The iconographic
Gothic manuscript calendar pages. In his Merode Altarpiece richness which this intimate relationship between form and
(C1426; Cloisters, New York) he experimented with a content engendered remains one of the supreme achievements
naturalistic setting of a different sort, the so-called "bourgeois of 15th-century Northern art.

interior", which remained popular with Netherlandish painters Apart from Jan, the artist most often praised in 15th-cen-
throughout our period and beyond. tury sources is Rogier van der Weyden (C1399— 1464). After
For over 500 years, one artist has been revered above all studying under the Master of Flemalle he settled in Brussels,
others as the "father" of early Netherlandish painting: Jan where he was made Town Painter in 1435. His artistic aims
van Eyck (C1390— 1441). Although modern opinion may- are readily apparent in his best-known work, the Descent
differ as to his precise position within the historical develop- from the Cross (C1438) in the Prado, Madrid. Whereas Jan
ment of the Early Netherlandish School, no painter of his van Eyck made manifest the objective and immutable qualities
generation left so distinct and lasting an impression upon his of the new realism, Rogier van der Weyden explored its emo-
contemporaries as van Eyck and the permanent standard of tive and dynamic possibilities. In this aim he was aided by a

excellence his art established remains incontestable. brilliant sense of abstract design. The contorted poses of the

For most of his documented life van Eyck was a court mourners in his Descent, compressed within a claustro-
painter in the service of Philip the Good, third Valois Duke of phobically enclosed space around the still twin forms of the
Burgundy. A favorite and confidant of his employer, van Eyck dead Christ and the unconscious Virgin, convey unbearable
was an early example of the urbane "courtier-artist", deeply anguish. Rogier's figure-types are generally melancholic and
admired and occasionally entrusted with affairs of
for his skill brooding, with long necks, aquiline noses, and sorrowful eyes.
state. That he was allowed considerable freedom is evident That this is true even of his portraits indicates just how essen-

from the fact that none of his surviving works are ducal com- tial to his art was the austere sense of tragedy which so im-
missions. Whilst we know a great deal about Jan, we know pressed his contemporaries. More than any other artist of his
next to nothing about his elder brother Hubert. The latter was generation, Rogier plumbed the psychological and emotional

already dead by 1426, predeceasing Jan by at least 15 years. depths of the human spirit.

He was also a considerable artist and it seems likely that the This illustrious trio — the Master of Flemalle, Jan van Eyck,

great Ghent Altarpiece (completed 0432.; St-Bavon, Ghent) and Rogier van der Weyden —demonstrated the methods and
was their joint achievement. This enormous polyptych of at outlined the aims of early Netherlandish painting. In doing so,
least 20 painted panels is the most important work in the they also established the general orientation of Northern art
history of 15th-century Northern art. It abounds in innova- until the beginning of the 16th century.
tions, including accurate portraiture and representation of the
nude, spatial illusionism, and careful attention to the effects of The consolidation and propagation of the new style. In the

light and shadow. By precise observation of the effects of the second half of the 15th century the new manner of Jan van

St Joseph in his shop, the right-hand panel of the Merode Altarpiece, Overleaf: The interior panels of the Ghent Altarpiece by Jan and Hubert
a triptych by the Master of Flemalle (Robert Campin); oil on panel; van Eyck (outer panels, left; central panel, right); height of central panel

64 /27cm 2? x 1 iin); C1426. Cloisters, New York 350cm (138m); completed C1432. St-Bavon, Ghent
664 THE NORTHERN RENAISSANCE
Arnolfini Wedding byjan van Eyck

Arnolfini Wedding National Gallery,

London) is one of the best known of all early
Netherlandish paintings. It was painted in
the recently perfected oil technique, which
enabled Flemish painters to depict the fall of
light, and the varying textures of surfaces
illuminated by it, with a degree of fidelity

unattainable in tempera. The old belief that

Jan van Eyck was the "inventor" of oil paint

is misguided, but the inherent qualities of this
new medium could only be fully exploited by
Working with meticu-
a master of his stature.
lously applied translucent oil glazes, he has
brilliantly characterized a wide range of
substances. The highly polished metal of the
brass chandelier, the heavy velvet of the
man's patrician robe, and the wiry fur of the
little dog, are all rendered with remarkable
Wedding by the The compositional
truth to nature. Every inch of the room, and
Master of the Aachener symmetry of the
and objects in it, has been
of the people
Schrankriiren; oil on Arnolfini Wedding
same penetrating scrutiny.
subjected to the panel; C1475. Aloisius- underscores its balance
Although van Eyck w as ignorant of "one- kolleg Collection, Bad of tone and color,

point" perspective, his exact observation of Godesberg instilling the scene with a
remarkable sense of calm
every detail, each of which is held in play by
and permanence which
the even lighting, has created an astonishing emphasizes the
approximation to actual optic experience. sacramental nature of
The subject of the painting is clear enough: marriage

a fashionably dressed couple stand in a

comfortably furnished bedroom. However, Arnolfini Wedding by-

the realism of the Early Netherlandish School Jan van Eyck; oil on
Lady at her Toilet by the Collection of Willem panel; 82x60cm
w .in directly linked to the requirements of a
Jan van Eyck, a detail ian der Geest by Willem 32x24111) 1434.
religious and symbolic art. As a full-length from The Visit of van Haecht; 1628. National Gallery.
double portrait the Arnolfini Wedding is Archduke Albert and Rubenshuis, Antwerp London
unique in 1 5th-century painting, so it is Archduchess Isabella to
legitimate to suppose that the picture had
some special significance. It is apparent from recipients themselves. Until the reforms of subsequent history of early Netherlandish
the ceremonial pose of the man and woman the Council of Trent, instituted in 1563, it painting, but only one later variant on van
that a formal event is in progress; their was legal for a man and
a woman
marryto Eyck's theme is known: an indifferent
discarded shoes suggest a religious occasion. without a priest and wherever they thought German picture of the later 15th century by
That the holy scene in progress relates to fit. In the mirror on the far wall of the the so-called Master of the Aachener
matrimony is clear not only from the re- chamber in which the Arnolfini Wedding is Schranktiiren {Wedding; Aloisius-kolleg Col-
lationship between the two figures, but also set are reflected two men, who face the standing Bad Godesberg The reason why 1

lection, .

from the symbolic meaning of the objects in couple. They are probably lay witnesses to the such an undoubted masterpiece as the Arnol-
the room. The bed is a marriage symbol, the ceremony. If weassumethatvan Eyck himself fini Wedding proved to have so little in-
oranges betoken fruitfulness, and the carving was one of these men, his signature would take fluence is because the unprecedented icon-
on the finial of the chairback next to the bed on a new significance: "JohannesdeEyckfuit ography of the picture must have been partly
represents St Margaret — the patron saint of hie" means literally "Jan van Eyck washere". determined by the very imaginative decision
women in childbirth. The dog often per- Although van Eyck frequently signed his work, of the couple portrayed. Another Eyckian
sonified faithfulness, and the rosary, hanging the elaborate Gothiccalligraphy of this signa- composition of similar type depicting a lady
by the mirror, was a common artistic meta- ture is reminiscent of the formal script reserved bathing with the help of a female attendant is
phor for Faith in general. During the Middle for legal documents. This would not be known from the background of a 1 ~th-
Ages a single candle was often required for surprising if the Arnolfini Wedding was what it century painting, Willem van Haecht's Visit
the ceremony of oath-taking, referring in indeed appears to ha ve been a pictorial
: of Archduke Albert . . . (Rubenshuis, Ant-
particular to marriage. weddingcertificate. werp,;. The original painting may have been a
If the painting depicts a wedding in prog- Although the bourgeois interior of the pendant to the Arnolfini Wedding, portray-
. we might ask where the priest is,and Arnolfini Wedding had an ancestry which ing the bride's ceremonial pre-nuptial bath. If

why the event is taking place in a house may be traced back to the work of the this is so, then the symbolism of this pair of
rather than a church. Unlike the other six Boucicaut Master and beyond, the iconogra- pictures would have been doubly recondite
sacraments, marriage was the only one not phy of the painting was an original invention. and proportionately less liable to imitation.
dispensed by the clergy but directly by the Interiors of this type recur throughout the MARK EVANS
668 THE NORTHERN RENAISSANCE

Descent from the Cross by Rogier van der \X eyden: oil on panel: 220* 260cm 8-x 102m ; C1438. Prado, Madnd

Eyck and his contemporaries spread tar and wide. The exten- vocabulary to create a remarkable art, at once apparently
sive trading linkb of the mercantile cities of Flanders facilitated undemonstrative and yet painfully intense. Whilst both
this process, as did the international connections of the North- Christus and Bouts remained closely linked to the founding
ern aristocracy. Until 14 — the Dukes of Burgundy, who were generation of early Netherlandish painting, they readily ac-
also rulers of Flanders, p<>>sc->sed the most splendid court in cepted Italianate "one-point" perspective, which found its

Europe. In the eyes of the patronal classes, their political pres- way to Flanders c 1450—60. With the exception of Justus of
tige may well have enhanced the evident excellence of the new Ghent fl. 14-;-^ . who actually emigrated to Italy. Flemish
style that had arisen in their domain. Whilst the influence of painters remained uninterested in the other stylistic qualities
early Netherlandish painting never became in any sense "ab- of Italian Renaissance an. Generally, the Netherlanders pre-
solute", artists throughout Northern Europe gradually turned ferred to follow an independent line of inquiry; a characteris-
away from the forms of International Gothic in favor of the tic example is Geertgen tot Sint Jans £1455 65—85 95 . who
new realism. By the middle of the century what had in origin made important innovations in the depiction of nocturnal
been a local development had become a general Northern scenes. Hans Memling (0440—94) possessed a less inquisitive
European movement in the visual arts. mind, although he was an equally superb technician. His
In the Netherlands, although Petrus Chnstus fl. 1444--2 gentle religious compositions reveal a more contemplative
3 perpetuated the style of Jan van Eyck until the third quarter
of the 15th century, the manner of Rogier van der Weyden Right: St John and the Mourning Women, the right-hand panel of a
proved to be more immediately influential upon younger diptych by Memling; oil on panel: 50 X (,-cm 20 * 14m ;

artists. Dienc Bouts C141 5—75) reinterpreted Rogier's formal Royal Chapel, Granada
 Eyck without losing contact with an outlook essentially based
in International Gothic.
During the second half of the 15th century the influence of
Rogier van der Weyden was powerfully felt, as may be seen in
the pictures of Hans Pleydenwurff (c 14 20— 72) in Nuremberg
(Germanisches Nationalmuseum), the Saint Bartholomew
Master in Cologne and Martin Schongauer (C1430— 91) in
Colmar. The last of these was not only a painter, but also the
first important print-maker whose name has survived. During
this period, the revolutionary new technology of printing was
already a potent force, although its precise artistic significance
isoften difficult to assess. Cheap, mass-produced woodcuts
and engravings were capable of spreading new ideas with a
speed that had hitherto been unimaginable. Ultimately, the
graphic media became an essential factor in the later develop-
ment of Northern Renaissance art.
During the years 1462 to 1473 Netherlandish influence was
spread through German sculpture by the great Dutch sculptor
Nikolaus Gerhaert (0430—73), who worked at Trier, Stras-
bourg, Nordlingen, Constance, and Vienna. His full-blooded
realism impressed a generation of sculptors, including such
major artists as Jorg Syrlin (0425—91) and Veit Stoss
C1447?— 1533). Before the turn of the century, the painter
Death of the Virgin by Hugo van der Goes; oil on panel; Konrad Laib {fl. 0431—48) had established the Flemish style
125X 120cm (49X47U1); C1470-5. State Museum, Bruges at Salzburg. Further South, the art of the Tyrol proved less

susceptible to early Netherlandish painting, although this

outlook. The most outstanding artistic personality in the third region produced one artist of major European significance:
quarter of the century was undoubtedly Hugo van der Goes the painter and sculptor Michael Pacher (c 143 5— 98).
0436—82). A restless and passionate genius, his altarpieces A visitor to northern Italy, he reinterpreted the perspectival
seem to combine the monumental grandeur of Jan van Eyck effects of Andrea Mantegna (143 1-1506) to produce a highly
with the emotive force of Rogier van der Weyden. In their individualistic style.
variety of approaches, the work of these masters illustrates the The different ways in which German artists responded to
many-sidedness of the early Netherlandish style. the art of the Netherlands were extremely varied and seldom
The German-speaking lands covered a far wider area than slavish. Generally, the Germans shared a common tendency to
the Netherlands and, as might be expected, they encompassed emphasize expressionistic rather than naturalistic values.
a much larger number of regional schools. Nevertheless, the The history of 15th-century French art is closely connected
art of these territories often reveals many points in common with the fortunes of the Hundred Years War. Until the expul-
and may be examined under a single heading in the present sion of the English from France in 1453, Paris was a belea-
context. Until the fourth decade of the 15th century, local guered city and the king too concerned with military matters
variants of the International Gothic were firmly established in to have the leisure for artistic pursuits. The emergence of the
the major German art centers. The St Veronica Master in provincial courts of the French princes as the most important
Cologne, Conrad von Soest in Westphalia (fl. 0390—C1425) centers of patronage mirrors the political fragmentation of the
and Meister Francke in Hamburg are all representative of this country. As the later Valois dukes of Burgundy spent most of
tendency. their time in the Netherlands, Dijon declined as an art center,
By 14;!, however, Lukas Moser's Tiefenbronn Altarpiece although the school of sculptors Sluter had established con-
Tiefenbronn parish church) indicates that the influence of the tinued into the 1480s. Like the artists of Germany, those of
first generation of early Netherlandish painting had spread as France accepted the Flemish manner, although they favored
far as Baden. Paintings by the Swiss master Konrad Witz the style of Jan van Eyck rather than that of Rogier van der
c 1400—C45) which can only be slightly later in date reveal a Weyden. In the south, the territories of the cosmopolitan
similar orientation, although their dramatic lighting is an in- Rene, Duke number of major artists. The
of Anjou, attracted a
dependent development. Similarly, although it is clear that early Netherlandish style was introduced into the south as
Hans Multscher of Ulm (c 1400—67) had some knowledge of early as 1442 by the enigmatic Master of Aix and continued
Flemish art, the often brutal expressiveness of his paintings by Nicolas Froment until 0486. As a court artist to the Duke,
and sculpture is entirely personal. In Cologne Stephan l.och- the so-called Rene Master seems to have accompanied his
ner [fl. [439—51) absorbed many of the lessons of Jan van patron to Italy. His exquisite Le Livre du Coeur d'Amour
 THE NORTHERN RENAISSANCE 671

Netherlandish formal vocabulary, they creatively modified the

Flemish style to express a peculiarly Iberian intensity, allevi-
ated by rich decorative effects.
The Castilian Pedro Berruguete
(1450-1504), who had worked at Urbino, marked the begin-
ning of the introduction of Italian Renaissance ideas into
Spanish art. Even so, the majority of Spanish artists retained
their allegiance to early Netherlandish painting until long
after the beginning of the following century.

The reorientation in the visual arts C1500. At the end of the

1 5th century the artistic prospect of Europe was one of intense
variety. It is nevertheless possible to discern two underlying
trends; on the one hand, a tendency towards increasing formal
and iconographic complexity and, on the other, a search for a
more monumental simplicity of form. A comparison between
the art of Hieronymus Bosch (C1450— 1516) and that of
4 Gerard David (C1460-1523) provides a vivid example of this
dichotomy. Some artists, including the German sculptor
Tilman Riemenschneider (C1460-1531), worked in a style
that combines aspects of both outlooks. In the course of the
following three decades a sudden and dramatic upsurge of
interest in Italian art swept away many of the artistic forms
that had dominated Northern art for most of the 15th cen-
tury. The reasons behind this phenomenon have yet to be
satisfactorily explained. Whilst it is true that the intervention
of France and the Empire in Italian political affairs brought
the aristocracy of both states into increased contact with the
The Virgin and Child receiving Homage, a miniature from the Hours of culture of the Italian Renaissance, the precise significance of
F.tienne Chevalier by Jean Fouquet; 15X 12cm (6 x5m); C1450.
thisdevelopment for Northern artists is far from clear. As we
Musee Conde, Chantilly
have already seen, a number of Northern painters visited Italy
during the 15th century and were content to appropriate cer-
Epris (Nationalbibliothek, Vienna) reveals an emphasis upon tain elements of Italian art while retaining an overall affilia-

narrative which recalls Giotto and a skill in the handling of tion to their native style. Their successors had a much more
light which is entirely Northern in derivation. Jean Fouquet of thoroughgoing interest in the classicizing art of the South,
Tours (C1420— c8o) was the most important figure in the re- which parallels the growth of humanist studies in Northern
surgence of French royal patronage which took place in the literary circles during the same period. Whilst earlier bor-
second half of the century. Although his style was molded out rowings had been occasional and haphazard, those of the 1 6th
of the twin elements of late Parisian International Gothic and century were part of a general infiltration of Italian ideas into
early Netherlandish painting, he was also the first French Northern culture.
painter to employ Italian Renaissance motifs. His fascinating The first Northerner to penetrate the theoretical basis of
hybrid style was already formed by 1450, presaging much Italian Renaissance art was Albrecht Diirer (1471-1528).
later developments in Northern art. Jean Bourdichon (C1457— During visits to Venice in 1494—5 and again in 1505-7, he
1 52 1
continued Fouquet's Italianate manner well into the
J read Vitruvius, Euclid, and probably Alberti. He was also in
1 6th century, by which time it had been absorbed by the direct contact with Italian artists, from whom he learned
general rise of interest in Italian art. about perspectival and proportional theory. His lifelong
Spain at the beginning of the 15th century was still very friend, the humanist scholar Willibald Pirckheimer, assisted
much under the influence of Trecento Sienese art and the his literary and philosophical endeavors, culminating in the

International Gothic was a recent arrival. Luis Dalmau (fl. artist's publication of three treatises on art and architecture.
1428-61), who had been trained in the Netherlands, intro- Diirer's decision to write these books was indicative both of
duced an extremely Fyckian style to Barcelona in 1443. In the his dissatisfaction with the empirical nature of Northern style

following two decades, a sub-Netherlandish style was estab- and of his desire to establish a system of principles that would
lished throughout the Peninsula with stunning rapidity. Its foster the development of a "True Art" which concentrated

two greatest exponents were the Spaniard Bartolome Bermejo upon permanent values. As the innovatory iconography of his
[ft.1474-95) and the Portuguese Nuno Gonqalves {fl. 1450- engraving Melencolia I (15 14) indicates, Diirer did not merely
71). Although working within what was basically an early copy the ideas of other men, be they Italian theorists whose
6?1 THE NORTHERN RENAISSANCE

from prosaic, Altdorfer's landscapes are lush and mysterious

and sometimes possessed of a startling breadth of vision, such
as may be seen in his Battle of Alexander (1529; Alte
Pinakothek, Munich). The early works of Altdorfer's contem-
porary, Lucas Cranach, reveal an analogous interest in land-
scape and a similar vibrance of color. However, as he grew
older, the latter's palette simplified and he concentrated in-
creasingly upon portraiture and the nude. His mythological
compositions are peopled with pale, languid goddesses and
nymphs which established an extremely popular and purely
Northern aesthetic for the portrayal of the nude. The eroti-
cism of Cranach's work finds an echo in depictions of the

human body by Hans Baldung Grien (1484/5-1545), al-

though the moralizing subject matter of Baldung's work de-
rives from the late medieval religious tradition, rather than

that of Classical Antiquity. Hans Burgkmair

Like Diirer,
(1473-1531) discovered Italian art "first hand" on a visit to
Venice. An accomplished painter, he was more significant as a
graphic artist, particularly as a pioneer of the multicolored
"Chiaroscuro" woodcut. Another visitor to Italy, Peter Vischer
the Younger (1487—1528), introduced Italian Renaissance
elements into German sculpture. In his family workshop,
these were combined with traditional motifs to create a splen-
did hybrid of which the greatest example is the bronze St
style,

Sebaldus Shrine (1507—19) in Nuremberg (church of St

Sebald). A more thoroughgoing classicism is apparent in the
small-scale carvings of Conrad Meit (C1480— C1550) or the
bronze Apollo Fountain (1532; Germanisches National-
museum, Nuremberg) of Peter Flotner (1490/5— 1546).
In the Netherlands in the closing years of the 15th century,

Melencolia I, engraving by Albrecht Diirer; 24X 17cm (9x7m); 1514 Gerard David had formulated a monumental style by reviving
the manner of Jan van Eyck. The younger artists Quentin
books he had read or the Northern Humanists within whose Massys (1465/6— 1530) and Jan Gossaert (C1478-1532) fol-
he was accepted. Like Leonardo da Vinci, he was an
circle lowed him in imitating the founding generation of early
artist with an immensely fertile imagination and an intellec- Netherlandish painting. However, in the first decade of the
tual with a profound artistic philosophy of his own. Nor was 1 6th century, the styles of both men were radically altered by
his genius confined primarily to theory. Over 400 woodcuts Athough Albrecht Diirer's prints
the influence of Italian art.
and engravings demonstrate graphic arts, which
his skill in the would have been circulating in the Netherlands by this date
he elevated to the status of artistic media of the first import- and the hospitality with which he was received on his visit to
ance. Through these prints his ideas were broadcast through- the Low Countries in 15 20-1 indicates the esteem with which
out Europe with profound consequences. More than any he was regarded by the Flemings, the growth of an Italianate
other individual, he can be said to have molded the form of style seems to have been an independent development in these

Northern European art for the first third of the 16th century. territories. In 1506 Michelangelo's marble Madonna and
After Diirer, the most outstanding painter in a generation of Child arrived at Bruges (in the church of Notre-Dame). Two
German artists of remarkable merit was Matthias Griinewald years later, the Venetian artist Jacopo de' Barbari reached the
(1470/80-C1530). As his masterwork, the Isenheim Altarpiece Netherlands, after a long journey through Germany which
1si 5; Musee d'Unterlinden, Colmar) shows, he stood out had already brought him into contact with Diirer and
against the Italianate style which was spreading through the Cranach. Although Massys is not known to have visited Italy,
North. Even so, the monumentality of his mighty figures com- his Poznan Madonna and Child with the Lamb (C1513; Na-

pares favorably with Diirer's own work and far surpasses that tional Museum) reveals an early familiarity with the work of
of lesser artists. This sense of scale was combined with a pent- Leonardo da Vinci which may have been gained from a study
up dynamism and a brilliant sense of color to produce a style of prints or drawings after the great Florentine's work. In
of awesome grandeur. Albrecht Altdorfer (ci 480-1 5 38) was 1508-9 Gossaert was actually in Rome, as a member of a
his equal as a colonst, although primarily concerned with diplomatic mission. While there, he enthusiastically copied
landscape, which he established as an independent genre. Far antique remains and after his return home adhered to a dis-
 1

The Crucifixion panel of the Isenheim Aharpiece by Matthias Griinewald; 27oftx 300cm (io6x 1 i8in); 15 15. Musee d'Unterlinden, Colmar

tinctively classicizing style. Massys' attachment to Italian art be summarized as decorative abundance, incorporating ex-
was only and Gossaert's somewhat indiscriminate. The
partial treme elegance of form. Its greatest surviving monument is the
only Netherlandish artist able to approach the immense riches Galerie Francois Ier (ci 533—40), a decorative scheme at Fon-
of the Italian Renaissance with comparative equanimity was tainebleau created by Rosso and Primaticcio in collaboration.
Lucas van Leyden ( 1494— 533). A brilliant engraver and only Important French adherents of this new court style include the
slightly less skillful as a painter, Lucas was able to assimilate architect Philibert Delorme (ci 5 10-70), the sculptors Jean
both Diirer's prints and Marcantonio Raimondi's engravings (
Goujon (0510—c6S) and Germain Pilon (c 15 25/30—90), and
after ItalianHigh Renaissance art without losing a highly indi- the portraitist Francois Clouet (C1510--2
vidual artistic identity of his own. By comparison, the exces-
sively Italianate compositions of such major figures as Ber- Conclusion: Northern European art mid 16th century.
in the

naert van Orley (1491/2-1 542), Joos van Cleve (C1490-1540/ By the middle of the 16th century most Northern artists had
1), and Jan van Scorel (1495-1562) seem labored and deriva- been directed into the fold of a "Mannerist" style, heavily
tive dependent upon Italian sources. The nature and origins of this
Under the patronage of Francis I, a host of Italian artists manner are complex as, indeed, are those of Italian Manner-
were invited to France. Their names read like a roll call of the ism (see Mannerism). In the North, however, there was no
alumni of early-i6th-century Italian art: Leonardo da Vinci, "moment" of poise and equilibrium between the distinct but
Andrea del Sarto, Rosso Fiorentino, Primaticcio, Cellini, Vig- equally experimental styles of the 15th and 16th centuries,
nola, and Serlio. Under their aegis early Italian Mannerism such as occurred during the period of the High Renaissance in

was introduced directly to France, where it gave rise to the so- With the exception of one or two figures, notably Diirer
Italy.

called School of Fontainebleau. The aims of this school may and Lucas van Leyden, the Northern art world was precipi-
674 THE NORTHERN HI N MSSANCE

tated directly —from a native tradition derived ultimately a final statement of the old tradition and, in others, the begin-
from early Netherlandish art —into the mainstream of a flam- ning of the new realism which ultimately flourished in 17th-
boyant Mannerist style. It has been argued that this phenom- century Dutch painting. Early experience as a Bosch copyist
enon reveals a recrudescence of late Gothic characteristics left Bruegel with a sense of fantasy which never left him.
under the guise of an outwardly new Itahanate style. How- However, his gentle irony channeled the catastrophic pessi-
ever, it is interesting to note that some more traditional artists mism of the older painter into a more humane direction, as
such as David and Griinewald, who eschewed Italian motifs, may readily be illustrated by a comparison of the Hell shutter
created a more monumental art than others, such as Cranach of Bosch'sGarden of Earthly Delights (ci 505-10; Prado,
and Gossaert, who accepted the new forms. Only the School Madrid) with Bruegel's Dulle Griet (1562; Museum Mayer
of Fontainebleau was actually created by transplanted Italian van der Bergh, Antwerp). Although Bruegel traveled in Italy,

artists. The Mannerist style of Germany and the Netherlands Alpine scenery moved him much more profoundly than
was, by comparison, a native formulation, partially inspired antique remains. Classicizing elements are rare in his work,
by Italian models. We
would not mistake even the work of whereas he repeatedly drew upon his memories of the South-
Marten van Heemskerck (1498-1574) or Frans Floris ern mountains in a series of breathtaking landscape views.
(0518— 70) for Italian paintings. When, near the end of the These paintings were unprecedented in their clarity of obser-
century, Bartholomaeus Spranger (1 546-161 1) approached vation, which extended to the painstakingly accurate depic-
very close to contemporary Italian Mannerism, the era of the memorable is the unfail-
tion of the effects of weather. Equally
Baroque was about to begin. ing realism of his rustic compositions, such as the Peasant
Owing to its fundamentally representational nature, North- Wedding (1566-7; Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna). It is
ern portraiture was less affected by Italian ideas than other only necessary to examine the artist's last picture, the Magpie
artistic genres. Even as committed a Mannerist as Frans Floris on the Gallows (1568; Hessisches Landesmuseum, Darm-
could produce so strikingly realistic a painting as his Portrait how Bruegel's analytical vision embraced
stadt) to appreciate

of an Old Woman (1558; Musee des Beaux-Arts, Caen). The the whole range of human experience, from the miniscule to
greatest portraitist of the century was Hans Holbein the the enormous. Over a century earlier, Jan van Eyck's Madon-
Younger (1497/8—1543). Although the presence of Italianate na with Chancellor Rolin (C1433; Louvre, Paris) reveals a
motifs in certain of his religious paintings recalls Holbein's similar simultaneous concentration upon the microcosm and
visit to Italy, his portraits grow directly out of the 15th-cen- the macrocosm. This outlook, more than anything else, is the
tury tradition, which he refined to an unsurpassed accuracy unifying thread in the history of Northern Renaissance art.

of characterization. In the Netherlands, Pieter Aertsen (1508- MARK EVANS

75) and Joachim Beuckelaer (0533-74) continued the
5th-century taste for concealed religious or moralizing
1
Bibliography. Baxandall, M. The Limewood Sculptors of Renais-
iconography with pictures that appear on first examination to sance Germany, London and New Haven ^980). Benesch, O. The
be still lifes or domestic scenes. These paintings, within which Art of the Renaissance in Northern Europe: its Relationship to the
the main theme is so artfully hidden as to be almost unrecog- Contemporary Spiritual and Movements, London (1965).
Intellectual

nizable, illustrate a delight in caprice which is Mannerist in Cuttler, CD. Northern Painting from Pucelle to Bruegel, New York

derivation. However, the ancestry of such scenes stretches U968). Miiller, T. Sculpture in the Netherlands, Germany, France,
and Spain: 1400— 1500, Harmondsworth (1966). Panofsky, E. Early
back to the bourgeois interiors of early Netherlandish paint-
Netherlandish painting: its Origin and Character (1 vols.), Cam-
ing and they themselves served as an influential source for the
bridge, Mass. (1953). Panofsky, E. The Life and Art of Albrecht
more truly secular style of the following century. Durer, Princeton (1955). Von der Osten, G. and Vey, H. Painting and
The art of Pieter Bruegel the Elder (0525-69) is a fitting Sculpture in Germany and the Netherlands: 1500-1600, Harmonds-
point at which to conclude this survey, as it is in many respects worth (1969).
 36

MANNERISM

The Saltcellar made by Benvenuto Cellini for Francis I of France; gold and enamel on an ebony base
height 26cm (ioin); 1540-3. Kunsthistoriches Museum, Vienna (see page 678)
676 MANNERISM

The term "Mannerism" is

refer to the artistic style prevailing in Italy

normally understood to
and north-
figures
prototypes
appear as specific quotations

— notably the reclining Lawrence him-

from these authoritative
figure of St
ern Europe for the greater part of the 16th century. Its self, who is closely adapted from Michelangelo's Adam. The

beginnings coincide approximately with the death of Raphael artist also shares the preoccupation of his High Renaissance

in 1520, and the disintegration of the High Renaissance; it predecessors with Classical Antiquity, and there is an almost
was in turn superseded by the early Baroque from C1590 on- archaeological attention to the details of Roman costume and
wards. The term is derived from the Italian word maniera, architecture. Yet despite these learned references, the painting
originally meaning quite simply "style"; it first became cur- has an unnatural, over-contrived character, completely
rent in art-historical usage in the early years of this century. foreign to the High Renaissance. The pose of St Lawrence, so
The main characteristics of the Mannerist style remain hard expressive when used by Michelangelo, has become merely
to define, since, even after more than half a century of critical ornamental and graceful, quite out of keeping with both the
discussion, the term remains highly controversial and no gen- brutality of the subject, and its religious significance. Equally
eral agreement has been reached as to which artists and which incongruous are the theatrical attitudes of the executioners
works of art of the late Renaissance period may legitimately and bystanders, whose improbable contortions and exagger-
be categorized as Mannerist. In its broadest application, the ated muscularity are emphasized by their gratuitous nudity.
term is used to embrace all the arts, and would include figures The composition is excessively crowded, and since the classi-
(1475-1564), Bruegel (C1525— 69),
as diverse as Michelangelo cizing architecture is not used to evoke any coherent sense of
and Shakespeare (1564-1616). In its narrower sense, it is re- pictorial space, the effect resembles that of relief sculpture,
stricted to a particular trend in the figurative arts of central with the limbs of the figures forming a complicated pattern of
Italy around the middle of the 16th century, in which case its shapes on the picture surface. This effect is quite different
most typical exponents would be painters and sculptors such from that of a classic work of the High Renaissance, such as
as Bronzino (1503— 72), Salviati (1510—63), Vasari (1511— Raphael's School of Athens (Stanza della Segnatura, Vatican,
73), and Benvenuto Cellini (1500-71). Between these two ex- Rome), with its easy spaciousness and compositional lucidity.
tremes, an enormous variety of interpretations has been put In Raphael, the formal grandeur and high idealization retain
forward, and, in face of the resulting confusion, some con- sufficient contact with nature still to appear completely plaus-
temporary art historians have abandoned the concept of ible; in Bronzino, the contact with nature has been severed,
Mannerism altogether, choosing to see the whole period as an gestures and expressions have become unashamedly artificial,

uninterrupted continuation of the High Renaissance. This, and verisimilitude is sacrificed to self-conscious effects of ele-
however, has not solved the problem either. The styles prac- gance, virtuosity, and learned allusion.
ticed by the leading artists around the middle of the 1 6th There are striking analogues to the style of Bronzino's St
century are conspicuously different from those of Leonardo Lawrence in the work of most central Italian and Emilian
(1452-1519), Raphael (1483-1520), and the young artists active in the middle decades of the century. Painters
Michelangelo; furthermore, several impressive cases have such as Giulio Romano (C1499— 1546), Perino del Vaga
been made to demonstrate the essential unity of the Mannerist (1501—47), Parmigianino (1503-40), Salviati, Vasari,
style, for all its many apparent contradictions. Jacopino Conte (1510—98), Daniele da Volterra (1509-
del
Particularly homogeneous is the group active at the Floren- 66), and Pellegrino Tibaldi (1527-96) show a comparable
tine court in the mid-century, consisting of Bronzino, Salviati dependence on the art of the High Renaissance, while at the
and the others; the term Mannerist is all the more appropriate same time subtly distorting it to create a more complex and
to them, since the quality of maniera ("style", also used in the artificial kind of beauty. In Parmigianino's Madonna of the
sense of "stylishness") was one they deliberately cultivated. Rose (Gemaldegalerie Alte Meister, Dresden), limbs and
Although it remains a matter of controversy how far these draperies have become aestheticized to form an abstract cur-
consciously stylish artists are to be seen as central or periph- vilinear pattern of the utmost grace; the figures are imbued
eral to the Mannerist style as a whole —and also how far their with an unnatural elegance and sensuality that contrast dis-
art reflects the broader political, religious, and artistic prob- turbingly with the sacred subject. Much the same approach
lems of the age —the majority of contemporary art historians can be found in contemporary sculpture in the works of Cel-
would probably agree about the legitimacy of applying the Niccolo Tribolo (1500-50), Pierino da Vinci (ci 530— 53),-
lini,

term Mannerist to them. A characteristic work of Bronzino Bartolommeo Ammanati (151 1—92), and Vincenzo Danti
may therefore be chosen to illustrate some of the more striking (1530—76), as well as much work by Giambologna (0524-
features of the Mannerist style in painting. 1608). Like Bronzino, Danti represents The Beheading of
Bronzino's The Martyrdom of St Lawrence (in the church St John the Baptist (the Baptistery, Florence) in a spirit of
ot S. Lorenzo, Florence), painted in the late 1560s, is clearly dispassionate ritual, with an elegantly Parmigianinesque
indebted to the achievements of High Renaissance Rome, in Salome raising her hand in an attitude of fastidious distaste.

particular to Raphael's multi-figured narrative compositions

in the Vatican Stanze, and to the displays of heroic nudity in The Martyrdom of St Lawrence, by Bronzino; fresco; 1565—9.
Michelangelo's Sistine Chapel Ceiling. Indeed, several of the S. Lorenzo, Florence
 i

m>

^^^ama^A
11
The Madonna of the Rose b\ Parmigianino: panel: cs s-cm i The Beheading of St John the Baptist b> Yincenzo Danti: bronze:
;4in : ci^iS-^o. Gemaldegalene Alte Meister. Dresden heights of statues 243cm. -ccm, i-ccm 96m. 6~in, io6in
1
: i>-i.
The Baptister\ Florence
,

In a similar spirit. Benvenuto Cellini's exquisite Saltcellar baroque classicism of Annibale Carracci 1560— 1609) as a

1540—3; kunsthistonsche* Museum, Vienna made tor revival of the true spirit of Raphael, in reaction against the
Francis I of France, adapts the powerful and tragic figure debased Raphaelitism and Michelangelism of the intervening
of Michelangelo's Daun S. Lorenzo. Florence) for use as an period, Bellori gave Yasan's term maniera a pejorative twist,
ornamental figurine reclining on a miniature triumphal arch. calling it "a capricious conceit founded on routine rather than
These and comparable works would have been seen by on the imitation of reality". For Bellori. Bronzino and his
iri as perfect embodiments of maniera. for him one of the generation were not so much stylish as stylized; having lost all
principal artistic virtues attained by the 16th century. As vital contact with nature, their adoption of the grand manner

defined in the preface to the third part of the Ytte Lives of the was merely mannered. This disparaging attitude towards the
Artists . maniera \us the means by which pure beauty could an of the middle and late 16th century was to persist for most
be achieved. Instead of pedantically imitating raw and imper- of the 1 8th and 19th centuries, with the term maniera and its
fect nature as the artists of the 1 5 th century had done, those of cognates used to refer to what was regarded as its disagreeable
his own age. guided by an innate sense of style, imitated only and degenerate affectation. It was not until the second decade
the most beautiful models, and selected, where nece->>ary. only of the 2,0th centuiy that the rehabilitation of Mannerist an
the most beautiful aspects even of these. In this way. the an of began. This was panly as a result of a more systematic
Bronzino and his contemporaries, taking the refining pn periodization of the history of Renaissance an, following the
of the early 16th century a stage further, would have rep- studies of H. Wolfflin and others, and panly following a shift
ted a logical extension of the style of the High Renais- in taste towards nonclassical and postclassical anistic styles.

sance. For Yasan. Leonardo. Michelangelo, and Raphael were The two most influential contributions to the new positive
also, in fact, artists supremely endowed with maniera. A simi- evaluation of Mannerism as an anistic concept were shon
lar attitude is adopted by Danti in his incomplete treatise essays by Max Dvorak (1920) and by Walter Friedlander
Delle Perfette Proporztom "On Perfect Proportions'": 1
5 1925 both of which had originated as lectures; at about the
,

which throughout invokes the example of Michelangelo as the same time, Hermann Voss provided the first full-length study
ultimate authority on all artistic matters. of the painting of the period as a whole 1920).
The first historiographical distinction between the genera- Under the influence of the contemporary aesthetic of
tion of the High Renaissance and that of Bronzino and Vasari German Expressionism, Dvorak interpreted Mannerism as a
made by the classicizing theorist Bellon in his Ytte de' quest for the spiritual in an. in reaction to what he saw as the
Pittori "Lives of the Painters : i6jz . Interpreting the early rationalism and materialism of the Renaissance. Concentrat-
 MANMKISM 679

ing his attention on the intensely religious works of El Greco lessly to overcome them. He emphatically denies the style any
(1541-1614), Tintoretto (1518-94) and the late sense of crises or spiritual disquiet, insisting that its cultivation
Michelangelo, he drew attention to the distortions of the of elegance, nonchalance, and artificiality at the expense of
naturalistic representation of figures and space in the interest energy, emotional expressiveness, and naturalistic plausibility
of a greater emotional and spiritual expressiveness. Friedlan- was the outcome of conscious aesthetic choice.
der, too,was concerned with a supposedly anticlassical reac- Shearman's book has achieved wide currency, but his
High Renaissance, and with the later works of
tion against the polemically presented interpretation has by no means won
Michelangelo, rather than his more harmonious early works. unanimous critical acceptance. For many scholars, his almost
Unlike Dvorak, however, he concentrated on the beginnings exclusive identification of Mannerism with the mid-century
of the period in Florence, and the emotionally highly charged maniera and its influence is too restrictive, and they are un-
paintings of the young Pontormo (1494— 1557) and Rosso willing to accept that the early works of Pontormo and Rosso,
Fiorentino (1494— 1540), with their intensely subjective re- for instance, or Tintoretto, or El Greco, are peripheral to
shapings of external reality. Friedlander's method was based Mannerism as a whole. An even more serious objection to
on a searching visual analysis in the tradition of Wolfflin; he Shearman's thesis is that his reading of Vasari is too literal: by
avoided Dvorak's attempt to explain the Mannerist style in accepting the professed aims of the maniera artists at face
terms of Geistesgescbichte, with its references to the religious value, he refuses to perceive their inner uncertainties. For all

and social upheavals of the age. Although the artistic currents Vasari's assertions that the art of his own age was proceeding
discussed by Dvorak and Friedlander are now no longer nor- from strength to strength, there is an uneasy sense in his writ-

mally seen as typical of Mannerism as a whole, their essays ings that perhaps his own generation did not, after all, com-
have provided important stimuli for further research. pare favorably with the preceding one; after the great climax
Dvorak's approach was developed most notably by at the beginning of the century, a decline in art was to be

Nikolaus Pevsner, who, an essay of 1925, closely identified

in feared. Vasari's observation that the painters of his own age
Mannerism with the spirit of the Counter-Reformation. A surpassed even those of the High Renaissance, insofar that
sociological method was also the one adopted in the full- their technical dexterity enabled them to work at far greater

length study of the style by Arnold Hauser (1965). Hauser's speed, carries little inner conviction, especially when it is set

premise is that the 16th century was an age of crisis in a whole against the apologetic references in his own Life to the defects

range of human experience — religion, politics, social institu- of his notoriously hastily executed decorations in the Palazzo
tions, science —and he sees Mannerism as the artistic reflec- della Cancelleria in Rome. The exaggeratedly convoluted
tion of this crisis not just in the visual arts, but in literature as figures in these frescoes, as in Bronzino's Martyrdom of St
well. So broad a conception of the style involves the inclusion Lawrence, may indeed be related to the artist's pursuit of a

of artists far removed from the Vasarian maniera, such as particular aesthetic ideal; but, at the same time, the very
Pieter Bruegel the Elder, who, despite his apparent naturalism, gratuitousness of the formal complexity, and the hollowness
is for Hauser a Mannerist by virtue of his expressive styliza- of the rhetoric, betray an underlying restlessness and uncer-
tion and the essential subjectivity of his vision. The fullest As Henri Zerner (1972) has pointed out,
tainty of direction.

developments of Friedlander's more visual, less intellectually Shearman's deliberate underplaying of the more disquieting
abstract approach to Mannerism is to be found in the writings aspects of the style can involve a serious misunderstanding of
of S. J. Freedberg, who has subjected the various phases of many Mannerist works of art.

Mannerist painting to a minutely detailed formal analysis. The tensions and uncertainties that, since Dvorak and
Probably the most authoritative discussions of the concept Friedlander, have frequently been seen as the most striking

of Mannerism to be published in recent years are two short characteristics ofMannerism, have been subjected to varying
books based on papers given at the International Congress in interpretations. One explanation is that the crisis was a purely

the History of Art in New York in 1961, by Craig Hugh professional one, and that the artists of the postclassical

Smyth (1962) and by John Shearman (1967). Both authors
concentrate their attention on the artists of the maniera, and
the formal origins of the style in High Renaissance Rome;
both are intent on stressing the positive aspects of a trend that
generation felt dwarfed by the colossal achievements of
Leonardo, Raphael, and especially Michelangelo. This is the
standpoint taken by Kenneth Clark in his lecture Mannerism:
A Nerve (1967). Like Friedlander, Clark concen-
Failure of

even the early-ioth-century rehabilitators of Mannerism had trates on the early works of Pontormo, Rosso, Giulio

regarded as hollow and imitative. Smyth sees Vasari and his —

Romano, and Beccafumi works excluded, on the whole,
generation as genuinely creative, extending the possibilities of —
from Shearman's definition and finds their tendencies to-
the High Renaissance by developing new formal conven-
style wards melancholy, eccentricity, and violence symptomatic of
tions and methods of picture construction based on Antique a crumbling of the self-confidence of earlier Renaissance art.

reliefs.Shearman similarly sets out to evaluate the artists ot Another explanation of the disturbed character of Manner-
the maniera on the basis of their own professed ideals; he ism relates it to the religious interest of the period, to the

characterizes Mannerism as a pursuit of sophisticated beauty, atmosphere of crisis generated by the Reformation, and to the

which deliberately introduces complexities in order effort- movement of Catholic reaction culminating in the Counter-
68o MANNERISM

Reformation. The most eloquent spokesman for this point of once made. Yet, as Freedberg makes clear, the Counter-
view Nikolaus Pevsner, whose 1925 essay interprets the
is maniera represents not so much an absolute contrast to the
complexity and confusion of so much of Mannerist art as a —
maniera in the way the Baroque was to be as a parallel —
reflection of the defeat of the anthropocentric ideal of Renais- tendency within the Mannerist style as a whole. The two cur-
sance humanism by the reactionary forces of militant religion. rents remain closely related in their basic vocabulary of form,
For Pevsner, the subordination of the individual figure to and the same artist might even alternate between them ac-
anonymous crowds in the works of Bronzino, Salviati and cording to whether his commission was sacred or profane.
Vasari, and also in Tintoretto, is paralleled by a similar Furthermore, many of the formal characteristics of the mani-
suppression of the significance of the individual in the new era were adopted by much greater artists, such as the aged
religious orders, and in the many religious processions and Michelangelo, Tintoretto, and El Greco, who although fre-
solemnities of the period. Even the veiled eroticism of painters quently transgressing the letter of the Tridentine decrees, were
like Bronzino and Parmigianino may be seen in terms of a unquestionably influenced by the intensely religious mood of
heightened religious sense, since nudity is portrayed with a the period.
more troubled conscience than before. Provided, then, that we do not follow Shearman in ident-

A cogent objection to Pevsner's approach, first put forward ifying Mannerism with the style and attitudes of the maniera,
by W. Weisbach in "Gegenreformation — Manierismus many of Pevsner's observations on the relationship between
Barock" (Repertorium fur Kunstivissenschaft vol. XLIV; Mannerism in the broader sense and the Counter-Reforma-
1928), is that, except in this inverted and indirect sense, rather tion movement hold good. In his introduction to the English
tew purely Mannerist artists — least of all those of the mid- edition of his paper (1968), Pevsner acknowledges the bril-
century maniera —show any deep preoccupation with liance of Shearman's interpretation, but continues to insist on
religion. The principal representatives of official Counter- the deeply spiritual character of certain aspects of Mannerism
Reformation views on art were, indeed, quite severe in their ignored by Shearman.
criticism of contemporary practice as disobedient to the direc- Another explanation of Mannerism in terms of Geistesge-
tives issued at the Council of Trent in 1563. Gilio da Fab- schichte relates it and economic conditions of
to the political
riano's Dialoghi . . . degli Errort de' Pittort ("Dialogues ... on 16th-century Italy. crisis, and F.
These, too, were in a state of
the Errors of Painters"; 1564), for instance, deplored the ten- Antal (1948) has drawn attention to the parallel between the
dency of painters to treat the sufferings of Christ and his decline of the wealthy bourgeoisie, with its rational and
martyrs as mere exercises in virtuosity, instead of representing humanistic attitudes, and the development of an anti-natural,
them in all their painful truth; by choosing the theme of St agitated and, at the same time, highly aristocratic style of art.
Lawrence on the gridiron as one of his examples, he implicitly- The same theme is Hauser as part of his
also sketched by A.
condemned Bronzino's Martyrdom of St Lawrence even sociologically oriented survey of the historical background of
before it was painted. In a similar spirit, Raffaele Borghini's Mannerism. This approach has found little critical favor as an
Riposo (1584), expressed the wish that Salviati in his De- explanation of the origins of the style —the decisive steps that
position (Museo dell'Opera di Santa Groce, Florence) had transformed the High Renaissance into Mannerism seem to
shown body of Christ marked with the wounds of the
the have had little to do with political or economic factors but it —
Passion. The Tndentine ideals of simplicity, clarity, and doc- does usefully illuminate the social setting in which Mannerism
trinal accuracy were completely opposed to the ingenious was to flourish.
complexity and artificial beauty cultivated by the mamera, The restoration of the Medici in Florence in 1531, and the
and Mannerist displays of nudity came under sharp attack for establishment of a grand-ducal court by Cosimo I, provided
offending against decency and religious decorum. the ideal surroundings for the development of an art that
In recent years, another style, first clearly identified by was precious in form and abstruse in content. Cosimo was a

Fedenco Zen (.195-") and conveniently labelled "Counter- munificent patron: it was he who commissioned not only
maniera" by Freedberg, has come to be seen as more represen- Bronzino's Martyrdom of St Lawrence, with its learned visual
tative of Tndentine attitudes. Typical of this are the severely references to previous works of art, but also the intellectually
chastened styles of such painters as Girolamo Siciolante complicated Allegory of Venus, Cupid, Folly, and Time
(1 511-C1580) and Marcello Venusti (1515-79), and, in a (c 1 542-5; National Gallery, London). He was also well

later phase, Santi di Tito 1536— 1603), Girolamo Muziano aware of the value of art as political propaganda, and the
IS2.8—92), Giuseppe Valeriano (1530— 1606), and Scipione primary purpose of much of the extensive decorations by Sal-
Pulzone 'fl. 1550-80), all of which deliberately avoid the ex- viati and Vasari in the newly refurbished Palazzo Vecchio was

cesses of mamera in the interest of a clearer demonstration of to legitimize and glorify his authoritarian regime. It was prin-
piety. Even artists of the "high" mamera were influenced by cipally through the international connections of the Medici
this current: Bronzino, Jacopino del Conte, and Daniele da court that Mannerism spread to nonhern Europe, to the
Voltera all modified their styles in their later careers, and the courts of Francis I, at Fontainebleau, Rudolf II in Prague, and

sculptor Ammanati went so far as to renounce his art al- Albrecht V Munich. There, even more than in Italy, the
in

together, in penitence, he said, for the many nudes he had style was endowed with a strongly aristocratic and intellectual
 MANNERISM 681

flavor, in conformity with the refined tastes of these princely the architecture of the Mannerist period does show analogies
connoisseurs. with the figurative arts, particularly because so much of it was
However much historians are in disagreement about the designed by artists who were painters or sculptors by training,
character and origins of Mannerism, most would probably such as Giulio Romano, Vasari, Ammanati, and Vignola.
not now dispute it was essentially an Italian phenomenon, Giulio's own house in Mantua, probably built in the mid
and, as applied to non-Italian art, it is used most appropriately 1 540s, may conveniently be taken as an example of Mannerist
to refer to a style created under the direct influence of Italy. architecture. Like Bronzino in his Martyrdom of St Lawrence,
The growing interest shown by northern European patrons in the artist takes as his starting point a classic work of the High
the achievements of the Italian Renaissance from about the Renaissance, in this case Bramante's Palazzo Caprini (House
beginning of the 16th century onwards resulted in a con- of Raphael) in Rome, destroyed in the 17th century. As in the
siderable export of Italian works of art, which, if only for prototype, a series of regularly spaced pedimented windows
chronological reasons, tended increasingly to be Mannerist in on the piano nobile is set on a rusticated base below an impos-
style. Several important Mannerist artists, notably Rosso, ing entablature. But instead of the order and clarity of
Primaticcio, and Cellini, were attracted to the French court at Bramante's composition, deliberate complications are intro-
Fontainebleau; there they created a whole school of French duced which are often in defiance of the rules of Classical

painters practicing a highly refined, somewhat precious ver- architecture. What appears at first to be a pediment over the
sion of Mannerism. Since it was becoming
also increasingly main entrance portal, becomes on closer inspection merely a
fashionable for northern artists to complete their training in kink in the horizontal stringcourse dividing the two stories.

Italy, numbers of Netherlandish painters acquired a

large Any attempt smooth bands running between the
to read the
Mannerist sophistication and polish in Rome before taking keystones on the ground floor as a continuation of the door
the style back home with them. lintel is frustrated by the flatness of the wall, which prevents

Mannerism was all the more readily appreciated in the the keystones from being unambiguously read as projecting in
north for having certain characteristics in common with the front of the bands. The pediments on the main floor windows
still largely prevalent late Gothic. Its formal complexity, for have no proper bases, and continuous strips of ornament also
instance, or its tendency towards elongation, could be much replace the flanking members. The surmounting entablature is
more easily assimilated into local traditions than the clear and similarly unsupported by architectural members, and rests di-
harmonious classicism of the High Renaissance. The hybrid rectly on the keystones of the arches. And the window frames,

character of so much of Netherlandish art in the first half of instead of projecting from the wall plane, are recessed into it.
the 1 6th century has, however, caused considerable ter- All these liberties are taken with full consciousness of their

minological confusion in the andpast. Certain painters implications, as any spectator versed in the classical language
schools active well before 1510 have been dubbed "Manner- of architecture would have instantly recognized; they may be
ist" more on account of supposed analogies with Italian Man- seen as exemplifying the kind of sophisticated artistic licence
nerism than because they were directly influenced by it. The explicitly advocated by Vasari in his preface to Part III of the

works of Jacob Cornelisz. van Oorsanen (C1470— 1533) and Vite. At the same time, the interpretative problem of Manner-
Cornells (1468?-! 533) in
Engelbrechtsz. the northern ist art in general remains. Is this to be seen merely as witty
Netherlands, for example, and of Jan de Beer (fl. 1 490-1 520) perversity, in pursuit of the aesthetic ideal of maniera} Or
and a whole school of "Antwerp Mannerists" in the south, does it indicate some inner anxiety or disturbance within the

show crowded compositions, elongation of forms, and a cer- artist? Critics inclining to the latter view would point to the
tain elegant affectation of costume and gesture. But these ten- uncomfortable way in which the window frames are squeezed
dencies, developed directly from local late Gothic tradition, into their niches, to the oppressive effect of the sagging en-
and overlaid only superficially with Italianate motifs, appear trance arch, or to the helplessly incarcerated appearance of the
long before the emergence of Mannerism in The term Italy. basement windows.
Mannerism implies not simply mannered in a
that a style is The same problem of interpretation applies to probably the
nonclassical way, but that it is postclassical and that its dis- — most famous of all Mannerist buildings, Giulio's Palazzo del
tortions of classicism are effected knowingly and wilfully. So Te, just outside Mantua. The way in which every third
it is probably equally inappropriate to apply it to the courtly triglyph on the frieze of the inner courtyard appears to be
style of Lucas Cranach (1472.-1553), despite certain unde- slipping out of place has been compared in its effect to the

niable parallels with international courtly Mannerism, or to illusion of dramatically collapsing architecture painted by

most art executed in England in the 16th century. Giulio in the Palazzo's Sala degli Giganti; to some critics, both

The definition of the term Mannerism as applied to archi- communicate feelings of insecurity and alarm. But it is dif-

tecture even more problematic than with the figurative arts

is ficult to interpret the architectural and pictorial decoration of

of painting and sculpture. Because architecture is a nonrep- the palace as a whole in this way. Many critics would prob-
resentational art, there can be no question of idealizing and ably now agree with Shearman in seeing the ensemble as an
refining nature; because it has a more strictly functional pur- exemplification of the Mannerist ideal of variety, providing
pose, there is less scope for indulgence in aesthetic caprice. Yet the visitor with a dazzling display of contrasting sensations as
The Casino of Pius IV by Pirro Ligorio; 1558-62. Vatican gardens, Rome

he moves from facade to facade and from room to room. of nature. Another mid-century papal retreat, Pirro Ligorio's

Giulio would certainly have been appreciated for his wit and Casino of Pius IV in the Vatican gardens, shows a comparable
concern with variety and inventiveness, and, in this case, a
ingenuity by his princely employer, and the informal function
of the palace as a suburban villa would have allowed him taste for superabundant small-scale ornament all' antica,

greater inventive freedom than might have been possible, or which here replaces the architectural orders as wall decora-
appropriate, in a town palace or church. tion. With its gardens, fountains, loggias, screening walls, and

Significantly, some of the most impressive creations of changes of level, the Casino was probably intended, like the
Mannerist architecture are of this type. In the Villa Giulia in Palazzo del Te and the Villa Giulia, to follow the example of

Rome, for example, built by Vignola and Ammanati for Pope Bramante's Belvedere in reviving the ancient Roman villa, as

Julius III in the early 1550s, the visitor proceeds from the described by Pliny the Younger. This combination of en-
block-like severity of the outer facade, through a gracefully thusiastic antiquarianism in concept and motif, with an atti-

curving courtyard punctuated by a series of open loggias, to- tude of wilful licence towards the Vitruvian rules, may be seen

wards a sunken garden and nymphaeutn at the far end, where as typically Mannerist.

the architectural forms have fancifully begun to assume those The more serious aspect of Mannerist architecture may be
 —

M \ NN I RIS M 68 J,

found in certain public and urban buildings, where preoccu- practice, seeing in it the ultimate triumph of nature, most of
pations with style would certainly have been mixed with a his work is divided from that of the leading exponents of the
concern for their symbolic effect. Vasari's Uffizi, for example, maniera by a broad gulf — and this has to do not merely with
begun in 1 560, violates the classical canon in the elegant slim- artistic quality, but with a fundamentally different artistic
ness of its proportions, and the reduction to shallow layers of purpose. Yet, inevitably, the art of Michelangelo touches on
relief of the members flanking the windows, while the total that of his younger contemporaries at several points, and no
effect of chill severity and uniformity perfectly matches the attempt to define Mannerism can afford to ignore it.

character of the authoritarian regime for whose administra- There no question about Michelangelo's overwhelming
is

tive offices was built. But the design here also seems to
it influence on the artists of the Mannerist generation. Works
express the same inner tensions to be found in Vasari's paint- such as the Cartoon for the Battle of Cascina (now lost), or the
ings and writings. Although he shows himself to be a master Sistine Chapel Ceiling, with their displays of nude figures in a
of maniera in his brilliant and ingenious solution to the prob- seemingly infinite variety of complex poses, provided the pain-
lems posed by the excessively long and narrow site, the ters and sculptors of the maniera with an inexhaustible fund
cramped and fragile quality of the architectural membering of inspiration. But until C152.0, Michelangelo himself cannot
scarcely reflects complete inner confidence and serenity. The properly be called a Mannerist artist. Despite the tensions
same may be said of Vignola's unexecuted design for the underlying its surface harmony, the work of his early maturity
facade of the Gesu in Rome (0570), which exhibits a com- clearly belongs to the High Renaissance with its dominant
parable formality, complexity, and fragility, and which ideals of classical beauty and the perfect integration of form
Pevsner has characteristically interpreted as reflecting the and content. This is true even of works like the Doni Tondo
"period of tormenting doubt" of the Counter-Reformation. (C1504; Uffizi, Florence), which at first sight seems to antici-
The case of architecture suggests that there is at least a grain pate the maniera directly in the highly artificial poses and the
of truth in most of the various current interpretations of Man- disjointed pictorial space, but which was certainly intended to
nerism. Clearly, the ideal of maniera, with its concomitant have a serious expressive purpose going far beyond mere ele-
virtues of ingenious complexity and effortless virtuosity, was gance and virtuosity.
fundamental to the great majority of central Italian artists The question of how far the art of Michelangelo may be
coming to maturity between C1520 and 1590 — even if this called Mannerist becomes more complicated from the period
ideal concealed more inner uncertainties than some modern of his middle age onwards, when he increasingly abandoned
historians care to recognize. Various other artists of the the ideals of the High Renaissance for the sake of greater
period, though motivated by different, often more spiritual, expressive effect. The sculptures of the Medici Chapel, Flor-
ideals, nevertheless had many formal characteristics in ence, for example, with their tragic listlessness and tortured
common with the artists of the maniera, so they too can mean- intensity, have much in common, both in terms of style and
ingfully be termed Mannerist. Understood in this dual sense expressive purpose, with the early works of Pontormo and
as both the period as a whole, and as a pronounced trend Rosso, painters who, in their deviation from the High Re-
within the period —the term Mannerism would not necessarily naissance style of their master Andrea del Sarto, have often
be more ambiguous than many other stylistic labels applied to been seen as pioneers of Mannerism. Although the Medici
Western art. "Baroque" for instance, while referring es- chapel sculptures, no less than Michelangelo's earlier works,
pecially to the style of Bernini or Rubens, may also be applied, were extensively adapted and elaborated by the artists of the
with appropriate qualification, to Caravaggio, Poussin, Velaz- maniera, these adaptations seldom retained the disturbing
quez, Rembrandt, or Ruisdael {see Baroque Art). qualities of the originals; it is still a matter of debate as to how
But, in contrast to the Baroque, there remains one enor- far such qualities are compatible with Mannerism.
mous stumbling block to any neat definition of the Mannerist Another important work of which the Mannerist status is in

style: the art of Michelangelo. By far the greatest and most doubt is the Last judgment (1534-41), painted by
influential central Italian artist of the period, he presented Michelangelo on the west wall of the Sistine Chapel. A new
such a wealth of expressive possibility to his contemporaries appreciation of the artist's late style was one of the achieve-
that only certain aspects of his work could be successfully ments of the early-20th-century rehabilitation of Mannerism,
developed by them, and can so be categorized in the same and both Dvorak and Friedlander saw the Last Judgment as a
terms as theirs. Michelangelo was one of the co-creators of the masterpiece central to their anticlassical conception of the
High Renaissance, but even before he had begun work on the style, standing in vivid contrast to the heroic idealism of the

Sistine Chapel Ceiling, he had carved the St Matthew (1506; Ceiling. Although Michelangelo's close associate Condivi
Galleria dell' Accademia, Florence), which is proto-Baroque praised it in terms of maniera, saying that it "expressed all

in its emotional and dynamic power. By contrast, the figura- that art is able of the human body, omitting no act or ges-
tive language of his frail and poignant late I'ietas was to ture", polished elegance and ingeniousness seem completely
become so intensely personal as to transcend all stylistic remote from the artist's intentions. Most modern critics

categories. Despite the fact that Vasari developed the very would on the spiritual urgency and
unite in concentrating

notion of maniera from his observation of Michelangelo's elemental power of the work. But whereas Shearman, in ac-
684 MANNERISM

cordance with his own precise definition of the term, would closely indeed to the maniera. With its composition in the

therefore place it beyond the pale of Mannerism, it is nonethe- form of a continuous upward spiral, the group is a charac-
less true that the work possesses striking analogies of a formal teristic example of the ftgura serpentinata, a type much
kind with the mid-century maniera. With its welter of con- favored by Florentine Mannerist sculptors in their pursuit of
torted nudes, and its abandonment of the normative pro- artificial elegance. Pierino da Vinci, Ammanati, Danti, and
portions and lucid space of the earlier Renaissance, it is Giambologna all produced important variants of
comparable in purely stylistic terms to Bronzino's Martyrdom Michelangelo's theme, with a victor bestriding a prostrate foe
—
of St Lawrence even if spiritually the two works remain with an air of effortless nonchalance. But whereas for Shear-
worlds apart. From this point of view, the older critical tra- man, the smoothly serpentine twist of Michelangelo's main
ditions of Dvorak and Friedlander to a large extent retain figure —
so different from the passionate and abrupt contrap-
their validity, and there is a strong case for continuing to class —
posto of his St Matthew indicates that the artist's main
the Last Judgment, together with the Medici chapel sculptures preoccupation here, as with his followers, is aesthetic rather
and most of Michelangelo's works of his middle and old age, than emotional, not all critics would agree. Herbert von
as Mannerist in the broader sense of the term. Einem (in Michelangelo, Stuttgart, 1959) reads into the lan-
But even in those works by Michelangelo that most critics guorous pose and enigmatically clouded features a paradoxi-
would agree in calling Mannerist, there remains a difficult cal suggestion of exhaustion and defeat; consequently, he sees
problem of interpretation. The Victory (Palazzo Vecchio, the figure as Mannerist in a quite different sense of the word.
Florence), for example, originally included by Michelangelo Similarly conflicting interpretations are applied to

for the Julius Tomb, but left behind in Florence on his final Michelangelo's architecture of this period. Probably the most
departure for Rome in 1534, approximates stylistically very important of these, the vestibule of the Biblioteca Laurenziana,

Below left: The vestibule of the Biblioteca Laurenziana, Florence, by Michelangelo; begun in 1524, staircase designed and built after 1555

Below right: The Damned by Michelangelo, a detail from his Last Judgment in the Sistine Chapel, Vatican, Rome; 1536-41
 —

Fire in the Borgo by Raphael; fresco; width of 670cm U64in); C1515. Stanza dell'Incendio, Vatican, Rome

Florence is characteristically unorthodox in its use or the clas- exclude the entire oeuvre of Michelangelo, it seems that any
sical vocabulary, and ever since an essay by R. Wittkower of definition of it must, after all, take into account those qualities
1934 ("Michelangelo's Biblioteca Laurenziana", Art Bulletin of tension and disturbance that pervaded his art throughout
vol. XVI), it has been generally regarded as a key work of his middle and later career. In some cases, they may be plaus-
Mannerist architecture. Almost every architectural element ibly related to the general spiritual climate of the period; the

the paired columns, the blind tabernacles, the enormous con- apocalyptic character of the Last Judgment certainly reflects
soles, the framing of the door, the staircase balusters — is the gloomy and uncertain mood prevailing in Rome immedi-
treated in a completely uncanonical way, and the result is no ately after the Sack of 1527. In other cases, Michelangelo's
less original than the contemporary activity of Giulio Romano inner anguish was related to a more obviously personal crisis.

in Mantua. Again in accordance with his interpretation of But whatever its cause, the spiritual malaise apparent in his art
Mannerism, Shearman relates all this to Vasari's advocacy of struck a deeply sympathetic chord in the souls of many of his
variety and novelty, and to his admiration of the sovereign contemporaries, and artists as diverse as Pontormo, Tintoret-
virtuosity that enabled Michelangelo to transcend all the rules to, and El Greco may similarly be seen as adapting the formal
of art. But especially in this case, it seems a misleading over- language of Mannerism to an expressive purpose far removed
simplification to interpret the intentions ot Michelangelo ex- from the aesthetic ideal of maniera.

clusively according to Vasari's ideal of maniera; most critics One of the many complicating factors in assessing
would probably still agree with Wittkower in seeing the re- Michelangelo's relation to Mannerism is the fact that his long
versed relationship between walls and orders as not merely career overlapped that of virtually every Mannerist artist of
ingenious, but as deeply expressive of uncertainty and conflict. significance. As a result, as well as being a revered predecessor
In the Medici Chapel, too, the unorthodox treatment of the of the Mannerist generation, he himself seems on various oc-
blind tabernacles, with their schematic pilasters and broken casions to have been influenced by the innovations of his
pediments, creates a sensation of tight compression and chill vounger contemporaries. The relation to Mannerism of its

seventy that is decidedly uncomfortable. Both these interiors other great High Renaissance predecessor, Raphael, is less

seem, in fact, to deny "all human freedom and human power" complicated, since the style was still in the process of forma-

(Pevsner), and are peculiarly oppressive in their overall effect. tion at the time of his early death in 1 520. During the course
Unless the term Mannerism is to become so restricted as to of his short career, Raphael sowed as many seeds for subse-
686 MANNERISM

quent artistic development as did Michelangelo, progressing

from the harmonious classicism of the Vatican Stanza della
Segnatura to the dramatic proto-Baroque of the Stanza dell'

[ncendio within the span of little more than a year. But during
the last few years of his life, his personal style evolved in a

much more consistently Mannerist direction than Michel-

angelo's ever did, and after his death, the most talented members
of his school, notably Giulio Romano and Perino del Vaga,
were able to carry on directly where the master had ended.
Many of the characteristics of mature Mannerism are already
to be found in the third of the Vatican Stanze, especially in its

principal scene, the Fire in the Borgo (C1515). The attitudes

adopted by the figures dominating the foreground of this

work, at once agitated and self-consciously elegant, seem curi-

ously irrelevant to its real subject, which is the miracle being

performed in the background. A similar combination of viol-
ence and grace, usually applied to a highly complex figure
composition, is to be found in many of Raphael's other late
works, such as in the lower half of the Transfiguration (1517-
20; Vatican Museums, Rome). Raphael's activity as an archi-
tect in his later career was no less important in pioneering

a Mannerist style. The ornamental richness and rhythmic

complexity of his Palazzo Branconio dell' Acquila (1519—20;
demolished) mark a decisive step away from the classic sim-
plicity of Bramante's Palazzo Caprini, and the work provides
the starting point for quintessentially Mannerist buildings of
the mid century such as the Palazzo Spada and Pirro Ligorio's
Casino of Pius IV (both in Rome).
It was during the 1 5 20s that Mannerism became definitively
established as the prevailing artistic style in Rome. The proto-
The Deposition from the Cross by Pontormo; panel; 3 3 x 1 92cm
Mannerist tendencies of the late Raphael underwent signifi- 1

(123x76m); 1525-8. S. Felicita, Florence

cant development in the earliest independent works of both
Giulio and Perino; despite their differences of artistic person-
ality, with Giulio tending towards the violent and romantic Perino had already taken his highly refined version of Man-
and Perino towards the refined and ornamental, each of them nerism to Florence on a visit in 1522-3, where it was to make
played a decisive role in As the artistic
this historical process. a considerable impact on Jacopo Pontormo (1494-1557) and
capital of Italy, Rome inevitably attracted large numbers of other members of the postclassical generation. As early as
young, ambitious artists, and it was largely through contact 1 5 18, in such works as the altarpiece for S. Michele Visdo-

with the early Mannerism of the Raphael school that their mini, Florence, Pontormo had developed the tendency of his
styles acquired the polished sophistication and formal com- master Andrea del Sarto towards instability, both in composi-
plexity- that were to become hallmarks of the mid-century tional structure and emotional expression, to a point no
maniera. Parmigianino, for example, arriving in Rome in longer consistent with High Renaissance classicism. The ques-
1524, was encouraged to develop still further his innate feel- tion of how far Pontormo's early works until C1526 may be
ing for ornamental and attenuated grace. Similarly, Rosso, described as Mannerist is intimately linked with the whole
who had tended towards the barbaric and brutally expressive, controversy surrounding the term. Whereas for Friedlander,
acquired on his arrival in the same year a completely new the tortured inwardness of the Certosa Frescoes of 1522-4
suavity and elegance. Any further tendency for Mannerism to epitomized his anticlassical conception of Mannerism, for
remain a purely Roman phenomenon was dispelled in 1527, Shearman, the conspicuous lack of maniera in these works,
when the city was sacked and its artists caused to disperse all explicitly deplored by Vasari, renders the term for them quite
over Italy and even beyond. Giulio had already taken up a inappropriate. Similarly controversial are the early works of
court appointment in Mantua in 1524, but the departures of Pontormo's fellow pupil of Andrea, Rosso Fiorentino, whose
Perino for Genoa, Polidoro da Caravaggio for Naples, Par- Deposition (1521; Pinacoteca Comunale, Volterra) violates
migianino for Parma, Sanmicheli for Verona, and Rosso for allclassical norms in a way that is still harsh and eccentric,
Fontainebleau immediately following the Sack, gave the style rather than ingenious and sophisticated. Yet during this

a new breadth of currency. phase, both painters exhibit many formal characteristics in
Frescoes by Perino del Vaga and others in the Sala Paolina, Castel Sant'Angelo, Rome; 1545-7

common with contemporary developments in Rome, such as French painters and sculptors with the ideal of maniera.
elongated proportions, contorted poses, spatial ambiguity, By the early 1530s, the previously different tendencies of
and, above all, the imposition of an abstract sense of pattern early Mannerist paintingin Rome and Florence had combined
on the human anatomy. to form the basis what may conveniently be termed "high"
for
Since these characteristics were to remain fundamental to maniera, or mature Mannerism. Two of the leading exponents
the Florentine maniera of the mid century, it is probably of this phase, Salviati and Vasari, were equally active in both
useful to continue to see the early works of Pontormo and cities; its most characteristic form of artistic expression was

Rosso, for all their subjective emotionalism, as direct prede- that of the large-scale decorative enterprise, often used for
cessors of the mature style. These common elements inclined dynastic propaganda. Important examples of the type include
both artists to respond to Roman Mannerism once they had the decoration of the Oratory of S. Giovanni Decollato, Rome
come into contact with it. Despite the persistent melancholy of (by Salviati and Jacopino del Conte, 1538), the Sala dell'
his temperament, Pontormo's style acquired a new fluency Udienza in the Palazzo Vecchio, Florence (by Salviati, 1543-
and elegance after C1526; in such works as the Deposition 5), the Sala Paolina in the Castel Sant' Angelo, Rome (by
and Annunciation in S. Felicita, Florence, the tense angularity Perino del Vaga, 1545-7), the Sala dei Cento Giorni in the

of his earlier manner is replaced by a more purely ornamental Cancelleria, Rome (by Vasari, 1546), the Sala dei Fasti Farnesi
treatment of form, analogous to that of Perino, and to be of in the Palazzo Farnese, Rome (by Salviati, 1549-63), the Sala
prime importance to his younger Florentine contemporaries. del Cinquecento in the Palazzo Vecchio (by Vasari, 1555-71),
Rosso's move in this direction took place even earlier, and and the Sala Regia in the Vatican (by Perino del Vaga, Daniele
although on occasions he was to revert to the expressive da Volterra, Salviati, the Zuccari, and Vasari, 1540-73). All

urgency of the Volterra Deposition, it was the gracefuland these decorations were intended to emulate the achievements
urbane style first acquired in Rome that he took with him to of Raphael and Michelangelo in the Vatican Stanze and Sis-
Fontainebleau. In this way, he inspired a whole generation of tine Chapel; at the same time, they provided full scope for a
Assumption of the Virgin
This painting is the first great, public master- luminous equivalent for the gilded half
piece of the Venetian Renaissance. Commis- domes of Byzantine churches. Her cloak is

sioned for the high altar of the Frari, the carmine red and her robe blue, and these
Franciscan church in Venice, c1516.1t primary colors strike a harmonious chord
showed match in
that Venetian artists could which matches that of the forms. The upper
scale and grandeur the monumental painting zone of the picture is very broadly painted in
Raphael and Michelangelo were working on large strokes, visible a long way off to match
at the same time in Rome. Nonetheless it is their distance from the eye; a detail of God
completely Venetian: warm, sensuous, rich in the Father's head shows how the forms are
its color and paint surface a true celebra- — evoked as if out of light by the minimum of
tion of its subject, which, through the resur- strokes. The strokes match the perceptual
rection of the corporeal body of the Virgin evidence of tone and color presented to the
Mary into heaven, is the triumph of the flesh. eye in nature, and the impression of liveliness
From contemporary sources, we know that the head gives comes from the fact that we
while the picture was being painted, and even ourselves assemble them into form, as we do
after it w as put in place (on the Feast of S. when we see things in life.

Bernardino, 20 May 518), the Friars were

1 In this painting, Titian opposes to the It may be compared, both for similarities
puzzled by and doubtful about it. The figures more intellectual art of the Roman
linear, and differences, with Raphael's Transfigura-
are far larger than lifesize — much bigger than High Renaissance a coloristic, pictorial style tion (Vatican Museums, Rome) painted at
in any earlier altarpiece —and the technique characteristically Venetian. It is direct, sensu- almost the same time. Raphael's painting
is very open and loose, quite different from ous, and gloriously alive. It is also, like already shows some Venetian influence, but
the kind of precisely finished 1 5th-century Roman art, idealized and on a monumental the sculptured forms, the clear separation of
altarpiece to which people were accustomed. scale. the two zones, and the balance between the
But Titian knew what he was doing. contrasting elements of form, color, and
The painting had to be large, and broadly Above The nave and chiaroscuro, show a harmony parallel to, but
painted, because it was to be the focal point choir of S. Maria quite different from, that of Titian.
of a very large church, Gothic in style, down C lod recedes the Glonosa del Fran, JOHN STEER
from
Virgin: a detail Venice, showing Titian's
the whole length of which it could be seen. As
Titian's Assumption of Assumption set behind
the viewer walks down the church, he first the Virgin the archway into the choir
sees the painting framed in the entrance arch
of the choir, which echoes in shape the
arched frame in which the picture itself is
placed. This frame, with its great freestand-
ing columns, is like a triumphal arch, and the
main events in the painting are made to "tell"
in relation to it. The Virgin herself is placed
within a circle made by the arch of the frame,
and the garland of sporting angels her head —
is exactly in the center —
and the silhouettes
of the heads of the Apostles the main —
horizontal division of the painting — are rein-
forced by being seen at the same height as the
top of the high base on which the columns of
the frame are placed. By these means, Titian
organized the complex events of the painting
into an orderly and harmonious design.
The all look upwards at the
giant Apostles
Virgin and we ourselves seem to be looking
up between them, dx sotto in su as the Italians
sa\ at her spiraling figure. Above, God the
.

Father, in a swirl of angels and mist, swoops

down to receive her, swinging through the air
like an eagle from the mountain tops —
reminder that Titian was born and brought
up among mountains and must have been
accustomed to looking upwards at their
vertiginous mist-swathed heights in the same
way as the Apostles look up at the Virgin.
Their vision is one of light and color. The
Virgin is set against a glory of golden light —
 CLOSE STUDY

M Assumption of the
Virgin by Titian; oil on
panel; 690x360cm
(272x142m); 1516-18.
S.Maria dei Frari,
Venice

Above An example of a A The Transfiguration of

Venetian altarpiece, Christ by Raphael; oil on
earlier than Titian's panel; 405 x278cm
Assumption: The (159x109m); 1518-20.
Resurrection of Christ by Vatican Museums, Rome
Giovanni Bellini; oil on
panel; 148x128cm
(58X5oin);ci47<;-9-
Staatliche Museen, West
Berlin
690 MANNERISM

multiple viewpoint. Although Michelangelo's preference,

almost reverence, for a single viewing point for sculpture was
well-known, the spiraling composition of his Victory (Palazzo
Vecchio, Florence) clearly suggested the possibility of dissolv-
ing pure frontality, thus presenting to the spectator an infinity
of interesting views as he surveyed a freestanding sculpture
from all sides. Michelangelo himself did, in fact, plan just such
a work during the 1520s, a Hercules and Cacus group which
was to be placed in the main Piazza alongside his earlier
David; and although the project was abandoned in 1529, his
clay model survived (now in the Casa Buonarroti, Florence),
and was to exert a considerable influence on subsequent Man-
nerist sculpture.
The greatest sculptor active in Florence in the second half of
the 1 6th century, Giambologna (c 15 24— 1608), was obviously
deeply impressed by both of these prototypes by
Michelangelo. A
group such as the Rape of a Sabine (Loggia
dei Lanzi, Florence) is a mature example of the principle of the
figura serpentinata, here applied to three figures larger than
life, arranged in a continuously twisting spiral round a central
core, and presenting a constantly shifting variety of silhouette.
The com-
sculptor's typically Mannerist concern with formal
plexity and virtuosity, at the expense of the subject matter,
emerges from a letter of 1579 in which he explicitly states that
the subject was "chosen to give scope to the knowledge and
study of art". It is known that the work was given its title only
after it had been set up in the Piazza. The titles given to the
various adaptations of Michelangelo's Victory by Pierino da
Vinci, Ammanati, Danti, and again, Giambologna, seem simi-
Lucrezia Panciatichi by Bronzino; oil on canvas; 104x85cm (41 X33U1); larly arbitrary. Despite the fact that, in contrast to these other
ci 540. Uffizi, Florence sculptors, and also to Cellini, the art of Giambologna is fre-

quently charged with dynamic energy out of character with

typically Mannerist delight in ingenuity and complexity, both the languid effortlessness of true maniera, it seems reasonable
in form and content. him as Mannerist in a generic sense.
to categorize
The career of the third great exponent of the "high" mam- The same may be said of Tintoretto (1518—94), who is
era, Bronzino, was, by contrast, more or less restricted to excluded from Shearman's definition on account of his spiri-
Florence, and he did not practice mural decoration on the tual intensity and physical energy, but who frequently em-
same scale as his friends Salviati and Vasari. On the other ployed compositional devices and elongated proportions akin
hand, his extremely refined technique was well suited to the to those of central Italian Mannerism. In the Finding the Body
art of portraiture, and, with Parmigianino, Bronzino was of St Mark (Pinacoteca di Brera, Milan) the figures can no
probably the greatest Mannerist portrait-painter. It is para- longer be called graceful, but there is an irrational handling of
doxical that a style so little concerned with the imitation of light and space, combined with a Michelangelesque plasticity
external reality should have produced so many portraits of so of form, that indicates knowledge of Roman and Florentine
high a quality. But Bronzino mastered the art of combining his developments during the 1520s. Within the context of Venice,
own artificially beautiful ideal of humanity with a sharp ob- however, Tintoretto is exceptional, and the dominating per-
servation of individual detail; his courtly sitters are thus rep- sonality of Titian (cj.485— 1576) gave the mainstream of
resented with an air of stiff formality and cool perfection, Venetian painting an abiding concern with the sensuous ex-
entirely appropriate to their social pretensions and yet with perience of reality alien to the abstracting and refining
complete outward accuracy. The sitters of both Bronzino and tendencies of Mannerism. Although Paolo Veronese (1528-
Parmigianino tend to exude the quality of maniera, a term 88), and even Titian himself were sometimes influenced by
which in 16th-century usage was also frequently applied in a leading north Italian exponents of the maniera, such as Giulio
social sense to refer to good breeding, distinguished deport- Romano and Parmigianino, such influences were to remain
ment, and general savoir-faire.
One of the most characteristic developments in Florentine Rape of the Sabines, by Giambologna; marble; height 410cm (161 in);
sculpture of the mid century was the growing concern with the 1579-82. Loggia dei Lanzi, Florence
 MANNERISM 691

comparatively superficial. The essential naturalness and vitality

of their art provided an uninterrupted continuity between the

High Renaissance and Baroque. In Venetian architecture and
sculpture, too, Titian's friend, Jacopo Sansovino, perpetuated
the classical style of the High Renaissance, albeit in an en-
riched form, well into the second half of the century. The
greatest architect active in the Veneto in the later Cinquecen-
to, Andrea Palladio (1508-80), was equally restrained in his

introduction of Mannerist forms.

Central Italian architecture from the mid century onwards,
although dependent on the preceding phase in the same way
that Bronzino was dependent on Pontormo, was less radically

experimental than before. The daringly unorthodox works of

the 1520s and 1530s by Giulio Romano and Michelangelo,
and also by Peruzzi (1481-1536) and Sanmicheli (1484-
1559), were followed after c\ 550 by a trend towards greater
sobriety and reticence. Probably the most important represen-
tative of this tendency was Vignola, whose architectural treat-
ise Cinque Ordini di Architettura (1562) reveals an academic

desire to lay down uninfringeable rules based on a study of

antique and High Renaissance practice. The stiff formality of
Vignola's architecture, where a rigid conformity to a system of
rules seems to conceal an inner uncertainty of direction, has
much in common with central Italian painting of the high and
later maniera, which also became increasingly academic and
eclectic after the middle of the century.
This was unquestionably a period of general decline; the
efforts of reformers such as Taddeo Zuccaro (1529—66) in

Rome and Santi di Tito (1 536-1603) in Florence to infuse

new life into the art of painting may actually have had the
opposite effect, since their advocacy of greater naturalness
and simplicity was inimical to the original creative vitality of
the Mannerist style. By the end of the century, this had
become so dilute as to be completely effete, and, with the
possible exception of the Cavalier d'Arpino (1 568-1640), its

Roman exponents could offer little resistance to the early

Baroque innovations of Annibale Carracci and Caravaggio
after the early 1590s. Yet, as late as 1570, it was still possible
to create so perfect a masterpiece of Mannerist decoration as
the Studiolo of Francesco I in the Palazzo Vecchio in Florence,
a smallchamber resembling the inside of a treasure-casket and
studded with paintings and statuettes of a gem-like preciosity,
all executed under the general supervision of Giorgio Vasari.
In villa and garden architecture too, Mannerism continued as
a highly inventive style throughout the second half of the
century. Important examples include Pirro Ligorio's Villa
d'Este at Tivoli (1565-72), Buontalenti's now destroyed Villa
Medici at Pratolino, near Florence (1569-75), and the extra-
ordinary Villa Orsini at Bomarzo, near Viterbo (c 15 50-80).
In tracing the development of the style outside Italy, it is

often difficult, and even pointless, to attempt to distinguish

between specifically Mannerist influences and the spread of
the Italian Renaissance generally. The sudden grafting of
Italianate forms from all phases of the Renaissance on to the
vigorous local traditions of northern Europe frequently re-
The Studiolo of Francesco I, designed by Giorgio Vasari 1570—2. Palazzo Yecchio, Florence

A relief Nymph of the Seine by Jean Goujon; 1 550. Louvre, Paris

suited in a style too hybrid to be defined unambiguously as

Mannerist. Yet despite the lack of any French equivalent of
theHigh Renaissance, the style that grew up in Fontainebleau
from the early 1530s may be seen as purely, almost quintes-
sentially, Mannerist; being the creations of the transplanted
Italians Rosso and Primaticcio. The Galerie Francois I, with
its complicated fusion of allegorical paintings, stucco figures,

and intricate ornament, is a perfect embodiment of maniera, a

quality well-calculated to appeal to the refined tastes of the

 MANNIKISM 693

French court. A whole generation of French artists was Lawrence in its stylized abstraction from reality, and its ar-
trained in this style, and although painters such as Jean rangement of limbs and draperies into a relief-like pattern,
Cousin the Elder and Antoine Caron were only modestly and there are many Italian Mannerist analogies for El Greco's
girted, the sculptors Jean Goujon (0510—c68) and Germain tendencies towards elongation of form and spatial ambiguity.
Pilon (0525/30—90) developed its possibilities to a high level Thus, although the profoundly spiritual character of his art, as
of accomplishment and expressiveness. Mid- 16th-century well as his increasing idiosyncrasy and his chronological pos-
French architecture, on the other hand, although equally in- ition, make it impossible to accept Dvorak's estimate of it as
spired by the example of Italy, was more classically oriented; typical of, or central to, the style as a whole, there still seems
its greatest exponent, Phihbert Delorme {c 15 10— 70), explicitly every reason to regard El Greco as one of the greatest expo-
disapproved of the fantasy and complexity of Mannerism. nents of Mannerism.
While Mannerism in France flourished as a direct result of In England, Italian Mannerism was received at third hand
royal patronage, first under Francis I and then under his son only, introduced through Netherlandish or German inter-

Henry II, the style was introduced into the Netherlands, mediaries. Mannerist elements in the art of such painters as
mainly at second hand, by native artists who had come into Guillaume Scrots (fl. 0546) and Hans Eworth (fl. 1540—74)
contact with it while visiting Italy. The term should not be are clumsy and provincial by Italian standards; even the
applied to the first generation of Romanist painters, such as refined and dainty art of the greatest native painter of the 1 6th
Jan Gossaert (0478— 1532), Bernaert van Orley (1491/2—
1542), and Jan van Scorel (1495— 1562), since their know- The Martyrdom of St Maurice, by El Greco; canvas; 448 x 300cm
ledge of Italian art was based on developments before 1520; (176X 1 i8in); 158Z. The Escorial, near Madrid
but the contorted post-Raphaelite styles of Marten van
Heemskerck (1498-1547), Frans Floris (0518-70), Marten
de Vos (1 532-1603), and a whole generation of Netherland-
ish Itahanizers, certainly do qualify as Mannerist despite a —
certain tendency towards a coarseness and gaucheness alien to
the maniera. Native artists with a pronounced bent towards
elegance and sophistication tended to seek employment out-
side the Netherlands, and it was in the congenial environment
of the courts of Albrecht V in Munich and Rudolf II in Prague
that the sculptors Hubert Gerhard (0545-1620) and Adriaen
de Vries (0560— 1626), former pupils of Giambologna, and
the painter Bartholomaeus Spranger (1 546-1611), passed
most of their careers. Probably the most significant Nether-
landish contribution to Mannerist architecture were the pat-
tern books (1565 and 1568) of Hans Vredeman de Vries
(1527-?! 604) whose fantastic designs, based on a variety of
sources, including Peruzzi's Palazzo Massimi in Rome and the
decorations at Fontainebleau, gave Mannerist motifs a wide
circulation in the Netherlands and England.
In Spain, too, Mannerist forms in painting and sculpture
were first introduced in the hybrid styles of artists such as
Alonso Berruguete (0489-1561), Juan de Juni (0533-77),
and Juan de Juanes (1500-79). Although some of these had
visited Italy, they all remained closely tied to local traditions,

and it was not until the 1570s, when Federico Zuccaro (1540/3
-1609) and Pellegrino Tibaldi (1527-66) arrived to decorate
Philip IPs palace of the Escorial, that an authentically Italian
version of Mannerism was imported. At about the same time,

however, a much greater artistic personality, El Greco, made

his appearance in Spain, practicing his own, highly individual
version of the style. Despite its almost complete lack of the
urbanity and polish of maniera, a deficiency that cost him all

hope of success Greco is recognizably

at court, the art of El
related to central Italian Mannerism of the mid century even —
if only in a formal sense. His Martyrdom of St Maurice (The

Escorial, near Madrid) resembles Bronzino's Martyrdom of St

694 MANNERISM

century, Nicholas Hilliard (ci 547-1619), has too slight a "'divine", universally bestowed on Michelangelo, accorded
basis in the Italian Renaissance properly to be called Manner- with his own conception of art as the highest expression of the
ist. The same is true of the robustly creative tradition of human spirit. Directly related to this sense of the enhanced
Elizabethan architecture, where Mannerist motifs form part social and intellectual dignity of the artist was Vasari's desire
of a rich, chaotic mixture, derived from a variety of sources, to found an academy of art, a project realized in the Ac-
and applied with no real understanding of the language of cademia del Disegno in Florence (1563), and later imitated in
classical forms. Federigo Zuccaro's Accademia di San Luca in Rome (1593),
The central Italian preoccupation with maniera, with good and Van Mander's academy in Haarlem (1583). But em-
style and the means of attaining it, produced an enormous bodied in the very notion of the academy was a paradox, of
crop of theoretical writings on art from the middle of the 1 6th which Vasari himself seems to have been uneasily aware. On
century. By far the most important of these was Vasari's the one hand, it sought to gain prestige from the quasi-divine
monumental Yite, first published in 1550, which although nature of artistic creation, reserving the very highest admir-
cast in a biographical form, contained numerous observations ation for artists like Michelangelo, who retained a sovereign
on the nature of artistic excellence. These ideas formed the independence of tradition; on the other, it tended to reduce art
basis for the more abstract and philosophical treatises of to a teachable system of rules, encouraging study and imi-
Lomazzo (1584), Armenini (1586), and Federigo Zuccaro tation of the great masters of the past. This dualism, reflect-
(1607). The biographical tradition was continued in such ing an underlying uncertainty of direction that could lead
works as Borghim's Riposo (1584), and in several autobiog- alternately to academic eclecticism and to purely subjective
raphies by Mannerist artists, the most famous of which is by caprice, may be seen as entirely characteristic of Mannerist art
Benvenuto Cellini (C1560). In northern Europe, the historical and thought.
and theoretical approaches were combined in the copious PETER HUMFREY
writings of Carel van Mander, a painter and close friend of the
arch-Mannerist engraver Hendrick Goltzius (1558— 1617).
Even in England, a short treatise on the art of miniature paint- Bibliography. Antal, F. "The Social Background of Italian Manner-
ing was produced by Nicholas Hilliard (ci6oo). A large ism". Art Bulletin vol. XXX (1938). Blunt, A. Artistic Theory in Italy

number of architectural treatises were also published during 1450— 1600, Oxford (1940). Dvorak, M. "Uber Greco und den Man-
ierismus" in Dvorak, M. (ed.) Kunstgeschichte als Geistesgeschichte,
the period, including those of Serlio (1537), Vignola (1562),
Munich 1924); English translation Magazine of Art (1953).
in the
Palladio (1570), and Scamozzi (1615) in Italy, and Ducerceau
Freedberg, S.J. Painting in Italy: 1500— 1600, Harmondsworth
(1559), Bullant (1564), and Delorme (1568) in France. The (1979). Friedlander, W. "Die Entstehung des antiklassischen Stiles . .

proliferation of all these theoretical works reflects not only the um 1520" Repertortum fur Kunstwissenschaft vol. XL VI, (1925);
Mannerists' concern with the processes of artistic creation — English translation in Friedlander, W. Mannerism and Anti-Manner-

concern reflected in the self-conscious character of the Man- tsm in Italian Painting, New York (1957). Hauser, A. Mannerism, (2

nerist style — but also the aspiration of their authors to raise

vols.)
in
London(1965). Heydenreich, L.H. and Lotz, W. Architecture
1400-1600, Harmondsworth (1974). Pevsner, N. "The
Italy:
the social and intellectual status of the artist. A post-medieval
Architecture of Mannerism" in Grigson, G. (ed.) The Mint, London
distinction between the creative genius of the artist and the
(1946 Pevsner, N. "Gegenreformation und Manierismus" Reper-
.

purely manual skills of the craftsman had already appeared in torium fur Kunstwissenschaft vol. XL VI, (1925); English translation
the writings of Alberti, but it was not until the 16th century in Pevsner, N. Studies in Art, Architecture, and Design vol. 1, London

that the idea began to gain more general recognition. This was (1968). Pope-Hennessy, High Renaissance and Baroque
J. Italian

largely because of a widespread admiration for the achieve- Sculpture, London (1963).J. Mannerism, Harmonds-
Shearman,
worth (1967). Smyth, C.H. Mannerism and Maniera, Locust Valley,
ments of the giants of the High Renaissance. Vasari reports
NY. (1962). Voss, F. Die Malerei der Spatrenaissance in Rom und
approvingly that Raphael lived more like a prince than a
Florenz, Berlin (1922). Zeri, F. Pittura e Controri forma, Turin
painter, a rise in status later symbolized by the seigneunal Man-
195^). Zerner, H. "Observations on the Use of the Concept of
residences of Mannerist artists such as Giulio Romano (in nerism" in Robinson, F.W. and Nichols, S.G. !eds.) The Meaning of
Mantua and of Federigo Zuccaro (in Rome); the epithet Mannerism, Hanover, N.H. (1972).
 37

THE BAROQUE

The Supper at Emmaus by Caravaggio; oil on canvas; 141 x 196cm (56x77^); C1596/8—C1602. National Gallery-, London (see page 697)
696 THE BAROQUE

The word "baroque" was intended

originally, it meant oddly shaped, and
as a term of abuse;
it grew to mean
ing; there is a new sense of artistic unity in this period, of
the parts being subordinated to a dynamic rhythm that leads
all

anything illogical, absurd, or bizarre. Eighteenth-cen- up to a climax. This principle contrasts sharply with the de-
tury classicists used it to describe the 17th-century painter's centralized compositions of the Mannerists, whose works
neglect or defiance of classical rules, and perhaps more par- abounded in sophisticated rhythms and intricate details that
ticularly the sculptor and architect's preference for eccentric the eye must carefully seek out and marvel over. In many
and extravagant shapes. It was not until the 19th century that ways, the Baroque was a return to the grandeur and monu-
German scholars began to use the word neutrally to describe mentality of the High Renaissance; yet Baroque artists did not
the art of the 17th century. return to the Renaissance ideals of symmetry and clarity. They
Historically, the art of this period must be seen in the con- concentrated rather on daring effects of asymmetry and on
text of the renewed power of the Roman Catholic Church and diagonal movements into depth. There is a similar sense of
the increased centralization of political power. From the unity and movement in Baroque architecture; forms and
1 5 70s, the threat of Protestantism waned. The austerity of the spaces are more dynamically organized than they had been in
Counter-Reformation consequently relaxed, and the more the Renaissance and tend to flow and merge into one another;
confident popes and cardinals of the 17th century became facades are handled sculpturally and have a new plastic rich-
enthusiastic patrons of an art that should express their religi- ness and depth. The unity of the effect is often emphasized by
ous fervor and their enjoyment of life; the religious orders, the merging of the three arts of painting, sculpture, and archi-
particularly the Oratorians and the Jesuits, increased their tecture into the production of a grandiose total effect; often,
power. The reassertion of the dogmas of the Roman Catholic whole rooms and chapels are drawn into one work of art.
Church became an important part of the painter's role; the The Baroque was only one aspect of 17th-century art;
glory of martyrdom, saintly visions and ecstasies, inflamed the centurysaw an increasing variety of stylistic categories,
with highly charged emotion and presented with all the re- and throughout the period a classical movement resisted the
sources of a rhetorical language of gesture and expression, Baroque appeal to the senses and emotions. These artists, led
became common subjects for painter and sculptor. In the secu- by Nicolas Poussin (1594-1665), attempted to continue the
lar sphere, power was concentrated in the hands of the tradition of Raphael (1483— 1520) and concentrated on clarity,
monarch, and buttressed by the doctrine of the divine right of symmetry, and balance. There was also a widening of tra-
kings; Philip IV of Spain, Louis XIV of France, and Charles I ditional subject matter; C1600, still life, genre, and landscape

of England were quick to see the possibilities of the Baroque emerged as independent art forms. Painters of these subjects
as an art of propaganda. were for the most part neither classical nor Baroque, but real-
The confidence of the period is perhaps most apparent in ists; realism dominated Dutch art of the 17th century. All
the magnificence and sensuous visual beauty of many Baroque three styles shared a return to nature after the anti-naturalistic
works; when we turn from the art of the Renaissance to the style of the Mannerists; this is apparent not only in Caravag-
art of the Baroque we notice first the more radiant glow of gio's proletarian models, but in the Carracci's stress on draw-
color, the freer and more expressive brushwork, the richer ing from life, in Rubens' and Bernini's treatment of flesh, and
contrasts of texture and of light and dark. Baroque architec- in Claude's and Ruysdael's observation of light and of the
ture shares many of these qualities; a Baroque church interior, surface and texture of nature.
with numerous decorative sculptures and paintings, its
its

and richly colored marbles, and its

lavish use of gilt, stucco, Italy. The artistic center for the greater part of the 17th cen-
impression of movement and space, was designed to transport tury was Rome. The new mood of religious fervor was first

our thoughts to the glory of heaven. manifest in the rapid and enthusiastic building of churches in

One aspect of the Baroque, then, is that it is an art of the period from 1570 to 1620. The earliest of these, II Gesu,
persuasion; the artist was concerned above all to appeal to the planned by Giacomo Vignola (1507-73) in 1568, with a
emotions of the spectator. To make the scenes depicted vivid facade of 1575 by Giacomo della Porta (ci 533-1602),
and enthralling, he attempted to capture the highest moment became in both plan and elevation the standard type for the
of dramatic action and to emphasize it by startling contrasts large congregational church; instead of the central plan
of light and shade. The spectator is often compelled to partici- common in the Renaissance, it has a single, broad longitudinal
pate actively in a Baroque work either by a kind of composi- nave with side-chapels; the transept is short and the crossing
tion in which the figures are pressed so close to the frontal surmounted by dome. The most important archi-
a splendid
plane that they seem to extend their movements into the world tect of the early Baroque was Carlo Maderno (1 556-1629),

outside the painting, or, alternatively, he may be overwhelmed whose facade of S. Susanna, Rome, of 1 597-1603, trans-
by a surge of figures mov ing in an upward spiraling movement formed the broad amplitude and quietly accented center of the
into a seemingly endless space. The use of various illusionistic two-story facade of the Gesu into a tighter, more dynamically
devices, often adapted from the theater, became more organized composition in which columns and bays progress
common in this period. more insistently to the center. S. Susanna initiated the Roman
The effect of a Baroque work is immediate and overwhelm- Baroque facade; later architects increased the crowding of the
 mi BAROQUE 69-

columns and the extravagance of the detailing.

To most pressing concern was to
painters of this period, the
renew a contact with nature after the excesses of Mannerism;
they were concerned to return to a clear and lucid depiction of
space, and to rid their paintings of both formal and psycho-
logical ambiguities. The most significant artists working in
Rome in the 1590s were Michelangelo Merisi, called Caravag-
gio (1573-1609/10), and Annibale Carracci (1560-1609).
Caravaggio came to Rome from Milan C1590— 2; later he
worked in Naples, Sicily, and Malta. He was a revolutionary
artist whose originality lay in his insistence on realism, mani-

fest first in a series of genre paintings of exotically dressed,

somewhat decadent young men, and later in religious paint-
ings of deep moral gravity in which he ignored earlier artistic
conventions. His protagonists are unidealized, the disciples
shown as rough peasants with wrinkled brows, torn clothes,
and dirty feet. He aimed, too, at psychological realism, at-

tempting, without recourse to established rhetoric, to comuni-

cate the inward sense of the scenes described in the Bible. His
compositions stress the physical, almost tangible presence of
his figures; often they are arranged in a shallow space close to
the picture plane, and dramatically foreshortened gestures
break through the plane. Yet Caravaggio's realism is made
dramatic and spiritually meaningful by non-realistic means: St Cecilia distributes clothes to the Poor by Domenichino; fresco;

his pictures are illuminated by powerful and irrational con- C1611— 14. S. Luigi dei Francesi, Rome
trasts of light and shade that are deeply poetic; his
backgrounds are bare and dark, and empty spaces create an most rigorously classical; his colors are pale and clear, the
atmosphere of foreboding in his often violent scenes. space clearly defined with the figures parallel to the plane.
Annibale Carracci, the most important of a family of Bolog- Reni's response to Antiquity was more lyrical; his ceiling
nese artists, came to Rome C1595; his Roman easel paintings, fresco Dawn (161 3; Palazzo Rospigliosi, Rome) rejected both
and the frescoes in the Palazzo Farnese (1 597-1604), estab- the illusionismand the exuberance of the Farnese; the move-
lished the fundamental principles of both the Baroque and ment is the gentle flow of a Classical relief; the figures have
classical styles. Annibale's style was an attempt to revitalize a more sweetly idealized beauty than their Raphaelesque
the tradition of the High Renaissance, based upon an intensive prototypes. In his religious paintings, the heightened pathos of
study of nature. The arrangement of the Farnese ceiling is a expression typifies this aspect of 17th-century sensibility.
series of pictures showing the loves of the gods. These are A more exuberant style was introduced by Guercino (1591—
presented as if easel paintings within an illusionistic architec- 1666), who arrived from Bologna in 1621. His use of light
tural framework, supported by an abundance of motifs: imi- and shade is dramatic, his handling of paint rich and luscious.
tation bronze medallions, imitation stone herms, "real" His ceiling fresco of 162 1-3 in the Casino Ludovisi, Rome,
nudes, and putti. The clarity and logic of the ceiling, and its shows Day's chariot now sweeping across the sky with true
references to Raphael and the Antique, influenced the classi- Baroque vigor; illusionistic architecture is boldly used to
cists; yet its illusionism, its decorative, sensuous, and light- create a more unified space.
hearted use of accessories, and its physical power, exuberance, A lighter and more airy spatial illusionism, based on Cor-
and rich compositions of the individual paintings, anticipate reggio, was developed by Giovanni Lanfranco (1582— 1647);
the Baroque. he covered the vast area of the dome of S. Andrea della Valle
From 1 6 1 o to 1 620, Caravaggio's followers and Annibale's in 1625-7 with a single composition showing the Assumption

pupils vied for supremacy. Caravaggio's influence was more of the Virgin. A surge of figures sweep our eyes upwards into a
diffuse, and rapidly spread through Europe; his early genre painted heaven, and more than any other work of the 1620s
scenes were frequently imitated, and artists responded in a this prepares us for the unity and complexity of the High
variety of ways to his chiaroscuro. Annibale's pupils, Guido Baroque.
Reni (1 575-1642), Francesco Albani (1 578-1660), and The most important artistsof the High Baroque who

Domenichino (1581-1641), who had followed him from reached maturity in the 1630s were Gian Lorenzo Bernini
Bologna, received most of the commissions for frescoes in (1 598-1680), Francesco Borromini (1 599-1667), and Pietro
Rome. They developed Annibale's classical tendencies, and da Cortona 596-1669).
(1

this decade was one of disciplined calm. Domenichino was the Bernini, a Neapolitan, dominated the Roman artistic scene
 iiiH»*'mm!*»"*»Wi^W¥
(IHIUIKIHIIIIHIIIMIIIIIIIII MIMIIKIIillMlltMIDin

^MiMwmimm tnmtlimiwiwwtti
FFlIfyPffTWfl

Dawn, a ceiling fresco by Guido Reni: 1 6 1 2—14. Palazzo Rospigliosi, Rome

David b\ Bernini; marble; height i-ocm e>-in ; ibi}. Museo e Galleria

Borghese. Rome
tor more than 50 years. Architect, sculptor, and painter, he
had an astonishing virtuosity. He enjoyed the continuing
esteem of eight popes, his works in and around St Peter's

express, in a highly charged symbolic language, the renewed

power and glory of the Catholic Church, and their decorative

splendor is overwhelming.
In a series of figure groups executed for Scipione Borghese
in the 1620s, Bernini broke away from the Renaissance sculp-
tor's concept of an image enclosed within the limits of the
block and from the spiraling complexity and multiple view-
points of Mannerist sculpture. He attempted to involve the
spectator emotionally by portraying, from a single viewpoint
which concentrates the impression of energy, the highest
moment of dramatic action. His works were based on an
intense study of nature, of expression, and of surface detail;

his capturing of the texture of flesh and hair in marble is

unsurpassed. His figures seem to extend into the real space of

David of 1623 (Museo e Galleria Borghese,
the spectator; the
Rome), his features tensely concentrated, is on the point of
moving towards an unseen Goliath. The portrait busts were
conceived on the same principles: the sitters, turning their
heads sharply in response to the spectator, their eyes penetrat-
ing and lively, their lips parted, seem caught on the verge of
speech.
Bernini's desire to involve the spectator's emotions lead him
to explore the resources of illusionism, and to use the arts of
painting, sculpture, and architecture together in the creation
of an overwhelming effect that tends to break down the bar-
riers between the three arts. The vividness is enhanced by
concealed lighting and rich contrasts of color. The central
group of the Ecstasy of St Theresa of 1645-8 (S. Maria della
Vittoria, Rome . executed in highly polished white marble, is

framed between dark columns as though it were a painting:

Right: The Ecstasy of St Theresa by Bernini; marble; 1645-8.

S. \1ana della Vittoria; Rome
 towards the church with an impression of unity and move-
ment typical of the Baroque. Bernini said that the oval colon-
nade symbolized the all-embracing arms of the Church.
In his designs for churches, Bernini returned to the most
familiar of Renaissance ground plans: the Greek cross, circle,
and oval. What was new was the importance of sculpture. We
do not contemplate the harmony of the forms as in a Renais-
sance church; rather, Bernini charged the forms with energy,
and the whole church became a setting for mystical experience
revealed by the sculpture. In Andrea al Quirinale, Rome,
S.

(1658-70) a series of giant pilasters and massive entablature

sweeps our eye around the oval plan to a climactic focal point
above the altar where a sculptured St Andrew soars to heaven.
Borromini came to Rome from northern Italy, where he had
been trained as a stonemason, in 1614; until 1633 he worked
first as Maderno's assistant and later as Bernini's. He was a
less traditional architect than Bernini; the drama
in his works

is inherent in the way and space are handled. He

that form
was fascinated by ingenious spatial compositions and by the
idea of setting forms in movement; his walls sway and curve
as if softly modeled. The basis of his approach was geometry;
his plans did not aim, as did the mathematical plans of Re-
naissance architects, at spatial lucidity, but rather at a wealth
of spatial relationships; forms flow into one another rather
than being sharply divided. He used the most extravagant
shapes in the towers, where strange spirals surge impetuously
into space.
All these characteristics may be seen in the small church of
S. Carlino, Rome (1638—41). Its plan is basically an oval.
(Variations on the theme of the oval are one of the most
S. Carlino, Rome, by Borromini; 1638—41 interesting aspects of the Roman Baroque.) The quadrants of
the oval are curved inward; the result is that the heavy cornice
the swooning expression and feverish vitality of the draperies seems to flow rhythmically round the church in a sequence of
express the intensity of her vision. The group seems miracu- concave and convex curves. The dome is decorated with
lously suspended before us, and this illusionistic effect is sharply cut coffers of geometric shape, surprisingly light and
heightened by the presence of sculptured groups of the Cor- graceful in feeling. The later facade (1665-82) shows a similar
naro family set into the chapel walls in what look like opera attempt to create dynamic effects of movement; the concave-
boxes. We, the spectators, tend to identify with them, and so convex-concave lower story is contrasted with the convex-
grant reality to the vision. On the vault, stucco clouds that concave-convex curves of the upper.
seem to blow across the architecture support painted angels. Pietro da Cortona was, like Bernini, both architect and
The light illuminating the central group with such supernatur- painter, and, after Bernini, the most influential artist of his

al radiance is natural light that falls from a concealed source day. He came to Rome from southern Tuscany in 161 2-1 3;
through yellow glass. All the arts, and nature itself, thus com- he worked in Florence from 1640 to 1647. As an architect, he
bine in Bernini's work. was less capricious than Borromini; his forms are graver,
A more extreme fusion of sculpture and nature occurred in more Roman, and have a greater plastic richness. However, he
Bernini's fountains, in which powerful flowing water replaced shared Borromini's interest in setting forms in movement, and
the thin jets of 16th-century fountains. The Fountain of Four the theme of contrasting curves was taken up in his work. This
Rivers (1648-51; Piazza Navona, Rome) is an apparently is apparent in the facade of S. Maria della Pace, Rome (1656-

natural rocky structure, covered with exotic sculptured veg- 7)where a semicircular portico invites us into the interior; its
etation and pierced by rushing waters, which supports four outward thrust is contrasted with the concave wings behind
personified rivers who sit at the foot of an obelisk. the first story. This portico was frequently repeated in Euro-
Bernini's most spectacular architectural achievement was pean churches during the 17th century.
the piazza of St Peter's. He enclosed the oval piazza by a free As a painter, Cortona excelled in organizing vast numbers
standing colonnade, which creates rich contrasts of light and of figures in works of the largest scale; his paintings have the
shade and spatial effects; its shape seems to draw us physically ebullient vitality and robust physical power we associate with
The Marriage of Isaac and Rebecca (The Mill) by Claude; canvas; 149 x 196cm (59X7701)^1648. National Gallery, London

the Baroque. His forms are sculptural, his compositions com- posed the Baroque; in the period of the High Baroque, this
plex, and his color glowing. The latter shows a deep indebted- classicism became more painterly than it had been in the
ness to Venetian art: in 1598 a group of paintings by Titian 1620s. The leaders were now Andrea Sacchi (1599— 1661),
had been brought to Rome from Ferrara where they were the Frenchman Nicolas Poussin (1594-1665), the sculptor
copied by Rubens, Poussin, and Cortona. A neo-Venetian Alessandro Algardi (1598— 1654) and the Flemish sculptor
movement was an important aspect of the Baroque in the Francesco Duqesnoy (1 594-1643). Cortona believed that a
1630s; of all High Renaissance painters, Titian most nearly painting should be like an epic poem, with a central theme
anticipated the Baroque. supported by many episodes. Sacchi believed that it should
In 1633, Cortona began the ceiling decoration for the resemble a tragedy, with few figures and a highly concentrated
Great Saloon of the Palazzo Barberini, a work that epitomizes simplicity of action. These contrasting doctrines were force-
the Roman High Baroque and marks a turning point in its fullv illustrated in the frescoes by both artists in the Palazzo
development. The painted architecturalframework with Barberini; Sacchi's Allegory of Divine \\ sd •
-9—C1633)
imitation stucco figures at the corners was adapted from the is in every way opposed to Cortona's fresco; it shows com-
Farnese, but the illusionism is taken much further: the figures paratively few, rather static figures, and there is no illusion-
appear above and below the architecture, and seem to sweep ism, no foreshortenings, no swirl of movement. His style is

upwards towards an open space. A surge of flowing move- seen at its best in his calm and meditative easel paintings.
ment unites the whole composition; even the accessory figures The greatest classical artist of this century was Poussin.
are included in the turbulent action which leads up to the Although his influence was greatest in his native France, Pous-
personification of Divine Providence. The effect is overwhelm- sin's development may better be studied in the context of
ing, and, despite the intricacy of the subsidiary themes, interests he shared with his Roman contemporaries — he
unified. This unity is very different from the compartmen- worked almost all his life in Rome. As a young artist, Poussin
talized composition of Annibale Carracci's Farnese ceiling. responded most powerfully to Titian: to his color, his free
Throughout the 1 —t h century, .1 classical movement op- brushwork, and his poetic interpretation of mythological
Cortona's Barberini Ceiling
was used for public receptions and entertain-
ments, and the ceiling was intended to glorify
the reigning Pope (Urban VIII) and the
The spectator who enters the gran salone of breaking down of the barrier between the Barberini family. Again, Cortona's imagerv
the Barberini palace is immediately drawn work of art and the spectator, are important broke new ground. Never before in Italy had
into an imagined world of spectacular and Baroque principles. Yet within this unity are courtly adulation been carried so far, nor the
o\ erwhelming power. On the high ceiling, a rich and diverse effects. The framework Baroque as an art of
possibilities of the
painted architectural framework seems to itself, painted in simulated stucco, in places propaganda on behalf of the divine right of
open the huge vault to the sky; a swirling \s fathered and cracked, is created from an rulers been so systematically exploited.
mass ot twisting and weighty figures surge immense variety of decorative details — shells, Domenichino, then in Naples, wrote that,
through the air, moving freely both in front masks, dolphins, terms, feigned medallions in from all accounts, it sounded more fitting for
and behind the framework. The vibrant at- bronze. The structures at the corners are a secular prince than for a pope. Yet, al-
mosphere and skillful patterning of light and especially intricate, and it is these twisting though the central theme is clear, it is sup-
shade create the illusion of an infinite exten- figures that allow our eyes to move easily ported by erudite allusions.
sion into space, fusing the world of the from one scene to another. The complex program was devised by
spectator with a world inhabited by the The framework also serves to divide the Francesco Bracciolini, a favorite of Urban
heroic figures of Classical mythology. The ceiling into five distinct areas, and each of the VIII. Bracciolini, already the author of a
forms are grandiose; some are borne aloft on scenes painted along the coves demands to be series of boring sycophantic poems in praise

thick masses of cloud that in places cover the looked at as a:i independent painting. Here of members of the Barberini family, was well-
cornice. At one end, the wind-borne figure of the rich glow of Cortona's color, and his versed in the art of flattery and had strong
Pallas forces downwards a tumbling mass of ability to warmth and vitality- into
breathe personal reasons for excelling himself on this

giants, involving the onlooker in the violent Classical myth and fable, may be most easily occasion. Unfortunately the relevant poem
drama that takes place immediately above appreciated. The drunken Siienus sprawls in has been lost, but an interpretation of the
him. The decorative figures are themselves so an exuberant composition illuminated by iconography was made by Girolamo Ten in
vital that they seem to take part in the action. wonderful effects of flickering light, and, in 1641 in his Aedes Barberini.
This creation of a unified and spectacular the Forge of Vulcan, flashes of red and gold The subject is an allegory of Divine Provi-
vision inaugurated a new era in High Baroque fall on antique armor. dence; Urban VIII, as her chosen agent, is
ceiling decoration. Illusionism, and the The gran salone of the Palazzo Barberini shown as worthv of Immortality. In the
 CLOSE STUDY

^ Pietro da Cortona's A The Triumph of canvas; 904 x580cm A The vault of the of his vault show a debt to a north Italian
fresco on the ceiling of Venice by Paolo (356x218m); 1583 gallery in the Palazzo
tradition of ceiling decoration. Cortona was
the gran salone of the Veronese, a ceiling fresco Farnese, Rome, by
Palazzo Barbenni, in the Sala del Maggior Annibale Carracci;
perhaps particularly influenced by Veronese's
Rome; 1633-9 Consiglio, Palazzo fresco;between 1557 Triumph of Venice in the Palazzo Ducale.
Ducale, Venice; oil on and 1600 Cortona's works are the most spectacular
performances of the Roman High Baroque,
but his exuberance and daring illusionism
central area, Divine Providence, borne aloft to have enjoyed reading into the frescoes were criticized by more classical artists.
on clouds, commands Immortality to add the precise references to individual members of Slightly earlier (1629—31), Andrea Sacchi
stellar crown to the three glittering bees who the Barberini family. had frescoed another ceiling in the Barberini
represent the Barberini coat of arms. The In orchestrating so elaborate a display of palace, illustrating the theme Divine
bees are surrounded by the laurel of immor- literary and pictorial ideas, Pietro da Cortona Wisdom. In subject matter the two works are
tality, carried by the theological virtues; held turned back for guidance to the vault of the complementary. Sacchi's Divine Wisdom
out above them are the papal tiara and the Farnese Gallery decorated by Annibale Car- joins Cortona's Divine Providence and Im-
poet's crown (Urban VIII had a considerable racci 30 years earlier. Most obviously depen- mortality in praise of the Barberini family
reputation as a poet). The mythological dent on Annibale are the simulated stucco name. Yet Sacchi's illusionism is restrained,
scenes along the coving allude to the Pope's framework, and the exuberant and sensuous his composition clear and carefully balanced,
wisdom and virtues. Each is a detailed and response to Classical mythology; certain of and his gures relatively few. He aims for the
carefully worked out allegory. At first sight the figures are direct derivations. Yet Pietro's classic qualities of restraint and simplicity,
their meaning seems fairly straightforward: ceiling is fullyBaroque in the unity of his and his severity was to be answered by the
the abandoned lust of Silenus and the satyrs vision; the same sky unites the areas divided tumultuous passion of Cortona. Both classi-
are vanquished by the Pope's piety; his justice by the cornice in a way that is very different cal and Baroque styles were to be further
is represented by Hercules fighting the Vices; from the playful overlapping of layers of developed throughout the century, at times
his dramatic war against heresy by Pallas illusion in Annibale's work. It is also bound opposing, at times complementing, one
destroying the giants. Other scenes refer to together by a sense of light and atmosphere another.
hisencouragement of learning and to the that derives from Venetian models, particu- HELEN LANGDON
blessings of peace and plenty. They could be larly from Veronese. Cortona had visited

interpreted by the more recondite at varying Venice in 1637, and the dramatically fore-
levels of precision and profundity; they seem shortened figures which fill the whole height
704 THE BAROQUE

scenes. The most attractive of Poussin's early paintings are can be seen in the ceiling fresco of the church of the Gesu,
Ovidian scenes, radiant in color, lyrical and delicately sensual, showing the Triumph of the Name of Jesus, painted by
sometimes tinged with melancholy. Later, influenced by the Giovanni Battista Gaulli (1639— 1709) between 1674 and
antique statues and bas-reliefs he had studied in Rome and by 1679. The ceiling is executed in a bewildering mixture of
the moral attitudes he had imbibed from a reading of Roman painting, real stucco, and painted stucco, of real and simu-
historians, Poussin moved towards a more solemn and austere lated architecture; the whole roof appears open to the sky,
style. He came to believe that art should appeal to the mind and clouds seem to spill into the nave. The worshiper seems
and not to the senses; he studied expression and gesture, and granted a vision of the glory of heaven.
arranged the figures in his paintings parallel to the plane in The latest development in Baroque illusionism was the
clear, mathematically precise relationships so the spectator fresco of the Apotheosis of St Ignatius on the nave ceiling of S.
might study the significance of each participant. In one sense Ignazio,Rome (1691-4). The painter was Fra Andrea Pozzo
we "read" Poussin's late paintings as though we are reading a (1642— 1709) who specialized in the virtuoso handling of pers-
book; often the beauty is the abstract beauty of geometrically pective. Here, feigned architecture, painted in perspective,
organized space. Yet although Poussin sacrificed spontaneity seems to continue the real architecture of the church and so
and warmth, his discipline was imposed on a naturally create the effect of an imaginary upper story. Yet the illusion
passionate temperament; it is perhaps this tension that pre- only works from one point in the nave; if we move from here,
vented his works from appearing cold or insipid. the structure seems to topple around us.
Poussin and another French artist, Claude Lorrain (1600— From mid 1670s, painting was dominated by Carlo
the
82), perfected a kind of classical landscape painting, known Maratti (1625— 1713) who resisted the extravagances of
as ideal landscape, that had been introduced by Annibale Gaulli and Pozzo; he concentrated on the plastic mass and
Carracci. Claude came from Nancy, and spent most of his volume of the individual figure and became famous for a series
working life in Rome. Claude's landscapes were based on an of Raphaelesque madonnas.
intense study of nature, of the Roman Campagna, and of the The most interesting developments in late Baroque architec-
coastline around Naples. Yet his intention was not naturalis- ture took place in Turin. Guarino Guarini (1624—83) from
tic; Claude transformed the Campagna into an ideal world of Modena settled in Turin in 1666 and there produced a
the imagination, a setting for the pastoral life described in number of buildings of fantastic geometric complexity. He
Virgil's poems; he evoked the mood of the Golden Age, a was influenced by Borromini, but made a more deliberate
haunting vision of a lost era of peace and delight. It is the all- attempt to startle and confuse. The most exciting features of
enveloping light that both unifies the space and creates the his churches are their domes; these have none of the robust

lyrical mood. In the harbor scenes, the path of the sun's rays vigor of the Roman dome, but are instead light and diaphan-
creates effects of theatrical glamor; more often, a softer light ous. The dome of S. Lorenzo (1666—90) is vaulted by crossing
shimmers over distances that melt into infinite space, or pin- ribs arranged like an eight-pointed star; in the dome of the
points tenderly depicted naturalistic detail in intimately en- Chapel of the Holy Shroud (1667—90), the ribs create a still
closed foregrounds. His compositions are formal, and aim at more complex lattice-like effect. Guarini's style influenced the
harmony and balance; Classical buildings play an important development of the Rococo in southern Germany.
part and there is usually some Biblical or mythological
subject. Spain. Seventeenth-century Spanish art was strongly in-

Algardi was the most successful Italian sculptor after Ber- fluenced by the Italian Baroque, but nonetheless retained a
nini. His most satisfying works are his portrait busts; less markedly individual character. Many of the greatest of the
vivacious than Bernini's, they have a detailed surface natural- Counter-Reformation mystics — St Theresa, St Ignatius
ism and attractive Duquesnoy, who arrived in Rome
solidity. Loyola, St Francis Xavier, St John of the Cross —had been
in 1618, executed his S. Susanna in 1629—33 ($• Maria di Spanish: saintly visions and ecstasies are treated by 17th-cen-
Loreto, Rome), a religious statue consciously based on the tury Spanish artists with an extraordinary emotional direct-
Antique. He specialized in small reliefs and statuettes of ness, almost as though part of every day life. The artists aimed
cupids and putti. to make supernatural events real and comprehensible; their
The late Baroque was predominantly one of fresco-
style works were intended to appeal to the fervid and superstitious
painting; in the middle years of the century there had been a piety of the masses. There are few female nudes, few mytho-
pause in the decoration of churches, but from 1670 onwards logical paintings; references to the Antique seem to mock the
many domes and ceilings were frescoed. The main characteris- great Classical tradition.
tics of the late Baroque style were that the whole ceiling was This intense piety inspired the peculiarly Spanish tradition
treated as a single unit; there were no longer many painted of highly detailed and realistic colored wooden sculptures of
architectural frameworks; the individual forms were no Christ and Marv and various saints. Made to be carried
longer massive and robust but rather graceful and elegant
they blended into one another and were illuminated by a more Triumph at the Name of Jesus by Gaulli, a fresco on the ceiling of

diffuse and flickering light. The beginning of this development the Gesu, Rome; 1674—9
 THE BAROQUE 707

through the streets at religious processions they have, at their of the court dwarfs and buffoons. He visited Italy twice, in
best, the moving simplicity of appeal that may be associated 1629-31 and again in 1649-51: as a result of his knowledge
with popular art. Gregorio Fernandez (C1576— 1636) was the of Italian painting, particularly Venetian, he developed a freer
greatest sculptor of the Castilian school; his works are harshly and more expressive brushwork and a greater interest in light
realistic and express powerful emotions with deep sincerity; and atmosphere. The stately formality of his royal portraits
the carving has an almost Gothic sharpness and rhythm. owed much to the example of Titian.
This tendency towards realism was strengthened by the Yet as a court portraitist Velazquez had little in common
influx of Caravaggism in the early years of the century. In the with his contemporaries; his portraits have none of the flam-
best works of Francisco Ribalta (1565-1628), the first painter boyant self-confidence of Rubens, nor the courtly grace and
new style, mystic experience is treated with a warm and
of the elegance of Van Dyck. Velazquez approached his sitters with
human naturalism that contrasts sharply with the flickering greater detachment, albeit a sensitive and thoughtful one. He
insubstantiality of El Greco's visionary style. A remarkably created remote images of absolute power, and recorded the
solid and athletic angel appears before the quietly startled eyes stiffly formal atmosphere of the Spanish court. Yet somehow
of his St Francis in Ecstasy (Prado, Madrid); the details of his his sitters retain their humanity and look anxiously, even ten-
dress and his sparsely furnished cell are described with a pre- tatively at the world around them. There is the suggestion of
cise and careful naturalism. an elusive personality within the regal trappings.
The most important source of Caravaggism in Spain was, In the 1 63 os, particularly in a group of equestrian Titian-
however, the works of Jusepe de Ribera (1 591-165 2). Ribera esque portraits, Velazquez' paintings had a robust vitality that
left Spain as a young man. He arrived in Rome C1615, where brings them close to the Baroque. The later works were more
he was profoundly influenced by Caravaggio. He had settled muted and delicate. The Royal Family, popularly known as
in Naples by 1616, and the Spanish viceroy sent many of his the "Maids of Honor" of C1656 (Prado, Madrid) illustrates
works to Spain. His realism was coarser and more aggress- his ability to combine stiff formality with intimacy. He shows
ively earthy and vital than Caravaggio's; his brushstrokes himself painting a large canvas; the Infanta Margarita turns to
create a richer and solider surface texture. He was particularly look at the King and Queen who are reflected in the mirror;
attracted to themes of torture and violence; the darkness and they would be standing outside the painting, in the real space
gloom that hang over his paintings is characteristic of of the spectator.
Neapolitan Caravaggism. In these late years, Velazquez executed a series of portraits

Francisco de Zurbaran (1 598-1 664) moved away from a of the royal children who, like the Infanta Margarita, combine
Riberesque realism towards a more deliberately archaic style regality with a truly childlike quality; there is often an effect of
suffused by an ascetic and unworldly religious feeling. The pathos created by the stiff clothes, proud manners, and the
darkness of Zurbaran's paintings, which suggests the mystical suppressed playfulness of expression. In this period, his color

union of the soul with God, is often reminiscent of the harmonies of and silvery grays acquired a new
reds, blues,

passionate poetry of St John of the Cross. Zurbaran simplified richness. His remarkable brushwork attained its greatest free-
his forms and compositions: his forms have a sculptural, dom: dry and flickering, it makes a surface pattern indepen-
almost crystalline sharpness and precision, and the poetic dent of form, and creates both color and atmosphere.
Caravaggesque lighting, the abstract settings, and the lack of In the second half of the century, Spanish painters moved
movement and depth and
create a haunting quality of stillness towards a more emotional Baroque The religious paint-
style.

remoteness. His figures appear suspended before us as though ing of Bartolome Murillo (1617-82) have none of Zurbaran's
images from another world. austerity; instead he turned for inspiration to Titian and
The earliest works of Diego Velazquez (1 599-1660) were Rubens, although his works are sweeter and more delicate
Caravaggesque genre scenes. Yet they have a profundity and than theirs, his muted colors and soft brushwork more overtly
solemnity that transforms their subject matter and already charming. The movement towards the Baroque was continued
reveals Velazquez' personal genius. In The Water-Seller (Wel- by Juan de Valdes Leal (1622-90) and Claudio Coello (1642-
lington Museum, London) of 16 19, a young boy accepts a 93); in their works the dramatic movement of many figures,
glass of water from an old man; the intensity with which each and the illusionistic treatment of space, indicate the direct
component of the composition is conceived, the delicate re- influence of the Italian Baroque.
lationship between man and boy, and the stillness and beauty In architecture, the influence from the Baroque came late

of the lighting suggest that we are witnesses to an almost but an extreme form. The most Baroque work in Spain is
in

religious rite. the Transparente in Toledo Cathedral by Narciso Tome {fl.

In 1625 Velazquez became court painter and transferred his 1715-42), completed in 1732, which carried the illusionism
intense observation to the life of the Spanish court. Most of of Bernini's St Theresa still further. A richly sculptured altar is

his subsequent paintings are portraits of the royal family and the setting for a glass case containing the Blessed Sacrament; it

is lit from windows above and behind which have been let into

The Water-Seller by Velazquez; oil on canvas; 106x82cm (41x32m); the Gothic vault of the ambulatory and which are invisible to

1619. Wellington Museum, London the spectator. The windows are surrounded bv sculptured
708 THE BAROQUE

figures so that the whole space is drawn into the total effect.

For the most part, however, the Spanish Baroque is a style

of surface decoration; Jose Benito de Churriguera (1665—
1725) gave his name to an exuberant, often frenzied, use of
twisting columns, scrolls, and thick and curving moldings that
encrust the surfaces beneath.

France. Two factors determined the development of the arts in

17th-century France: the nature of the centralized autocracy
of Louis XIV, which had been prepared for by the ministries
of Mazarin and Richelieu (C1630— 60), and a deeply rooted
classical tradition. In the period from 1630 to 1660, French
classicism achieved its most perfect expression in all the arts.

In painting and architecture, the same pattern tended to be

repeated; an influx of new ideas from Italy and Flanders in-

vigorated the native school, but the most Baroque elements The chateau of Maisons-Lafitte by Francois Mansart; 1642—6
were invariably toned down and transmuted into a classical
idiom. Baroque excesses, such as overwhelming illusionism, esque themes —elegant musicians and soldiers idling in

the fusion of the arts, and the emphasis on surprise and ex- taverns — yet, unusually, he does not coarsen his subjects. He
travagant shapes, were rejected. After 1661, when Louis XIV seems to have responded in an intensely personal manner to
began to rule as absolute monarch, France entered a spectacu- the sense of sadness and solitude in Caravaggio's works, and
larly successful period in her history. The state now controlled his own paintings are graceful, melancholic, and full of an
every aspect of life, including the arts; these were efficiently awareness of the fragility of human contact.
directed, through the establishment or reorganization of 1627 Simon Vouet, who in Rome had moved away from
In

academies, to one end: that of glorifying the King, the visible a Caravaggesque style towards Reni and Lanfranco, returned
symbol of the power of the State. This state domination nat- to France after 15 years in Italy. In France his style became
urally did not encourage individuality; the achievement of this more classical and he became the head of a large workshop
period lay rather in the creation, by a vast team of artists and and the founder of the great traditions of French decorative
craftsmen, of the spectacular decorative style at Versailles, art; Charles Lebrun (1619-90) was his pupil. Vouet's decora-

whose influence was to spread through Europe. tive style draws on both the Roman Baroque and on Venetian

The architects responsible for the creation of French classi- traditions —

particularly the works of Veronese. Yet these
cal architecture were Jacques Lemercier, (ci 584— 1654), sources are toned down to satisfy the demands of French clas-
Francois Mansart (1 598-1666), and Louis Levau (1612—70). sicism.
Lemercier, who had studied in Rome, designed the church of Philippe de Champaigne (1602-74), a Flemish artist,

the Sorbonne, begun in 1635; this introduced to Paris a arrived in France in 1621 with a painterly style indebted
Roman facade ultimately derived from the Gesu; it was the to Rubens and van Dyck. Later, under the influence of the
first of a group of domed churches influenced by the Roman Jansenists and of Poussin, he moved towards a style of almost
Baroque. startling simplicity and severity; his works are restrained and
The purest expression of the French classical spirit in archi- delicate in feeling, his color limited, his backgrounds bare.
tecture, however, occurred works of Mansart, who had
in the Further interesting developments took place outside Paris
little interest in the Italian Baroque. The chateau of Maisons- over this period. Georges de La Tour (1 593-1652), who
Laffitte 1642-6) is conceived as a single plastic mass in three worked in Lorraine, created one of the most personal forms of
dimensions. Its effect depends on the intellectually satisfying Caravaggism, possibly influenced by the Dutch Caravaggisti;
relationship of the clear-cut rectangular blocks from which it like them he specialized in night scenes lit by candles. In his

is composed, and the detail is sharp, restrained, yet elegant. later works, as in the St Sebastian tended by St Irene of c 1650
The quality of lucidity and the harmony of the parts is charac- (Louvre, Paris), the surfaces are clear and smooth and all

teristic of Mansart's classical style. Like Poussin's paintings, it descriptive detail eliminated; the figures are clearly arranged
appeals to the mind as much as to the eye; Mansart had none and the poetic play of light creates a deeply moving atmos-
of Borromini's interest in movement or surprise. phere of stillness and contemplation. In a classical spirit, La
The break with the tired Mannerist tradition of the early Tour has distilled the poetry of Caravaggio's light while re-

years of the 17th century was brought about by French artists jecting his violence and naturalism.
who traveled to Italy and responded to both Caravaggio and A similarly classicizing spirit was fundamental to the re-
the Carracci. The most influential and interesting of the markable peasant paintings of Louis Lenain (ci 593-1648).
French Caravaggisti was Valentin de Boulogne (1 594-1632) Comparable subjects were painted by Dutch artists working

who settled in Rome C1612. He painted typical Caravagg- in Rome in the early 17th century, but Lenain did not share
 III! BAROQUE 709

their tendency to satire and humor; his peasants are depicted from Bernini. In was a powerful Baroque
painting, there
with an exceptional dignity and even solemnity. His composi- movement; an interest in Venetian and Flemish color, in
tions are lucid; the figures are usually still and rarely seem to highly emotional effects and diagonally based compositions,
communicate with one another; they have an air of hushed replaced the stress the Academy had laid on drawing and
watchfulness and expectancy that creates a strangely enig- lucidity. Charles de Lafosse (1636— 1716) and Jean Jouvenet

matic atmosphere. (1644— 1717) produced religious and historical paintings truly
In the1660s and 1670s, a team of architects, sculptors, Baroque in feeling; Antoine Coypel (1 661— 1722) based his
painters, and craftsmen, controlled by Charles Lebrun (1619— ceiling fresco for the chapel at Versailles (1708) on Gaulli's
90) who, as Director of the Royal Academy and of the Gobe- ceilingfor the Gesu. Finally, the portraits of Hyacinthe
lins tapestry manufactory virtually dictated the course of the
7
, Rigaud (1659— 1743), which use the Baroque accessories of
arts, created for Louis XIV the splendors of the palace at column and rich curtain introduced into portrait painting
Versailles. By this date, the artistic center of Europe had been by van Dyck, are brilliant in color and flamboyant in their
transferred from Rome to Paris; this was symbolized by the general effect.
rejection of Bernini's plans for the Louvre which he had made
a journey to Paris to prepare in 1665. The new self-confidence Flanders. In the 17th century the sourthern Netherlands re-
of the French in art may be seen in their preference for the mained Catholic; the art of this period has an opulent richness
strictly classical facade for the Louvre, designed by Levau and
Claude Perrault (1667—70). The church of the Invalides, Paris, by Jules-Hardouin Mansart; 1680—91

In 1669 Levau designed the new chateau at Versailles to

replace Louis XIII's small shooting box. Levau's design was,

again, for a classical building which depended for its effect

on the grandeur of clear-cut masses. The sheer scale of later

developments at Versailles, however, show a movement
towards the quality of spectacular display we associate with
the Baroque; the garden facade faces the magnificent formal
gardens by Le Notre in which nature itself, controlled and
ordered, is pressed into the service of the King. Vast additions
were made Hardouin Mansart
to the palace itself by Jules

( 1 646-1 708). His most successful work was in the interior;

the Galerie des Glaces has a curved ceiling covered with

painted and stucco decoration, the walls glitter with mirrors.
The lavishness is Baroque, but compared with Italian decora-

tion the illusionism is restrained and the compartments on

walls and ceiling remain sharply separate from one another.
The gardens were decorated with fountains and statues
commissioned from leading sculptors, of whom Franqois
Girardon (16Z8-1715) and Antoine Coysevox (1640-1720)
were the most important. Girardon's style was severely classi-
cal, based on a study of Hellenistic sculpture and of the com-

positions of Poussin; Coysevox seems to have repressed a

natural tendency towards the Baroque in order to conform to
the taste of his time; his later works are more Baroque.
In the last two decades of the century, a tendenq towards

the Baroque became increasingly marked. This was encour-

aged by the more emotionally religious atmosphere and wilder
extravagance of the now declining court. The leading architect

of this period was Hardouin Mansart; his forms remained

classical, but he strove towards increasingly grandiose efttxts

and a richer grouping of the masses. The church of the In-

valides, Paris, (1680-91 is Baroque in us accent on the center
)

of the facade and in the richness of the dome; inside, the inner

dome opens to reveal a second painted dome lit by concealed

windows — a typically Baroque effect.

In sculpture, the works of Pierre Puget (1620-94), who had

worked in Italy from 1640 to [643, showed a direct influence
710 THE BAROQUE

and grandeur very different from the directness of Dutch art. of rich fabrics, of grass, and of water. An abundant confidence
After the religious strife of the 16th century, the Church was in the power of the body, a belief in energy that expresses a
anxious that art should celebrate its power in this most north- religious gratitude for life, is at the center of his style, mani-
ern stronghold in Europe. Another fruitful source of patron- fested both in the joyful festivity of his altarpieces and in the

age were the archdukes and governor-generals with their lustrous skins of his female nudes.
court in Brussels. Rubens spent eight years in Italy (1600—8), where he stud-
In Peter Paul Rubens (1577-1640), both Church and State ied an immense range of Italian art. His aim, like that of
found an artist outstandingly gifted to satisfy their demands Annibale Carracci, was to return to and reinterpret the monu-
for large-scale decoration and glorification. Rubens' art broke mental style of the High Renaissance. Before he returned to
decisively with the northern tradition for small-scale works; Antwerp, he had already produced several key works in the
his art revealed to his contemporaries the immense pos- development of the Baroque; his portrait The Duke of Lerma
sibilities of powerfully naturalistic art. The art of Rubens (Prado, Madrid) introduced the Baroque equestrian portrait:
typifies the Baroque; in it may be found all the characteristics the horse is shown head-on, boldly foreshortened, and
we associate with that style. It is full of power, massive ges- apparently about to break through the picture plane. In his
ture, and dynamic movement; the color is glowing and Madonna adored by Saints (Musee de Peinture et de Sculp-
radiant, the brushworkfree and expressive. It is based on an ture, Grenoble), the billowing draperies, the movement of
intense study of nature, and given an exuberant vitality by his light and air, and the ecstatic expressions of the saints antici-
feeling for the sensuous beauty of surface and texture, of flesh, pate effects developed by Giovanni Lanfranco and Gian
Lorenzo Bernini. His interest in Venetian color became
Preliminary sketch for the Madonna and Child adored by Saints in the

Royal Museum of Fine Arts, Antwerp, by Rubens; oil on wood; characteristic of the High Baroque.
79 x55cm \i • 22m : 1627-8. Staatliche Museen, Berlin In Antwerp, Rubens rapidly moved towards a fully de-

veloped Baroque By the 1620s he had made his most

style.

Baroque the concept of a dy-

distinctive contribution to the —
namic thread of movement which runs through his composi-
tions. The altarpiece Madonna and Child adored by Saints of

1628 (Royal Museum of Fine Arts, Antwerp) rejects the High

Renaissance principle of symmetry and balance; instead,
Rubens creates a sweeping movement which begins in the
bottom right-hand corner and curves through three dimen-
sions up to the enthroned Virgin. This movement into the
composition is answered by the outward movement of St
John, so that the Virgin's throne is framed by a rich oval of

figures. The impression is one of unity and movement; an all-

pervading rhythm binds the figures together, and they seem to

blend and merge into an inextricable whole. The dominant
rhythm is accentuated by the billowing draperies, dramatic
gestures, and expressive brushwork.
In the 1 620s, the sheer scale of Rubens' achievement was
overwhelming; Rubens himself commented that he was better
fitted by temperament for large undertakings than small. He

did many altarpieces, 39 ceiling paintings for the Jesuit church

in Antwerp, designs for tapestries, and a series of decorative
works for Marie de' Medici. The latter inaugurated a new
type of political allegory in which historical, mythological,
and mix or alternate, and in which abstract
Biblical figures
ideas are made
and concrete. In the 1630s, he received
live

important commissions from Charles of England and Philip I

IV of Spain.
In the last years of Rubens' life, the power of his Baroque
style gave way to gentler rhythms and a more lyrical and

romantic mood. This is particularly apparent in his land-

scapes, inspired first of all by a characteristically northern
interest in precisely observed reality. Yet Rubens also had a
feeling for the grandeur and abundance of nature; his paint-

ings show immense, fertile plains that sweep into the distance,
An Aucumn Landscape with a View of the Chateau de Steen by Rubens; oil on wood; 131 x 292cm (52 x 1 15m); C1636. National Gallery, London

full of activity and detail: intense effects of light often trans- Charles I by van Dyck; oil on canvas; 266x207cm (105 x8iin); C1635.
Louvre, Paris
form them into romantic visions.
Rubens dominated Flemish painting, and most famous
painters of the period were connected with his studio. Frans
Snyders (1579— 1657) and Jan Fyt (1611-61) specialized in

still-life and animal painting. The most famous of Rubens'

pupils was Anthony van Dyck (1599—1641). He was Rubens'
leading assistant from 1617 to 1620, and was deeply in-
fluenced by him. Later, he spent seven years in Italy where he
developed a passion for the works of Titian; his religious
works show a response to the emotional pathos of Guido
Reni. From 1628 to 1632 he was back in Antwerp; from 1632
to 1641 he worked in England at the court of Charles I.
By temperament, van Dyck was a very different kind of
artist from Rubens; his art is characterized above all by ele-

gance and refinement. His greatest contribution to European

art was the creation of a new mood in portrait painting; his

portraits of Genoese and English aristocrats gave visual form

to a poetic ideal of aristocracy. In England, his success lay in
his sensitivity to the poetic sensibilities of those around him.
He painted Charles I several times, as warrior, in robes of
state, a la chasse; each painting was a subtle variation on the
theme of divine right, of effortless authority. His portraits of
the Caroline courtiers are less sumptuous than those of the
Genoese nobility; an air of dream-like unreality seems to
hover over them, and they recreate the atmosphere of the
masque and pastoral so fashionable at the court.
Van Dyck brought to the art of portrait painting an abun-
dant fertility of invention, only paralleled by Titian; he cre-
ated new formulae for family portraits, for double portraits,
both full and half length, tor equestrian portraits and for full-
- l 1 THE BAROQUE

lengths set on terraces or within landscape frameworks. The Baroque spontaneity of these Utrecht paintings in-
Jacob Jordaens (1593— 1678) was probably associated with fluenced Frans Hals (c 15 80-1 666), particularly in a series of
Rubens' studio from 16 18. His most distinctive contribution genre paintings from the 1620s. Hals came originally from
was in the field of genre painting; he specialized in painting Flanders; he worked in Haarlem throughout his life, almost
scenes of feasts, and his compositions are crowded, full of exclusively as a portrait painter. His portraits are remarkable
detailand humorous incidents. for their bold directness and informality. He excelled in cap-
The most interesting painters outside the circle of Rubens turing a fleeting expression, most often one full of vivacious
were Adriaen Brouwer (C1605— 38) and David Teniers (1610- energy; he is popularly best known for his paintings of smiles
90). Brouwer specialized in peasant paintings, and in depict- and laughter —witness the famous Laughing Cavalier of 1624
ing the interiors of murky taverns. Often the atmosphere is (Wallace Collection, London). Isaac Massa, painted in 1626,
menacingly violent; Brouwer's peasants snarl and fight like (Art Gallery of Ontario, Toronto) seems just to have turned
animals. Teniers' genre scenes are more decorative and light- in response to some event outside the painting. His pose is

hearted. relaxed and casual; the composition is based on a pattern of

Holland. The northern Netherlands, unlike the south,
volted against their Spanish overlords and by 1648 had
their independence. The new society was essentially middle
class and predominantly Protestant; there was, therefore, little
demand for vast decorative works or for altarpieces and
statues. These bourgeois patrons were more attracted by
small-scale works, realistic, simple, and direct in approach.
The most important large-scale works were group portraits:
diagonals. Liveliness of pose and expression were further en-
re- hanced by the virtuoso freedom of Hals' brushwork. In his
won lifetime, Hals was most famous for a series of group portraits,
executed between 1616 and 1639, of the local militia units.
Earlier group portraits tend to show rather dull rows of heads
all on the same plane; Hals' are more subtly grouped, the
strongly individualized figures arranged in lively and varied
poses; the compositions are organized in depth, and unified by
dramatic diagonals. In the second part of his career, Hals'

of the civic guard companies, the regents of hospitals and portraits became more somber and restrained.
guilds, or the aldermen of towns. Landscape, still life, and genre underwent a similar stylistic

The full Baroque style, then, gained only a small foothold in development. In the early years of the century, paintings were
Holland. Dutch architecture of the period was sober, classical, full of brightly colored realistic details; the compositions,
and restrained. The most important architect was Jacob van however, were artificial, and the artists tended to use a high
Campen (1595-1657); his Mauritshuis at the Hague (1633— viewpoint to include as many details as possible. Landscapes
44) is small and domestic by contemporary standards, the were full of human activity, and still lifes showed a medley of
plain brick walls articulated by a series of correct giant pilas- domestic articles. Around 1620, a school of landscape artists
ters and pediment. The grander Town Hall of Amsterdam in Haarlem — most important were Jan van Goyen (1596—
(1648—55), designed as a monument to the prosperity and 1656), Esaias van de Velde (0591— 1630), and Salomon van
power of the new country, shows nonetheless the same re- Ruysdael (c 1600— 70) — began to use simpler compositions
straint and lack of ornament. and to allow nature itself to dominate man. They concen-
The greatest originality of Dutch 17th-century painters lay trated on the sky and stretches of water, and unified their
in their realistic subject matter; for the first time, painters set compositions by atmosphere; often their colors were a subtle
out to record every aspect of the world around them. They range of grays and grayish greens. For the first time un-
excelled in landscape, still life, portraiture, genre scenes, idealized, natural beauty became the subject of the landscape
animal painting, marine painting, and church interiors. Artists painter; yet these paintings do not lack poetry, which resides
tended to specialize in one kind of subject matter — sometimes in the purity of perception and in the beautiful effects of at-

even more narrowly; there are specialists in moonlit scenes, mosphere and space.
snow scenes, as well as in general landscapes. The main towns In still lifes of the 1620s and 1630s, particularly in the
tended to be centers for different kinds of painting — Haarlem paintings of Pieter Claesz. (1 596-1661) and Willem Claesz.
for landscape, Delft for genre. The century's art was not domi- Heda (1 594-1680/2), there was a similar tonal treatment;
nated by great individuals; Rembrandt remained uncharac- simple subjects — a glass, a herring, a loaf of bread —were
and did not dictate the development of painting
teristic, as clearly grouped. Dutch still life had none of the florid abun-
Rubens did in Flanders. dance of Flemish; they depended rather on the reassuring
In the 1 620s, a group of artists who had traveled in Italy, pleasures of pure perception.
centered on Utrecht, and introduced aspects of Caravaggio's In the second half of the century, landscape painting
style into Dutch painting. They made popular dramatic con- became more grandiose and monumental; the colors became
trasts of light and dark, and often painted nocturnal scenes more firmly structured around a
stronger, the compositions
with artificial light sources. They specialized in large-scale
figures of musicians, drinkers, or violinists, characterized by a
boisterous gaiety and a directness of appeal: these figures Laughing Cavalier by Frans Hals; oil on canvas; 86 x69cm (34x27111);
often reach towards the spectator through a window or door. 1624. Wallace Collection, London
^Bmm^mammmma^ammmmmmm
 —

I 111 BAROQUE 7 i
s

balance of horizontals and verticals, and the mood more

dramatic. The great artists of this generation were Aelbert
Cuyp (1620-91) whose landscapes are characterized by a
hazy golden Koninck (1619-88), who
sunlight, Philips
specialized in panoramic landscapes of immense spaciousness,
and Jacob van Ruisdael (1628/9-82). No other Dutch painter
had so true a sense of the grandeur and heroism of nature;
Ruisdael's landscapes are full of massive trees, great rocks,
rushing waterfalls, and desolate marshes; they are permeated
by growth and decay of nature, of the majestic
a sense of the
movement of clouds, light, and atmosphere.
Still lifes of this period showed more luxurious objects
silver vessels, precious glasses, exotic carpets. Willem Kalf
(1622-93) g ave them a sense of mystery and glamor by using
glowing colors against deeply shadowed backgrounds.
Genre painting reached its greatest heights with Jan Ver-
meer van Delft (1632-75). Most of his paintings show quiet
scenes of domestic interiors or townscapes. Unlike many of his
contemporaries, he had little interest in anecdote; often he
showed single figures, strangely remote, absorbed on some
trivial task — letter-reading, perhaps, or pouring milk. The
Young Woman with a Water Jug, of C1665, (Metropolitan
Museum, New York) has an attractive freshness and all the
charm of apparent simplicity. Yet the more we study it, the
more we see how carefully organized and selected the objects
are, and how precisely located in space; how carefully the
horizontals, verticals, rectangles and round forms are bal- Young Woman with a Water Jug by Vermeer; oil on canvas; 46x42cm

anced. Vermeer's
(18x1 7in) ; c 1 665 Metropolitan Museum, New York
is, then, an art of unusual discipline and .

formal harmony — yet the light, in this case a cool clear day-
light, makes his works intensely poetic too. used the etching needle with unprecedented spontaneity, his
Pieter de Hooch (1629-0685), another Delft artist, etchings were often as elaborately worked as his paintings.
painted domestic interiors and courtyards. He was attracted Rembrandt's earliest paintings were small-scale, dramatic
by more elaborate spatial
effects, and often showed vistas crowd scenes. In the 1630s he went through a flamboyant
leading from oneroom into another. Jan Steen (1626-79), Baroque phase, perhaps in a deliberate attempt to emulate
who worked in many different centers, painted genre scenes Rubens; his compositions were sometimes based on the latter,
packed with humorous incident and full of allusions to old and his forms had a sense of weight and mass that suggest the
proverbs, emblems, and theatrical traditions; his composi- latter's influence. His subject-pictures of this period are
tions have a Baroque vitality, and are often dependent on dramatic, full of violent and exaggerated gestures and ex-
crossing diagonals. pressions; he showed a romantic taste for exotic materials and
The greatest painter in Holland in the 17th century was precious metals. His self-portraits and the portraits of his
Rembrandt Harmensz. van Rijn (1606-69). The son of a family were self-confident and almost swaggering. The Night
miller, he was born in Leiden, where he entered the university; Watch of 1642 (Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam), which shows the
but he left to become a painter. In 1631 or 1632, he moved to parade of a militia company, sums up this Baroque phase. The
Amsterdam where he quickly achieved an international repu- leaders of the company seem to stride out of the painting;
tation and material prosperity. However, after the death of his diagonal movements zigzag into depth; the lighting has a
first wife, Saskia, in 1642, he was constantly beset by financial theatrical glamor.
and personal 1645 he lived with Hendrickje
difficulties; after In the 1640s, Rembrandt's style became quieter and more
Stoffels, but both she and his children died before him. restrained; he rejected Baroque display in favor of a classical
Rembrandt drew, painted, and etched incessantly; he simplicity, and attempted to communicate a sense of inner life.

stretched the resources of all three media to their limits. His He often painted scenes of the Holy Family or from the youth
drawings were usually impulsive, direct studies from nature of Christ, tender and lyrical in feeling, and he took a greater
which provided the stimulus to his imagination; although he interest in landscape.
After 1648 the depth of Rembrandt's understanding of the

The Presentation in the Temple by Rembrandt; oil on panel; 61 X48CIII subtlety and complexity of human feeling, and his unique
(24 x njin); 16} 1. Royal Museum of Art (Mauritshuis), The Hague ability to communicate a sense of man's spiritual as opposed
-16 THE BAROQUE

to his worldly or active life, became more highly developed. A watered-down version of the Baroque decorative style,
The basis of Rembrandt's art had, from the beginning, been based on a use of was introduced to
lllusionistic architecture,

chiaroscuro; bv the late 1640s, it had become a means of England by the Italian Antonio Verrio (C1639— 1707) and de-
creating mood and emotion and suggesting spiritual values. In veloped by Sir James Thornhill (1676— 1734) in the Painted
the portrait of a Woman with an Ostrich Fan (National Gal- Hall at Greenwich (1708-27).
lery of Art. Washington, D.C. , it is the intangible play of light In architecture also, England was isolated from European
and shade that creates the quality of watchful introspection; developments. In the first half of the century, the style of the

the left-hand side of the face receives the strongest light, while ItalianRenaissance was introduced by Inigo Jones (1573—
deep shadows veil all but the eye on the right. The sitter seems 1652). The Queen's House at Greenwich, begun in 161 5, and
withdrawn from the spectator, sunk in a private world of the Banqueting House. Whitehall, of 1619—22, were inspired
meditation; Rembrandt shows none of the Baroque artist's by the style of Palladio; both are restrained and classical
interest in a speaking likeness. buildings. Sir Christopher W'ren (1632— 1723) was influenced
As a Biblical painter, Rembrandt created a new kind of an by Jones' Palladianism, by the Baroque (he had met Bernini in
by his intense sympathy and ability to grasp the essence of a Paris in 1665), and by recent developments in Dutch architec-
human situation. In the late period, his works became increas- ture. After the fire of London in 1666, Wren was commis-
ingly somber; often he chose tragic subjects. His Jacob bless- sioned to rebuild St Paul's Cathedral (1675— 1712) and 51
ing the sons of Joseph of 1656 (Gemaldegalerie Alte Meister, City churches; he also worked on Chelsea and Greenwich
Kassel shows how far he had moved from the Baroque; there hospitalsand Hampton Court. Wren's style, predominantly
is no Rembrandt con-
action or external excitement. Instead was tempered by Baroque elements. The massive
classical,

centrates on the delicate relationship between the figures, on dome of St Paul's is classical; the western facade is Baroque
expressing its significance to each participant. The intensely most obviously in the towers with their contrasts of convex
spiritual atmosphere is created by the glow of light that seems and concave.
to emanate from the figures themselves. A highly original and eccentric development of the Baroque
aspects of Wren's style was produced by his pupil, Nicholas
England. English painting in the i~th century made little con- Hawksmoor (1661— 1736). He was closely associated with Sir
tact with either the Baroque or classical styles thathad de- John Vanbrugh (1664— 1726) whose Blenheim Palace (1705—
veloped in Italy. The dominating influence on painters of the 20) has the colossal scale and theatrical self-confidence of the
period was van Dyck; the best portrait-painters —
there was Baroque; all the forms are weighty, massive, and often delib-
very little painting of any other kind — who were influenced erately discordant, and the detailing is original and highly
both by him and the Venetians were William Dobson, (1610— personal.
4^ and Sir Peter Lely 1618-80;. Dobson's portraits have a HELEN LANGDON
particular interest because they commemorate Charles I's Bibliography. Blunt. A.F. Art and Architecture in France: ijoo—
1^00, Harmondsworth (1980). Gerson, H. and ter Kuile, E.H. Art
court during the troubled years of the Civil War 1642.— 46).
and Architecture in Belgium: 1600—1800, Harmondsworth i960).
Although owing much to van Dyck, was more his mature style
kit>>on. \i. The Age of Baroque, London (1966). Kubler, G.A. and
Baroque; the paint is thickly applied, the backgrounds often
Soria, M. Art and Architecture in Spain and Portugal and their
stormy and crowded with accessories. Dobson thrusts the American Dominions: 1500— 1800, Harmondsworth 1959). Rosen-
sittertowards the spectator by cutting off the design below the berg, Slive. S., and ter Kuile, E.H. Dutch Art and Architecture: 1600-
knees. In mood, his portraits have none of van Dyck's refine- 1800, Harmondsworth 19 — .Sewter, A.C. Baroque and Rococo

ment; they are heartier and more robustly English. Art, London (1972). Tapie, V. L. (trans. Williamson, A.R.) The Age

Sir Peter Lely. a Dutch artist, had arrived in London by of Grandeur, Baroque and Classicism in Furope, London !i96o).
\\ atcrhouse, E.K. Italian Baroque Painting, London (1962). Water-
1 64-, possibly by 1 64 1 . His style was more heavily dependent
house, E.K. Painting in Britain: 1530-1790, Harmondsworth
on van Dyck than was Dobson's; particularly in his portraits _
19-S . YX'inkower, R. Art and Architecture in Italy: 1600-1
of women, he moved towards a stereotype of voluptuous and Harmondsworth (1980 Wolfflin, H. (trans. Hottinger, M.D./ Prin-
.,.

languid beauty. His late works often suggest a pastoral charm ciples of Art History. London 19U Wolfflin, H. (trans. Simon, K.
and prettiness, that leads on to the Rococo. Renaissance and Baroque, London 1 964).
 38

THE ROCOCO

The high altar of the abbey of Weltenburg with St George by Egid Quirin Asam
1716-36 (see page 728)
 THE ROCOCO

The Rococo began

France in the early
as a purely decorative style in
years of the 18th century. Its dis-
ture design.
In southern Germany, the Rococo was something quite dif-

tinguishing features can be generalized into three ferent from the new style developed in France; it culls from
headings: flatness and lack of three-dimensionality in the de- and develops the Baroque rather than trying to get away from
coration, abundance of curved rocaille elements twisting into it. There is little connection with French ideas the main in- —
back-to-back curls, and asymmetrical design. Many forms are fluence comes from the Italian Baroque, often received by way
taken from the architectural features of the French Baroque, of Austria. Native Italian Rococo is also a decorative develop-
but these are flattened out and reduced in scale. ment of the Italian Baroque, used in many thousands of
Because the Rococo was essentially a decorative style it palaces and villas built in Italy during the 18th century.
produced great activity in the fields of smaller decorative ob- Official church and court circles encouraged the more sub-
jects, such as silver and porcelain. Many porcelain manufac- dued architectural style of Baroque classicism.
turers were set up, often at the instigation of a monarch, for The French decorative style and the German decorative
example those at Sevres, Meissen, Nymphenburg, and style are equally important aspects of the Rococo. The former,
Capodimonte, inspired by technical advances as well as bv the spreading throughout Europe and the rest of the world,
decorative possibilities of the material. Furniture became less reflected a new style of living among the rich and fashionable;
architectural and overbearing, and more useful, practical, and the latter was more an end in itself, creating a heaven-bound
infinitely prettier. The great ebenistes (cabinet-makers) work- world of fantasy.
ing in France during the 18th century — J.F. Oeben (C1720—
63 Jacques Dubois (C1693— 1763), Charles Cressent (1685-
. The Rococo in France. The spate of royal building in France
1-68), and J.H. Riesener (1734-1806) —
are perhaps the most at the beginning of the 18th century coincided with a move
consummate and representative artists of the Rococo. In Eng- away from the classical and academic architectural forms of
land, the Rococo was never much more than a type of furni- the 17th century and the formalized lifestyle created by Louis

Embarkation for Cythera by Watteau; canvas; 129x191cm (51x75m); 1-1-. Schloss Charlottenburg, West Berlin
 '1

If!

^ru
The Chambre de I'Oeil de Boeuf, Versailles, decorated by Pierre Lepautre C1700

XIV at Versailles. The King himself began to prefer the more books of the new style.

intimate chateaux at Marly and Trianon to the vistas of Ver- The first important designer of the French Rococo, Jean
sailles, and there was a general exodus to Paris which turned Berain (1637— 171 1), was the main artistic force in the office

into a rout after the deaths of the Dauphin, the Dauphine, and of the Menus government department dealing
Plaisirs (the
their eldest son, between 171 1 and 1713. Although the with the decoration of royal buildings) at the end of the 17th
Dauphin had been the leading patron of the new relaxed spirit century. His engraved arabesque designs, including those for
movement continued and a large number of private
in art, the chimney-pieces and backgrounds to tapestries, were published
hotels were built in Paris. The most important of the new in 171 1 and had a widespread influence on interior design
patrons was Philippe d'Orleans, the King's nephew and the throughout Europe, even though they were no more than sur-
future Regent, and the vagaries of the French economic sys- face patterns applied to preexisting walls and ceilings.

tem created a new class of very rich bourgeoisie who, after Pierre Lepautre (C1648-1716), who had previously been
conjugal union with the old noblesse, regarded a new hotel in . employed in the production of engravings for architectural
one of the fashionable districts of Paris as the ultimate status books, including some with designs by Berain, was in the
symbol. regular employ of the Bdtiments du Roi (the "Royal Works")
The Rococo was a reaction against the pomposity of the from 1699 and seems to have encouraged a greater freedom of
Grand Steele, just as, in France at least, Neoclassicism was line in official decoration. At Marly he raised the cornice and
partly a reaction against the frivolity of the Rococo. However, Chambre du Roi
eliminated the cove of the ceiling of the (he
unlike the interior decorators who displayed the wealth of did the same rooms he decorated at Trianon), and
at the his

their patrons in as abandoned and flamboyant a way as poss- designs for chimneypieces show a new and softer outline in-

ible, the architects of early- 18th-century France had to abide corporating Berain's arabesques into the framework of the

by a number of unwritten rules. The parts of a house had to be wall-panels. His simple, slender proportions contrast with Be-
closely interrelated, and the progression of public rooms had rain's Mannerist complexities, and he makes the all-important
to reflect the decoration — which became steadily richer as a transition from flat decoration to decoration in relief.

visitor proceeded from the entrance hall to the salon. Lepautre was given important work at Versailles, including
The great architectural theorist of mid- 1 8th-century France, the Chambre de I'Oeil de Boeuf with its gilded frieze of danc-
and the most important disseminator of French taste in archi- ing children on the inclined band above the cornice.
tecture and decoration, was Jacques-Franqois Blondel (1705— Claude Audran (1658-1734), perhaps the most important
74). In 1743 ne founded the Ecole des Arts in Paris and his decorative painter of early- 18th-century France, painted
Distribution des Matsons de Plaisance ("The Arrangement of arabesques at the Chateau Anet in 1698 and joined Berain
the Informal Residence") (1737) and Charles-Etienne at Chateau-Neuf, Meudon, in 1699, where his work in the
Briseux's Art de Bdtir des Maisons de Campagne ("Art of Cabinet included a chinaman and monkeys — features that

Building Country Houses', [743) became the standard text later became standard elements for Rococo decoration. Au-
The Hotel de Soubise The exterior of the oval pavilion is severe
and simple; the only decoration is the flurry
above the central windows and the brackets
Hercule-Meriadec de Rohan, Prince de great success. However, his interior designs, supporting the balconies. There is no rustica-
Soubise, married his second wife, Marie- with suites of rooms joined by central doors, tion as on the facade of the building, and the
Sophie de Courqillon, in 1732. Although were considered woefully old-fashioned and, decorated Ionic and Doric pilasters of the rest
only 1 9 years old, she had been the widow of at the suggestion of Hercule-Meriadec, of the garden front are flattened into plain
the Due de Pecquigny for three years. The Delamair was replaced by Gabriel-Germain strips. There is much more plain wall surface
prince's marriage had lasted for 33 years
first Boffrand (1667— 1754) in 1707. here than elsewhere on the Hotel.
and he was in his sixties when he married for Boffrand presumably made the house less Boffrand made up for exterior simplicity
the second time. To placate his young wife, of a 17th-century parade ground and more of with the extravagance of the interior decora-
the prince decided to redecorate his Paris an 18th-century residence. We are not sure tion. The two oval salons inside the pavilion
town house, the Hotel de Soubise, in the what he accomplished by way of interior were the architectural and decorative center-
latest light and airy style, with a suite for decoration in his first period of work on the pieces of his work at the Hotel de Soubise.
himself on the ground floor and a separate Hotel, which probably ended in the early Although the Prince's ground-flour suite, and
suite for his wife on the floor above. 1720s, but the most important change was to the Princess's suite directly above, were deco-
Hercule-Meriadec's father, Francois de move the central doors to the sides of the rated completely by Boffrand, only the bed-
Rohan, Prince de Soubise, bought the site in rooms. It was not until his second period of room and oval salon from each survive as
1 ^00 and commissioned Pierre-Alexis work on the Hotel, the changes for the originally conceived. We must imagine the
Delamair (1675-1745) to design an hotel. Princess, which began in 1732., that Boffrand decoration slowly building up to the climax
Delamair's main facade, with its coupled created the logical terminal to his re- of the oval salon, and the monochromatic
columns and colonnaded courtyard, an up- positioned doors along the main suite of salon of the Prince as a prelude to the blaze of
dated and more elegant version of the Hotel rooms. They lead directly into the center of color and ornament of the Princess's salon.
de Souvre by Pasquier Delisle of 1667, was a the oval salon which was started in 1732 on Both salons are decorated with rounded
the site of the keep of the old Hotel de Clison. spandrels between the arcades of the win-
The oval pavilion joins the major suite to the dows and doors. Those in the Prince's salon
The oval salon of the Soubise, Paris, decorated minor at right angles. are filled with sculptural medallions and
princess in the Hotel de by G.-G. Boffrand, £173
 CLOSE STUDY

allegorical figures by Lambert-Sigisbert M The severe and simple The main facade ot the
exterior of the oval Hotel de Soubise, Paris,
Adam (1700-59J and Jean-Baptiste Lemoyne
pavilion of the Hotel de by P.-A. Delamair; built
(1704-78). Despite the fulsome Rococo frills Soubise, by G.-G. 1700-7
and spills, the iconography of the figurative Boffrand; built ci-u
decoration (for example, Justice, Wisdom,
Astronomy, Geometry;, the subdued color Natoire's paintings are only one of the
scheme, and the virtual restriction of the decorative elements in the Princess' salon; if

decoration to the wall areas, all suggest some they are meant to be the focal point, they are
attempt at seriousness. somewhat overwhelmed by the tumbling gilt

The spandrels in the Princess' salon pre- stucco which frames the paintings, cascades
pare us for the lascivious abandon of the rest down the walls, and twists and curls across
of the decoration. Eight canvases by Charles- the ceiling to form the central rosette. The
Joseph Natoire ( 1 700-77) depict the story of stucco not only acts as a border to certain
Psyche, based on works by Apuleius and La decorative elements, such as the paintings
Fontaine.The earliest dated picture of the and looking glasses, it also joins them to-
series The Nymphs offering Flowers to
is gether with a harmonizing leitmotiv. The
Psyche on the Threshold of the Palace of stucco softens the emphatic architectural fea-
Love of 1737 and the latest Zephyr giving tures such as the recessed panels, the high,
Shelter to Psyche of 1739. Natoire's roseate rounded arches, and the very shape of the
nymphs on their blushing meringue clouds room.
are ideally suited to the room, and demons The finest surviving interior of the French
trate perfectly the artist at his decorative Rococo, the Princess' salon in the Hotel de
best — the undulating rhythm of the composi- Soubise, is the culmination of a much older

tions in the irregularly shaped paintings echo tradition inwhich the various decorative
the undulating line along the tops of the elements of the scheme combine to create a
doors and windows. satisfying whole. Boffrand's architectural

Natoire's eight allegories are the culmina- des Batiments, gave Natoire an opportunity skill combines a strong architectonic skeleton

tion of French decorative painting, a rather to prove himself as an early painter of scenes with a delightful fantasy of decoration, and
outworn tradition by the late 73OS. Another 1 from French history. It was not a success, and provides the necessary central pivot for his
commission roughly contemporary with that N.itoire was evidently happier working in the commission from Hercule-Meriadec de
tor the Hotel de Soubise, tor a scries showing spirit of the Baroque rather than the Neo- Rohan. Prince de Soubise.
the History of ( lovis tor Orry, the Directeur classical. GEOFFREY ASHTON
722. THE ROCOCO

dran's most famous works, apart from his tapestry designs, designed in 1728, show
asymmetry that was to be crucial
the
were the arabesques of C1700 painted for the Duchesse de to the development of Rococo
in his and Pineau's later interior

Bourgogne on the ceilings of La Menagerie at Versailles. designs. The Maison de Sieur Brethous at Bayonne (1733) is
The Due d'Orleans' palace, the Palais-Royal, was redeco- Meissonnier's only room-by-room design for a house. The
rated by Gilles-Marie Oppenord (1672— 1742). He studied in Salon includes a number of new features, such as the
Italy, unlike Berain and Lepautre, but his decorative schemes undulating cornice supported by consoles over the chimney-
are in the latter's new style. In the Chambre a Coucher of piece looking-glass, the volute endings to the door-cases, and
1 71 6, Oppenord did away with an entablature, fusing the the asymmetrical door and pier panels. The wall-panels are
cornice and the cove of the ceiling. In the same year, he gave a much more asymmetrical in the Cabinet of M. Bielenski
richly decorated semicircular end to Mansart's gallery of 1692 (1734, in Warsaw) where the cornice is broken by swirls of
and, in 1717, designed two rooms for the Due d'Orleans' foliage. Meissonnier's engravings were widely influential, and
magnificent collection of pictures. The decoration of one of when his collection of 50 Morceaux de Fantasie was published
these, the Salon a Vltalienne, was so elaborate that little space in 1734, the review in the Mercure for March 1734 called
remained for even the smallest collection of pictures. The them Rocailles et Coquillages, the first time that the term
available hanging space itself was covered with an effusion of Rocaille (Rococo in Italian) was used. All the forms were
decorative panels, similar to those carved on the choir stalls of basically derived from cartouches, like those of Bernard Toro
Notre Dame in Paris, C1711-12, by Franqois-Antoine Vasse (1672-173 1 who was inspired by the 17th-century Italian
)

(168 1— 1736). Vasse also carved the trophies on the pillars and artist Agostino Mitelli.
the reliefs on the pulpit in the new chapel at Versailles in Though the new style, or the style pittoresque, was largely
1708. In the choir stalls at Notre Dame, he created scenes in ignored by France's Academy of Architecture, the Petits Ap-
large, flat cartouches in the middle of highly decorated panels; partements du Roi for Louis XV at Versailles were decorated
his important innovation was to allow the decoration to run in the style of Pineau. The general design was probably the
from the borders into the panels. Vasse took over the leader- work of Jacques-Ange Gabriel (1698-1782), but the influence
ship of the new style from Lepautre, the older artist, who was of Pineau is seen in the relatively low ceilings, woodwork
working in Notre Dame at the same time. painted in pastel shades, and doors set into shallow recesses.
Vasse's sculptural quality is matched by Oppenord's em- There is great freedom in asymmetrical panel moldings and in
phasis on movement, the result of his deep admiration for the line of the cornice, especially in the Cabinet de la Pendule
Francesco Borromini (1599— 1667). In such rooms as the (1738) where scraggy birds leave the cornice and take flight

Salon of the Hotel d'Assy (171 9) and the Salon a" Angle in the across the ceiling.
Palais-Royal, Oppenord's curves and flowing lines are more The culmination of the Rococo style in France is to be
pervasive than in the earlier works of Lepautre and Berain. found less in the work of Nicholas Pineau, however, than in
Oppenord and Vasse represent the mature new style of the the interiors created by Gabriel-Germain Boffrand (1667—
1720s, but took no part in the final asymmetrical phase of the 1754) for the Prince de Soubise in the Hotel de Soubise in

French Rococo. Free and uninhibited by the standards of the Paris (1735-6). The most notable features of the Hotel are
Grand Steele, their decoration was architectonic and con- the two oval Salons, one each for the Prince and Princess.
trived compared to the later works of Pineau and Meisson- The Prince's room has large figurative reliefs in the spandrels
nier. and trophies in the lunettes, but seems subdued when com-
Nicholas Pineau (1684-1754) worked in Russia from pared with the Princess's Salon above it. Here, however, the
C1716 to 1727. His most remarkable work there was the overall effect is richer than in any other French Rococo in-

Cabinet of Peter the Great in the palace of Peterhof (now terior. The spandrels are filled with Charles-Joseph Natoire's
Petrodvorets, USSR; 0720) where his part in introducing paintings of the story of Psyche; open bands of scrollwork rise
asymmetry into French Rococo decoration is already evident from the cornice, and divide the vault by joining in a central

in the arrangement of the carved dragons over the doors. On rosette.

his return to France, Pineau quickly adopted the spirit of the From 1745 until her death in 1764, Mme de Pompadour
work of Oppenord and Vasse, developing his own individual was the Royal Maitresse en Titre and the source of most
style in the early 1730s. In the Hotel de Rouilles, for instance, officialart patronage. She had her favorites Boucher, for —
he gave narrow moldings instead of architraves to the doors —
example but her taste was catholic and she patronized who-
and emphasized height by recessing the door in a thin frame ever was available. It was probably through her influence that
which rose to the ceiling. Pineau continued to decorate until Rococo interiors appeared in the royal residences until well
his death, but after 1735 his work lost its freshness. into the 1760s, despite the excited encouragement given to
Juste-Aurele (1695— 1750) was probably
Meissonnier Neoclassical artists and architects in France from the middle
trained as a silversmith and, in 1726, became Dessinateur de of the 1 8th century.
la Chambre et du Cabinet du Roi (personal draftsman to the

King), a position held at one stage by Berain. A weather vane, The Rococo in Germany. The proliferation of building in
designed for the Due de Mortemart in 1724, and a candlestick southern Germany in the early 18th century was not due
 —

LIT I

The Amalienburg hunting box in the gardens of the palace of Nymphenburg, built by Francois Cuvillies for Electress Amalie; 1734-9

wholly to the thrill of indulging in a new art form. Germany catori, most of whom, like the Zimmermanns and
the Schmut-
was only just recovering from the desolation of the Thirty zers, came from Wessobrun Upper Bavaria, was extremely
in
Years War. There was no large-scale building in this part of important in the development away from the French style
Europe in the second half of the 17th century, and the War of with its domestic scale and relatively formalized lines to the
the Spanish Succession (1701-14) delayed what might have monumentality and florid exuberance of the German Rococo.
been an earlier start. Though essentially an ecclesiastical It was decidedly different to that of the Italian stuccatori,

—
movement a northern artistic Counter-Reformation the — although the ceiling paintings, inevitably surrounded by
German Rococo was also a great and highly secular sigh of stucco work, owe their genesis to the distant examples of
relief and reaction against the strictures of the previous 100 Andrea Pozzo (1642— 1709) and Baciccia (Giovanni Battista
years. Most of the buildings constructed were either churches, Gaulli;1639— 1709) and were often painted by German or
or palaces belonging to high church dignitaries, but the plea- Austrian artists trained in Italy.

sure pavilions and the elaborate pastoral garnitures of archi- Maximilian II Emanuel's main architectural achievement,
tecture-cum-decoration are equally important to the style as a on his return from exile in Paris in 1714 after the end of the
whole. War of the Spanish Succession, was the construction, or rather
However, unlike the French Rococo, which was created for the continuation of the building of the palaces of Nymphen-
a bored aristocracy or rich bourgeoisie, the German version burg and Schleissheim, both of which had been started before
catered for the rural proletariat as well —the simple pilgrim the Elector left Bavaria in 1704. The garden pavilions created
and the ordinary man-in-the-field who wished, now and atNymphenburg are the most important features there, the
again, to escape into never-never land. The French Rococo, most remarkable one being the small hunting box, the
essentially a linear style, is more refined and effeminate than Amalienburg, built between 1734 and 1739 by Cuvillies for
its German counterpart, where a feeling of total conviction the Electress Amalie. The large circular saloon occupying the
and commitment takes the viewer into a land of sweetness and whole of the center of the building is painted blue-white and
chubby smiles. three other shades of blue; the stucco, overlaid with silver foil,

From 1704 to 17 14, the Electors Maximilian II Emanuel of glitters with light from the window recesses and with the
Bavaria, and his brother Joseph Clemens of Cologne, mem- reflections thrown by the many mirrored surfaces. On one side
bers of the Wittelsbach family, were exiled in France while of the saloon is bedroom, painted couleur de
the Electress'
their territories were occupied. Maximilian II Emanuel saw citron (cool yellow) and the smaller blue cabinet; on the other
that the men he later appointed as his court architects, is the hunting room, painted couleur de paille (a straw yellow)

Joseph Effner (1687— 1745), and Francois de Cuvillies and the Pheasant Room. Beyond this is the decorative kitchen.
( 1 —
695-1 768) who also happened to be the court dwarf Franqois de Cuvillies was sent back to France to study
were instructed in the new style. The earliest surviving Rococo architecture under Jacques Franqois Blondel (1705-74), and
interiors in Germany are those created by Paris-trained crafts- was appointed court architect in 1725 along with Effner. He
men for Maximilian II Emanuel in the Pagodenburg (1716- was the first to make use of Rococo scrolling in Germany, in
garden of the Schloss Nymphenburg
19), a pavilion in the his decoration of the Reiche Zimmer (1730-7) in the Munich

near Munich. The most outstanding features here, however, Residenz. In April 175 1 he began to construct his theater in
are the stuccoed moldings which are quite unlike anything to the Residenz, finishing it for the Elector's name-day in Oc-
be found in France. The work of the important Bavarian stuc- tober 1753. The slightly curved horseshoe of the auditorium is
724 "" ROCOCO

resolved into an undulating line by the curvilinear balustrades Cuvillies produced books of engraved Rococo ornament
of the boxes; the lintel, above the stage boxes, dips to follow deriving from French prototypes, in which his fantasy exceeds
the line of the perspective scenes used on the stage.The Cuvil- even that of his executed designs for the Amalienburg, the
lies theater is a beautiful example of delicate Rococo decora- and other interiors in the Munich Residenz.
theater,
tion adding to the completeness of a Baroque theater: a unity Lothar Franz von Schonborn's palace at Pommersfelden
of audience, decorative effect, and stage presentation. It is also was one of the many built in Germany in the early 18th cen-
a reminder of the theatrical nature of all Rococo interiors, tury, in optimistic emulation of Versailles. Because of the
both secular and religious. time-span occupied by construction work, these buildings

The Kaisersaal in the Residenz at Wiirzburg, with its ceiling painted by Giambattista Tiepolo; 1749—54

y§f via

9
The Garden facade of Schloss Sanssouci, built by von Knobelsdorff for Frederick the Great; 1745—53

were often conceived as vast Baroque monsters and subse- Homage to the Bishop of Wiirzburg. The cartouche-carrying
quently decorated in a more intimate Rococo style. This inti- figures in the four corners are the only elements in relief over
macy was developed in the garden pavilions built during the the whole area, contrasting strongly with the Kaisersaal where
1 8th century after the main building had been completed. the paintings are but the most important part of a decorative
Pommersfelden was, unusually, built over a very short period scheme that includes stucco, statuary, variously shaped
of time (171 1— 18): the design was largely the responsibility of window openings, and other architectural features. The oval
the architect Johann Dientzenhofer (1663— 1726) who concur- shape helps to unify the many elements of the room. The two
rently built the nearby church of Banz. main paintings on the ceiling show The Marriage of Frederick
The Residenz at Wiirzburg, also largely a Schonborn con- Barbarossa and Beatrice of Burgundy, illustrating the power
ception,is much grander and more imposing than even Pom- of the Church and The Emperor Giving a Dukedom to Bishop
mersfelden and was begun in 172.0 by the Prince-Bishop Perold, presumably showing the weakness of the Church.
Johann Franz von Schonborn. The principal architect was Various grisaille paintings, in elaborate Rococo cartouche
Balthasar Neumann (1687-1753), but the Prince-Bishop frames, repeat the allegory of the main scenes, intermittently
wrote to ten architects of international repute for their ideas, connected by a frieze of spectators, some painted, some in
including Johann Lukas von Hiidebrandt 1668— 1745), relief, and some cut out. The Kaisersaal at Wiirzburg is the

Robert de Cotte (1656-1735), and Boffrand; many others apotheosis of the German Rococo Gesamtkunstwerk the —
were involved during the 60 years spent building the palace. fusion of elements into a coherent and splendid whole.
Little had been constructed when Johann Franz died in 1724, In the realm of pleasure pavilions, as distinct from the more

and nothing more was added until the election of Friedrich serious status-seeking world of palaces, the Amalienburg has
Karl Graf von Schonborn to the Prince-Bishopric in 1-2.9. only one rival in 18th-century Germany: the Zwinger in Dres-
when Neumann began the south wing. The central pavilion of den, built 1-1 1-22 by Matthaus Daniel Poppelmann (1662-
the Residenz faces a large square on the town side with exten- 1736) for Augustus the Strong of Saxony. It consists of a large
sive facades facing the gardens at the back. In the palace's garden-filled square with long galleries on two sides, one of
Treppenhaus are the Weisser Saal and the Kaisersaal: the which is mid 19th century by
a picture gallery built in the

most grandiose secular interiors of the German Rococo. They Gottfried Semper (1803-79). The other two sides have wings
were begun 0736; their roofing and vaulting was completed with heavily decorated pavilions in the middle of the arc,
by 1742 and the stuccoed interior of the Weisser Saal finished terminating the spaces which were designed to contain tem-
by 1744, two years before the death of Friedrich Karl. Karl porary theater structures. Although the Zwinger is now
I'hilippvon Greiffenklau was Prince-Bishop from 1^49 to unique, it would have been a familiar conceit when built,
-
1754, and commissioned Giambattista Tiepolo (1 696-1 reminiscent of the temporary structures created for state en-
to paint the ceilings of the Kaisersaal and the Treppenhaus tries, festivals, and anniversaries, one of which it replaced.

(1750-3)- North of Dresden, in Frederick the Great's Berlin, Neoclas-

The enormous ceiling of the Treppenhaus 105 ft by 60 ft; sicism began earlier than elsewhere in Germany. This style ran

32 m by 18 m) is painted with The I our Parts of the Earth in parallel with the Rococo in the decoration of royal palaces
Vierzehnheiligen

On 18 June 1 44^. a young shepherd working Abbot of Langheim no doubt wished to

tor the Cistercian monastrv of Langheim saw respond to the Benedictine challenge.
a vision of a naked child, with a red cross An early centralized design for Vierzehn-
over his heart, surrounded by 14 small boys. heiligen by Gottfried Heinnch Krohne
It was the second of several such visions 1 1-03-56) of 1738 was replaced, in 1-42, by
experienced by the shepherd in the same a more conventional plan by Balthasar
place and he was informed by the child, "We Neumann (i68 _'-i753), with a long nave
are the 14 heavenly helpers and want our flanked by three pairs of chapels, a crossing
chapel to be built on this spot . .
." The chapel supported on pairs of columns, and a choir
was built, high on a ridge on the side of the and transepts with polygonal ends. At the
valley of the River Main opposite the much rime, Neumann was working for the Prince-
older Benedictine monastery of Banz. Bishop Friedrich Carl von Schonborn in
By the early 18th century, Vierzehnheiligen Wurzburg on various projects, including the
"14 Saints": had become such a popular Hofkirche in the Residenz. the Schonborn-
place of pilgrimage that the Abbot of kapelle in the Cathedral, and the Kappele, a
Langheim, Stephan Mossinger, asked the pilgrimage chapel just outside the city. When
Prince-Bishop of Bamberg, Friednch Carl work began on the new church at Vierzehn-
von Schonborn, for permission to replace the heiligen in 1-43, Krohne was the architect in
simple chapel with a splendid new church. charge and, taking advantage of the absence
Banz was being rebuilt 1698 onwards by of the bu^y Neumann, substituted his own
Johann Leonard (1660-1707)
the architects version of a long-naved plan. By-44 Abbot 1

and Johann Dientzenhofer 1 663-1 -2.6). The Mossinger noticed that something was sen-

< The second, Grace A The high altar of Above The pilgrimage
altar in the church of Vierzehnheiligen by church of
Vierzehnheiligen, J.J.M. Kuchel Vierzehnheiligen seen
designed by J.J. M. dominating the
Kuchel; ci "64 countryside;
built 1743— ~-
 ( I OSI STUDY

ously wrong, and Neumann was asked to had been used by the Dientzenhofers across and by the lower windows in the upper level

provide a series of alternative designs. the valley at Banz, and by Neumann himself breaking through the /one of the pilaster
Neumann's revised plans —using Krohne's in the Hofkirche in the Wiirburg Residenz, bases. Johann Jakob Michael Kiichel ( 1
703—
foundations, which were partly dictated by but those at Vierzehnheiligen were the first to 69) supervised Neumann's design and contri-
the difficultlie of the land —
provide one of disguise the internal shape of the building. buted the extraordinary Gnadenaltar him-
the most ingenious arrangements of space in Neumann died long before Vierzehn- self. The stucco is by Franz Xavier (
1
705—
18th-century architecture. His problem was heiligenwas completed, so he cannot have 64), Johann Michael Feichtmeyer (1709-72),
to provide two important focal points: the supervised the decoration. However, the and J. G. Ubelherr (1700—63), the ceiling
high altar, and the independent altar of the architectural features closely follow his frescoes by Giuseppe Appiani (1701-96).
Vierzehnheiligen in the apse. St Peter's, model of 1744 in the Historisches Museum The church was consecrated by the Prince-
Rome, with its double focus of the high altar in der Alten Hofhaltung, Bamberg. The Bishop of Bamberg, Adam Friedrich Graf
and the baldacchino under the crossing, was church built in a glorious honey-colored von Seinsheim, on 14 September 177Z.
an obvious inspiration, but Neumann was stone, has a twin-tower facade harking back GEOFFREY ASHTON
unable to put his second altar under the to medieval prototypes. The impression of
crossing because of the inept foundations. height, exaggerated by the dominant geo-
Neumann overcame the problem by design- graphical position of the church, is em-
ing a series of vaults that ignored the crossing phasized by the high, lower rusticated layer,
altogether: a long oval over the votive altar
flanked by two more rounded ovals over the
choir and vestibule. The transepts are cut off
from the main body of the church by gal-
leries, and are almost independent circular

rooms. The galleries and aisles, necessary

features of all German pilgrimage churches
because they required processional routes,
help to mask the conventional ground plan of
the church which is transformed by the
simple but extremely effective system of
vaulting. The intersections of the oval vaults,
which can be read as shallow domes, form
complex arches with three-dimensional
curves. The scheme of intersecting oval vaults

A The facade of I In- interior oi

Vierzehnheiligen Vierzehnheiligen
designed by Balth.1s.1r show ing both the lugli

Neumann .llt.ir and the

< Inadenaltar
 1758), the Schmutzers, and, perhaps most remarkably, the
Asam brothers.
Cosmas Damian Asam (1686-1739), the elder brother, was
basically a fresco painter, and Egid Quirin Asam (1692.-1750)
a stuccatore. Exceptional for German artists of the period,
both had studied in Rome for two years —the small church of
Rohr (1717—23) was designed by Egid Quirin Asam fresh
from Italy. The church is simple, and nothing detracts from
the staggering group depicting the Assumption of the Virgin
beyond the high altar. Zooming through the air, propelled by
two angels and supported by only one iron prop (hidden in the
clouds), the straw and stucco Virgin looks as surprised as the
Apostles around the tomb below, from which she has just
been catapulted. Supremely theatrical and technically bril-
liant, the group is also deeply religious: a three-dimensional
version of a miraculous event and a miracle in itself.

The silver and gold statue of St George riding out of a

magical aura of golden light over the high altar of the Benedic-
tine abbey of Weltenburg (1716—36) is only slightly less

theatrical, but rather more subtle in its impact. The small oval
church was designed by Cosmas Damian Asam, who also
The Assumption of ihe Virgin in the church of Rohr by
painted the ceiling fresco which is separated from the lower
Egid Quirin Asam; 1722
part of the church by a suspended crown. The St George side
altars, with their wealth of stucco and gilding, and the half-
until it took over completely at the end of the 18th century. light effects, were designed by his brother.
Georg Wenzeslaus von Knobelsdorff (1699-175 3) not only It was probably Egid Quirin's idea to build a votive church
built the Berlin Opera House (1741— 3) with its imposing in Munich dedicated to St John Nepomuk, now usually called

Corinthian portico raised on a podium, but also designed the the Asamkirche. The church was squeezed between the
east wing of the Schloss Charlottenburg with its magnificent Asams' house and the presbytery (now destroyed), and has a
and wildly Rococo Goldenegalerie at about the same time. facade resting on a base of sculpted "natural" rock. The three-
His architectural and decorative dual-personality is even more story interior has the high altar at ground-floor level. A gallery
evident at Potsdam, just outside Berlin, where his Stadtschloss above, connecting with the house, has a statue of St John
(174 1-3) had a classical portico reached by flights of steps, Nepomuk silhouetted against the bright light of the window
and the garden palace of Sanssouci (1745—53) was much less behind. A Trinity breaks through the clouds above the statue
pretentious and in the tradition of the Amalienburg. of the Saint and the high altar. The church is not an excuse for
The influence of the Italian Baroque on the architecture of yet another theatrical sideshow, but a personal expression of
the German Rococo —
especially on the architecture of piety by the artist brothers.
—
German Rococo churches came via the great Austrian expo- Johann Michael Fischer (1691— 1766) built for a circle of
nents of the Baroque, Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach patrons that included Clemens August of Cologne and Herzog
(1656— 1723) and Johann Lukas von Hildebrandt (1668- Clemens Franz of Munich, both members of the ruling Wit-
1745); many German designers studied and worked in Austria telsbach family. His churches often feature the bowed fronts
if not in Italy. The main French ecclesiastical prototypes for and central planning of the buildings of his namesake Fischer
German Rococo art, the carved panels in the chapel at von Erlach, but they always provide a clear and decisive set-
Versailles, and the choir stalls in Notre Dame, were slight ting for the Rococo decorations that encrust their interiors.
inspiration —only a few churches were built in France during The great abbey church of Ottobeuren where Fischer —
the 1 8th century, all of them in a severe Baroque style redolent began, in 1744, to work over the plans already prepared by
of the 1 ~th century. Andreas Maini in 173 1, by Dominikus Zimmermann in 1732,

German Rococo churches were designed by a surprisingly Simpert Kraemer in 1737, and by Effner — is the culmination
largenumber of different people, but only two men, Johann of the German Rococo, its largest and richest monument. The
Michael Fischer and Balthasar Neumann, stand out as ornament, however, is subordinate to the architectural con-
architectural personalities who could use and develop the spa- ception. Unlike the interiors created by the Asam brothers, the
tial experiments of the Italian Baroque. Most of the other Rococo decoration enhances, but does not dominate, the
designers were painters, stuccatori, decorators, or sculptors
before they were architects: men like the Zimmermann The interior of the abbey church of Ottobeuren completed by
brothers Dominikus (1685-1766; and Johann Baptist (1680— Johann Michael Fischer; built 17^6-66
 *1

\j
 THE ROCOCO

organization of the space. When viewed from the entrance, obliquely placed pairs of double columns which form an un-
Ottobeuren seems to he conceived as a long building; when dulating line down the body of the church. The parallel out-
seen from the crossing, it looks as though it is centrally side walk are masked by the diagonal emphasis of the groins
planned — the eye is directed vertically rather than horizon- which make a continual figure of eight, and by the unusual
tally. The Rococo decoration begins about 6 ft z m from the positioning of the columns. There is little decoration below

ground, thus helping the vertical emphasis, riots all over the the ceiling, and Neumann's juggling with space remains un-
architectural elements, and at the same time encourages the sullied by subordinate hands.
general impression of space and richness. Dominikus Zimmermann (1685— 1-66) achieved the spatial
The enormous interior of Fischer's abbey church of Wib- dynamism of Fischer and Neumann though on a much more —
hngen is much plainer than Ottobeuren; color is restricted to intimate scale — in his pilgrimage churches of Steinhausen, Die
the ceiling frescoes and to the altars. The walls and sculpted \X les, and Mana-Steinbach. Steinhausen 17x7—35) was built
figures are white, and accentuate the overwhelming space con- in the form of an elongated double cube that has melted into
tained by the Rococo decoration. The library, on the other an oval. The ceiling fresco by Johann Baptist Zimmermann
hand, is highly colored, decorative and frivolous, and is one of ;i68o-i-58). the brother of Dominikus, is framed by a varied
a number of German Rococo abbey libraries built for impor- and delightful series of stuccoed flora and fauna. Figures
tant foundations. They seem to represent an intellectual ec- seated on the entablature are supported by each of the col-
stasy rather than the religious frenzy of the church interiors, umns surrounding the nave. The areas of white are enlivened
and the frescoes and statuary follow strange iconographic se- with pale oranges, greens, and pinks.
quences which are sometimes difficult to decipher but always At Die Wies built 1746—57 a pilgrimage church paid for
.

amusing. Notable examples of abbey libraries include Schus- and built by local peasants, Dominikus Zimmermann uses the
senned i~s4 Dominikus Zimmermann, St Gallen 1 — 5 8—
b> same formula as he did at Steinhausen and at Giinzburg in
67 by Peter Thumb 1681-1-66 Fiirstenzell 1-40-8) ';, 1-36. The large central oval space for the congregation is
perhaps by J.M. Fischer, and Ottobeuren with its statue of surrounded by freestanding double columns supporting the
Minerva. wooden vaults. Around these pillars, the pilgrimage pro-
Yierzehnheiligen 1 -4 J—72 was built from a plan by Balth- cession couldmove along the walls of the church with the
asar Neumann and is his best known ecclesiastical work. The The ceiling is again frescoed by J.B. Zimmer-
greatest of ease.
lie of the land obliged the builder to reduce the size of the mann, though the stucco work is rather less figurative than at
choir indicated in the plan, and Neumann had to modify his Steinhausen. The church has long, irregularly shaped win-
original scheme. The votive altar of the Fourteen Saints, the dows with a small oeil-de-boeuf Window above; the shape of
centerpiece oi the interior of the church, had to be brought this opening is repeated throughout the decoration of the
forward from the crossing into the nave, so Neumann in- church.
vented an ingenious system of vaulting which ignored the In own jewel-like way. Die \X les epitomizes the
its achieve-
crossing altogether. It consists of a large oval over the votive ment of the German Rococo; the careful organization of avail-
altar between the equal oval extending from the choir and the able space, fused with absolute control of light sources,
vestibule. The horseshoe transepts are almost autonomous combines to turn the superabundant decorative elements into
rooms as a result of the large gallery that covers the areas a cohesive whole.
between the walls of the church and the central ovals as far as GEOFFREY ASHTON
the crossing. This spatial complexity is not obvious from
inside the church: the Rococo decoration softens the tran- Bibliography. Hempel, E. Baroque Art and Architecture in Central
Europe, Harmondsworth 1965 Hitchcock, H.R. Rococo Architec-
and everything blends into a series of curves.
sitions,
.

ture in Southern Germany, London 1968). Kimball, S.F. The Crea-

Another triumphant arrangement of space of the German
tion of the Rococo, Philadelphia (1943). Kalnein, W.G. and Levey.
Rococo, the Benedictine abbey church of Neresheim. was
M. Art an J Architecture of the Eighteenth Century in France. Har-
begun by Neumann in 1-45 although the decoration as not mondsworth 19-;. Powell, N. From Baroque to Rococo, London
completed until 1-92. It is a large church with an enormous, 1959). Wirtkower, R. Art and Architecture in Italy: 1600-1-'
flat central cupola flanked by two smaller ones, as well as Harmondsworth 1980).
 39

NEOCLASSICISM

The Apotheosis of Homer; relief design by John Flaxman, vase by Josiah Wedgwood;
jasper ware; height 47cm (19m); C1785. Castle Museum
and Art Gallery, Nottingham (see page 738)
-;i NEOCLASSICISM

Neoclassicism, a stvle that began in the r 8th Eighteenth-century enthusiasm for the past first appeared in

century and developed throughout the 19th, was par- Rome where between 1700 and 172.1 Pope Clement XI col-
ticularly important in the arts of France and northern lected and maintained Roman antiquities. Clement's suc-
Europe, though few countries remained unaffected by its in- cessors continued the practice — in 1734 Clement XII opened
fluence. The style originated from a dissatisfaction with exist- the European public museum of antiquities. Excavations
first

ing artistic traditions among European artists and writers. It began at Herculaneum in 1738 and at Pompeii ten years later.
was felt that a reexamination of the arts of Antiquity might This interest in restoring ancient ruins and art objects encour-
regenerate accepted creative standards; the movement there- aged scholars from all over Europe to visit Italy and record
fore became a revival of the ideals and images of the ancients. their finds in large books of engravings. The first important
Neoclassicism became so popular that it influenced 1 8th-century publication to extend the layman's knowledge of

ceramics, furniture, and textiles as well as dictating the inspi- Roman art was written by a Frenchman, the Abbe Bernard de
ration of painters, sculptors, and architects. It is fairly easy to Montfaucon (1655-1741), and appeared in Paris in 1719.
recognize the works of artists or craftsmen of this period be- Entitled L'Antiquite Expliquee et Representee en Figures
cause the articles they made often display a similarity of basic (English translation 172 1-5: Antiquity Explained and Rep-
construction. was important for Neoclassical designers to
It resented in Figures) it became a valuable source of informa-
work in simple forms and colors, avoiding all unnecessary tion for subsequent generations of writers and artists. Later
complication. This applied to architecture as much as to books, however, became more accurate and specialized as
painting and sculpture so that the arts became formally scholars traveled further in search of the past; in 1758 Julien-
geometrical and austere, rejecting the bright colors and move- David I.eRoy (1724— 1803) published Les Ruines des Plus
ment of the previous Rococo and Baroque styles. Beaux Monuments de la Crece ("Ruins of the Most Beautiful
By the end of the 18th century the aim of the Neoclassical Monuments in Greece"), the work to deal specifically
first

artist was to reproduce the forms of Greek and Roman art as with Greek architecture. Robert Wood's Ruins of Palmyra
authentically as possible. However, it was not until the trade (1753) showed the architecture of the Middle East, and Stuart
routes to Greece and the Middle East were freed from Turkish and Revett's Antiquities of Athens (1762) again dealt with the
domination that archaeologists could find and publicize genu- architecture of Greece. The writers were limited by the
ine antique works. Consequently there are stylistic variations amount of material they could find, but the quality of the
within Neoclassicism itself: some artists, in reaction to the engraved illustrations in these books is generally superb. Their
frivolous themes treated by their Rococo predecessors, felt influence on later architects and designers as pattern books is

that they should treat serious subjects; others explored the inestimable.
heroic literature of the remote past, using Roman and Greek One unique quality in these publications was the authors'
antiquities as models for portraying the stories. Sometimes tendency to romanticize the past. This appears in the texts as

artists read the descriptions of lost works by ancient painters well as in the illustrations and is particularly noticeable in the
and sculptors written by such writers as Pliny. work of the Italian engraver G.B. Piranesi (1720-78). His
The interest in historical accuracy distinguished Neoclassi- Vedute di Roma {Views of Rome; 1748) showed Roman ruins
cism from the more conventional ideology of the classic revi- in a markedly dramatic manner. Piranesi transformed the
val. The latter relied on traditional styles derived from con- crumbling edifices of Imperial Rome
sumptuous monu- into
cepts of beauty and decorum established by High Renaissance ments. Sometimes they are set against stormy skies, and over-
artists, for example Raphael (148 3-1 520) and Michelangelo grown with fantastic foliage. The effect of these engravings
1 4-5—1 564). Neoclassicism did not reject these accepted was so startling that later travelers to Italy Goethe among —
ideals but the movement was concerned to produce accurate —
them were disappointed on seeing the real buildings. This
reconstructions of antique works of art. This does not imply same romantic nostalgia and sense of drama also permeated
that the Neoclassical artist was a conscious plagiarist, but he the writings of 1 8th-century scholars when they described
was bound by strict rules. For example, if an artist painted a Antiquity. A sentimental dream of a vanished golden age
Roman soldier, he was obliged to make the armor and haunted and writers of the 18th century. By 0760 the
artists

weapons historically correct; if he illustrated a
Homer's Iliad, he would keep exactly to the text. Some artists,
John Flaxman (1755—1826) for example, even taught them-
selves to read Greek for illustrating Greek words and at-
tempted to produce artificially "primitive" illustrations that
approximated to 18th-century notions of painting
scene from onus was on the artist to produce a replica of that age that was
both authentic and evocative.
The most influential Neoclassical writing appeared in a
pamphlet written and published by a German librarian,
Johann Joachim Winckelmann (1717-68). Entitled, in Eng-
at the time lish, Reflections Concerning the Imitation of Greek Works in

of Homer. The same kind of demand influenced the designs of Painting and Sculpture (1755), it formulated a fairly concise
everyday objects and fashions: by 1800 chairs, beds, clothes, set of instructions for 18th-century artists to follow. Winckel-
and even ladies' hairstyles were fashionably "Greek", that is, mann did not assume the position of connoisseur or archaeo-
they were based on the objects and descriptions recently dis- logist, trying to interpret the past according to the information
covered by archaeologists. at his disposal; instead, he conceived a personal vision of
A view of the temple of Jove from G.B. Piranesi's book of prints "Views of Rome"; published in 1748

Greek society, mainly from reading Homer's Iliad and Odys- late- 18th-century artists. For Winckelmann the supreme
sey. He wrote a vividly imaginative account of the heroism artistic ideal was embodied in the Hellenistic figure of the
and physical beauty of the Greek people and described how Laocodn: it represented an unrivaled expression of stoicism.
the Greek artist was inspired to produce works that exem- Although tormented to the point of death, the noble figure still

plified such perfection. Winckelmann saw the Greek cult of preserved an outward calm. Winckelmann wrote:
physical excellence as expressing the development of an inner,
spiritual beauty; he asserted that the Greek sculptor had
The outstanding character of the Greek masterpiece is thus a
noble simplicity and a calm grandeur . Such a soul is por-
. .

learned to portray this spiritual beauty through almost imper-

trayed in the face of Laocoon . . . We too would wish to endure
ceptible means. Winckelmann stressed the serious nature of
misery with such fortitude.
the artist's profession among ancient people and invited the
18th-century artist to examine the great works of Antiquity This comment on a work of art expresses two major
and to change his style into a similarly elevated expression of tendencies which eventually became fundamental to Neo-
heroic sentiments. classicism: the first is the intensely subjective nature of most
Winckelmann himself had little first-hand knowledge of Neoclassical criticism; the second is the moral fervor that
antique though, despite the extreme poverty of his early
art, underlies Neoclassical creative work. Five years before
years, he had managed to acquire a classical education. He Winckelmann wrote his pamphlet, in 1750, Jean-Jacques
had first worked as a schoolmaster and then as a librarian to a Rousseau had delivered a prize-winning essay to the Academy
rich scholar in Dresden. He was lucky enough to become a of Arts and Sciences at Dijon. In this work, known as A Dis-
protege of the King of Saxony, Augustus III, whose family had course on the Sciences and the Arts, Rousseau had demanded
formed an impressive collection of works of art: it was in the a series of drastic reforms in 18th-century French art. Both
Royal Collection at Dresden that Winckelmann first saw frag- Rousseau and Winckelmann regarded the lightweight content
ments of ancient statues and plaster casts of Roman copies of Rococo art as positively damaging to the society that coun-
after Greek prototypes. These included such famous images as tenanced it. Like Winckelmann, Rousseau wanted to see ar-
the Laocodn and the Apollo Belvedere. From studying them tists exhibit subjects conveying a morally edifying purpose,
Winckelmann maintained that Greek sculpture was calm and but Winckelmann's pamphlet outlined the actual vocabulary
smooth, made to reject facial or bodily distortion. He argued of such an art: was to be based on the pictorial language of
it

that few modern masters had learned to recreate nature as the dreece and Rome.
(reeks had done. The exceptions were Raphael 48^-1 520),( 1 Winckelmann's pamphlet was instantly successful and en-
Michelangelo (1475— 1564), (1489-1534), and
Correggio abled him to realize his lifelong ambition to live in Rome.
I'oussm [1594— 1665), who were also to become models for Here he became librarian to a leading collector and scholar,
734 NEOCLASSICISM

Cardinal Albani, and also met a fellow countryman, the convention of the death of an antique hero into the Death of
painter Anton Raphael Mengs (1728-79). These three men General Wolfe (1770; National Gallery of Canada, Ottawa),
the scholar, the collector, and the painter collaborated to — a historic scene showing a battle that had taken place in 1759.
produce the first Neoclassical painting, completed by Mengs Many contemporaneous British artists who felt inclined to
in 1 76 1. It was painted on the ceiling of Cardinal Albani's attempt a more doctrinaire Neoclassicism found opportunities
gallery of antique sculpture in his Roman villa (the Villa for work in Rome, by now the European capital of the whole
Albani). Entitled Parnassus, it represents Apollo with the Nine movement.
Muses and comprises so many academic references that it One of the most influential of these proto-Neoclassical
appears to be rather like an 18th-century art-historical com- painters was, in fact, British: Gavin Hamilton (1723—98),
pendium. The composition was copied from a fresco by who lived in Rome from the mid 1740s until his death. Hamil-
Raphael in the Vatican (which also shows Apollo with the ton executed many paintings of subjects from Homer. Essen-
Nine Muses on Mount Parnassus), and the central figure of tially transitional works, they incorporate dusky but vivid
Apollo imitates the famous Apollo Belvedere so closely that colors and show figures who employ sweeping, flamboyant
few knowledgeable 18th-century spectators could have mista- gestures. Hamilton also exploited his interest in archaeologi-
ken the analogy. However, this kind of artistic game of cross- cal details, which was extensive because he was a dealer in
reference was probably quite intentional since Winckelmann's antiquities as well as a painter. His work was well-known in
theory of imitation was a major influence on the formation of France, mainly through the engravings of Domenico Cunego
the picture. Additionally, Parnassus was designed as a decora- (1727—94), and it had a profound effect on masters like

tion for a room whose function was that of exhibiting antique Jacques-Louis David. Other British artists who tried to find a
works of art. The painter's synthesis of famous prototypes market in their own country were influenced by Neoclassi-
was therefore eminently suitable. cism, even if they did not completely absorb the rules of the
1
Nevertheless, Mengs painting of Parnassus does share the work. The heroic masterpieces of James Barry
style into their

stilted academic quality of many early Neoclassical pictures. It (1741— 1806), the rather primitive paintings of William Blake
indicates the uneasiness felt by European painters as they at- (1757— 1827), and the classically garbed ladies who appear in
tempted to meet the rules of the new style. Winckelmann's portraits by Sir Joshua Reynolds all owe something to the
pamphlet had initiated a quest for an ideal art reached only intervention of fashionable Antiquity.
through the imitation of ancient masterpieces not easy to It was in France that Neoclassical art became the subject of
fulfill in practice. This pamphlet was translated into English in acute debate. Diderot campaigned from 1761 to 1781 to im-
1765 and its circulation coincided with a movement towards prove the subjects, values, and techniques of French painting.
artistic reform in several European countries. Subjects from Having mercilessly criticized the late Rococo works of the
ancient history and literature were already becoming popular aged Francois Boucher (1703—70), Diderot found an artistic
among painters and sculptors. In England, after the foun- protege, the painter Jean-Baptiste Greuze (1725-1805),
dation of the Royal Academy in 1768, numerous Classical whose moralizing family scenes seemed to promise a career
subjectsdominated the annual exhibition and the training devoted to the improvement of French art. Nevertheless, Di-
program in the Academy's School. Sir Joshua Reynolds derot ruthlessly abandoned Greuze in 1769 when the artist
(1723—92) preached a modified version of the worship of entered his first authentic Neoclassical work as a morceau de
Antiquity to Academy students in his Fifteen Discourses given reception ("presentation piece") at the French Academy.
between 1769 and 1790. Reynolds also thought that selective Greuze had painted a scene showing the Emperor Septimus
imitation was a beneficial foundation for 18th-century artists; Severus reproaching his son Caracalla for having plotted
however, his opinions were those of a classical revivalist who against his life. The picture combined copies after antique
was inclined to place the Neoclassicist's direct dependence on statues with a composition directly dependent on Poussin. It

Antiquity within the more conventional academic structure of was a brave attempt to reconcile the artistic idealization de-
Renaissance and 1
-'th-century art. scribed by Winckelmann with the stern and moving senti-
Neoclassicism was probably less popular in England than in ments of an event from Roman history. However, in trying to
other parts of Europe, though it had a major influence on the achieve historical accuracy and convey an inspiring theme,
first generations of students at the Academy. Between the mid Greuze had produced a picture which, ironically, failed to

1 760s and 1 770s Benjamin West (173 8-1 820), an American reach the standards established by the French Academy for
painter who eventually succeeded Reynolds as President of the serious history painting. Severus and Caracalla (1769;
Royal Academy, produced a number of classically inspired Louvre, Paris) is, in fact, a key work for the development of
canvases. These treated mainly scenes from Roman history Neoclassical painting in France, but in 1769 it was criticized

and were painted in cool colors with their figures arranged in as lacking in proportion and failing to express the theme in

the foreground like a frieze. However, by the last decades of sufficiently strong pictorial terms. However, in his search for a
the 1 8th century Greek and Roman subject matter was be- solution to this problem of uniting aesthetic theory with artis-
coming subordinate to a new vogue in England for contem- tic Greuze was not alone. Another early Neoclassical
practice
porary histories. It was West himself who metamorphosed the French painter, Joseph Vien (1716-1809), attempted to com-
 NEOCLASSK ISM 735

bine the popular erotica of 18th-century French Rococo paint- was an on the passing of human glory. The principal
allegory
ing with the outward trappings of Antiquity. The result was figure, a once-famous Roman general, now a blind beggar, is

ingenious, showing inconsequential Rococo subjects in which
the figures were dressed in antique-styled drapery with match-
ing hairstyles, and inhabited interiors decorated with
archaeologically "correct" furniture and fittings.
Vien's most famous pupil was Jacques-Louis David (1748—
recognized by one of his former soldiers. The setting recalled
the pictures of Nicolas Poussin to whom David owed much of
his inspiration and who provided the 18th-century artist with
an illuminating model. Diderot hailed David's painting as a
new artistic achievement, and although he was not to live long

1826) who became one of the greatest Neoclassical artists and enough to witness David's ultimate success, his maxim "Paint
produced outstanding works based mainly on subjects from as they spoke in Sparta" could have been taken as literal
Roman history. His severe style subordinated the superficial instruction by the young painter. In 1784 David returned to
imitation of antique prototypes to the importance of restricted Rome to another commission: the famous Oath of the
fulfill

detailand emphatic action: few artists could have painted Horatii (1785; Louvre, Paris) which is the most impressive
such masterpieces within such a narrow set of rules; few had Neoclassical work ever painted.
so stormy a career. David's life, ruined by political involve- David's Neoclassical pictures often portray similar subjects:
ments, ended in exile in Belgium. individuals who bravely accept their fate and are undefeated
After five years in Italy as a student, from 1775 to 1780, by circumstance. In theDeath of Socrates (1787; Metropoli-
David was totally converted to the new creed of Neo- tan Museum, New York) the hero takes the cup of hemlock
classicism. Overwhelmed by the visual impact of the Greco- almost casually as he continues his discourse to mourning
Roman art he had seen in Rome and Naples, David contri- friends. Brutus (1789; Louvre, Paris) portrays the consul
buted a series of stunning canvases to the annual exhibition in seated beneath a statue that symbolizes the city of Rome.
Paris, after his return to France. His pictures mainly repre- Behind him lictors carry into the house the bodies of Brutus'

sented ancient themes of stoicism, a philosophy that was to own sons, executed at the command of their father because
haunt David throughout his career. The first, Belisarius Beg- they plotted against the state. These paintings had a profound
ging Alms 1 780-1; Musee des Beaux-Arts, Lille), was seen by
( effect on 18th-century French spectators. David's style was an
Diderot at the Salon of 178 1, a year before the writer died. It essentially personal interpretation of Neoclassical artistic

Electra leading a procession to the tomb of Agamemnon, one of John Flaxman's influential illustrations for the works of Aeschylus; published in 1795

.
Oath of the Horatii by David
writings of Livy, Plutarch, and Dionysius of
Halicarnassus; subsequently it gave the
French dramatist Corneille (1606—84) tne
Oath of the Horatii (Louvre, Paris) depicts a David's picture, grief-stricken women proph- theme for one of his greatest tragedies. First
stirring scene from Roman history in which esy an inevitable tragedy. After the battle in performed in 1640, Corneille's Horace ap-
patriotic Jutv conflicts with family ties. which the Horatii triumph, although only the peared on the Paris stage in 1784, the year
Rome is at war with Alba, a neighboring oldest survives, Camilla, their sister, portray- David completed his picture. But no literary
state; their conflict is to be resolved by three ed here as the girl in white, reproaches the text described the Horatii's oath and David
heroes from each side fighting to the death in victor for the death of herAlban lover and is probably turned for inspiration to another
hand-to-hand combat. Chosen by the herself killed by him. Inone drawing, David picture —exhibited in 1 77 1 by the minor
,

Romans as their representative warriors, the chose to represent the death of Camilla but Jean-Antoine Beaufort (17ZI— 84) the
artist —
three brothers Horatius swear on swords later decided in favor of the earlier event Oath of Brutus (Musee Frederic Blandin,
held by their father to defend their country at where three generations of the Horatius Nevers). David himself said of the Horatii:
all costs. The oath is not taken lightly since family watch the terrible vow taking place in "If I owe my subject to Corneille, I owe my
the Horatii are related by marriage to their the atrium of their house. picture to Poussin." Having selected a con-
opponents, the Alban Curatii. On the right of The story of the Horatii is told in the stricted, heroic style for the subject, David

A 2 >c .nh of Germanicus T A sketch by David for Distribution of the also achieved the diffuse lighting, monumen-
bv Poussin; oil on Oath of
a painting of the Eagles by David; oil on tal gestures, and smooth brushwork con-
canvas: 148X 198cm thejeu de Paume; -9 can vas; 6 1 o x 9 3 1 cm
1 1
sonant with the 17th-century artist's own
: [627. Versailles (24OX }6-in ; 1810.
Minneapolis Institute of Versailles
greatest pictures that represent antique hero-
Arts ism, notably the Death of Germanicus (Min-
neapolis Institute of Arts).
As the first distinguished Neoclassical
painting, David's Horatii epitomizes the
movement's love for precisely copied antique
costume, edifying subject matter, and simple
imagery. But the wiry toughness of the male
figures, sharp contours, and subtle high-
lights — which make every detail distinct —are
entirely individual,and typical of David's
finest work. The hand of the elder Horatius,
clenched around the swords, forms the apex
of a triangle which leads the beholder's eye
down through the arms of the heroes and
across to the answering contrast of the deso-
late women.
Commissioned for Louis XVI by the Direc-
tion des Bdtiments and completed by David
in Rome in 1784, the Oath of the Horatii
was first shown publicly in the artist's
Roman studio early in 1785. News of the
soon reached Paris. From
picture's success
Rome, David wrote repeatedly to France
 ( LOSE STUDY

imploring a favorable place at the Salon and Oath of the Horatii by T From Oath of the From Oath of the
the sensational reception accorded to the David; oil on canvas; Horatii, the apex of the Horatii, a woman
Oath of the Horatii when 330x425cm left-hand figure comforts the two
it finally appeared
(1 ?ox 167m) Louvre, composition members of the youngest
there ensured David's future eminence and Paris generation
prosperity as the most highly acclaimed
painter in France. In1 786 he painted a

reduced variant for the Comte de Vaudreuil

(Toledo iMuseum of Art). He also produced
two more "oath" compositions: Oath of the
Jeu de Paume (1791), never completed and
known only from sketches, and Distribution
of the Eagles (1810; Versailles). In both
works the antique heroism of the Horatii is

transformed into a heroic representation of

contemporary history.
SARAH SYMMONS

Further reading. Friedlander, W. Vrom David to

Delacroix, Cambridge, Mass. '19511. Honour, H.
Neoclassiasm, Harmondsworth |
1968). Levey, M.
Rococo to Revolution, London (1966). Rosenblum,
K. / ransformations in I. ate I tghteenth Century Art,
Princeton (1967).
 \EOCLASSIClsM

rules. His pictures are simple in construction: all action is It was not long before more
similar patterns appeared in the
confined to the foreground and the colors he uses maintain elevated branches of the arts. Wedgwood's most eminent de-
cool, consistent tones. By means of this formal simplicity, the signerwas the English sculptor John Flaxman (1755— 1826),
sentiments conveyed are made doubly arresting. who exploited the commercial precedent of Wedgwood's pot-
Like Rousseau, David felt that it was the artist's moral duty tery by applying comparable abstractions of figures both to
to paint elevated subjects and that these subjects should be his sculpture and to his graphic work. During a long study
rooted in ancient notions of virtue. Such notions could also be period Rome, from it8t to 1794, Flaxman was commis-
in

applied to the way in which the painter depicted contempor- sioned to draw a series of illustrations to the works of Dante,
ary events. In his speeches to the Convention in the earliest Homer, and Aeschylus. The artist intentionally designed a
years of the French Revolution, David expressed the belief composition that rejected all graphic illusion and made his
that works of art might become inspiring to future generations illustrations flat and colorless, drawn and printed in thin out-

of spectators. In fact, the compelling nature of David's paint- lines which formed austere patterns over the white back-
ings is sometimes considered as propaganda for the Jacobin ground. The success of these designs was almost unequaled in

cause. However personally disastrous David's commitment to the history of illustration. They were published in new and
politics —
may have been he was imprisoned after the downfall repeated editions throughout Europe and America in the 19th
of —
Robespierre the quality of his work became supremely century and were frequently pirated. And they exercised a
expressive at the time of his most violent political activity. His unique influence as formal pattern books on several genera-
talent for striking exactly the right note in a painting directly tions of 19th-century artists.
relevant to contemporary issues appears in the Death of The strange forms of many works of art and design pro-
Marat 1793; Musees Royaux des Beaux-Arts de Belgique, duced at the end of the 1 8th century were manifestations of an
Brussels). Here David concentrated on a single figure, which artistic creed of primitivism. The search for authentic, ancient
occupies the whole canvas: a figure visually analogous to a images and the uncluttered truth of representation reached
piece of ancient sculpture because it forms a pale silhouette back to the roots of civilized society itself. Between 1803 and
against the darkness of the background. It is, however, a por- 1805, two young German artists, the brothers Franz and
trait of the corpse of Jean-Paul Marat, an imaginatively recon- Johannes Riepenhausen, produced a series of rudimentary line

structed scene of immediately after the subject's assassination drawings which they felt approximated to lost paintings from
b\ Charlotte Corday which had taken place on 13 July 1793. the time of Homer. In England, the poet and engraver William
For French spectators of the 1790s, this work by David Blake (1757— 1827) spent his life delving into ancient art
formed a pictorial balance between the stark heroism of Anti- forms and became convinced that a flat, linear style such as
quity and the sordid reality of political murder. The French Gothic was closer to the primal ideal than the art of Classical
poet and critic Charles Baudelaire observed in 1846 that such Antiquity. In France, David's pupils denounced their master,
a perfect visual expression of pathos put David's Death of criticizing his work for being"Rococo": they founded a new
Marat far beyond the associations of political bias; it also puts sect, "Les Primitifs", which they tried to unite art and life in
in

it beyond any superficial Neoclassical displays of scholarly a general effort to recreate remote Antiquity. It was in answer
learning. David placed the remote source material of the Neo- to the abuse of these students that David painted his most
classical artist within the comprehension of ordinary spec- artificially "primitive" work, The Sabine Women ending the
tators, without compromising the original ideal. Battle between the Romans and the Sabines (1799; Louvre,
In 1 -66-- and 1-91-3 Sir William Hamilton had a number Paris), whose composition was based on an illustration by
of volumes of engravings published which showed the com- Flaxman and an engraving from one of the "Etruscan" vases
plete collection of his "Etruscan" vases. The ambassador's in the Hamilton collection. Nevertheless, such traditional

collection was eventually given to the British Museum, Roman histories were no longer considered exclusively
London, where much of it can still be seen.) The decorative worthy of the artist's skill. Homer's works were still over-
designs of these vases caused many scholars and artists to whelmingly popular as subject sources for painters and sculp-
reconsider their original assumptions about the artistic con- tors but new subjects were recommended: sources as diverse
ventions of Antiquity. The ceramic paintings were emphati- as the Bible and reconstructed verses of the Celtic bard
cally primitive, consisting mainly of elongated figures worked Ossian, which were greatly admired in Europe at the end of
into flat patterns. The subsequent rage for vases and vase the 1 8th century. This widening of Neoclassical interests ap-
paintings became another facet of international Neo- pears in the work of Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres (1780—
classicism. From the late i-6os, Josiah Wedgwood's pottery 186^), a pupil of David, who carried Neoclassicism through
factory in Staffordshire created an enormous international to the second half of the 19th century. Ingres revered the
market for modified versions of antique ceramics. The most masters of the past and copied their styles quite openly in his

popular style invented by Wedgwood was "Jasper Ware", a work. Eventually he created a unique synthetic style with
combination of white motifs on a colored background, gener- adaptations after Raphael and Poussin, early Renaissance and
ally blue or green, which paralleled the hard-edged silhouettes Gothic art, Flaxman engravings, primitive vase designs, East-
painted on the sides of authentic antique vases. ern art, and Roman wall-paintings.
 NECK LASSICISM ~39

Like his contemporaries, Blake and Flaxman, Ingres argued of Ingres' paintings, also makes the artist's work uniquely
that ideal art had developed from a supremacy of line over progressive. Each painting by Ingres establishes its own pic-
color. This accounts for much of the experimental nature of torial laws, regardless of conventional perspective or anat-
his work, when he copied subjects from Homer into undulat- omy. Ingres made the painted world an autonomous reality,
ing, flatly colored compositions, for example Venus Wounded distinct from evervday life. It was this abstraction in pictorial

by Diomedes (1805; Offentliche Kunstsammlung, Kunst- terms that not only divided Ingres' work from that of his
museum, Basel:. These were condemned by French critics for master, David, but also made Ingres a source of inspiration for
their primitive qualities. The restricted character of Ingres' early- 20th-century masters like Picasso. A picture like Ingres'
inspiration led him to a doctrinaire means of expressing the Antiochus and Stratonice (1839; Musee Conde, Chantilly) be-
aims of Neoclassicism. In The Apotheosis of Homer (18Z7; comes, therefore, an ultimate development of Neoclassical
Louvre, Paris) Ingres painted a ceiling panel for the Salle painting. The figures are perfectly static; the setting, which
Clarac of the Louvre which recalled the ceiling painting by Ingres copied exactly from a Pompeiian interior, monumen-
Mengs of Parnassus (Villa Albani, Rome): neither picture talizes this stillness.As the most personal expression of an
made any concessions to the spectator and both were inten- artistic doctrine, Ingres' picture confirms the fact that Neo-

tionally derivative. In his version Ingres portrayed the most
eminent personalities in the history of human culture, includ-
ing Raphael, Mozart, Poussin, Dante, Orpheus, and Apelles.
They are arranged before a Greek temple to pay homage to
Homer, who is being crowned by a winged Victory. At
Homer's feet are two seated female figures, personifications of
the epic masterpieces, the Iliad and the Odyssey, which had
provided so much inspiration for Neoclassical artists. Like
Winckelmann, Ingres placed the achievement of Greek culture
above even the greatest masters of succeeding civilizations.
Nevertheless, this doctrinaire ideal, which forms the basis
classicism was perhaps the most artificial of any European art
movement.
An analogous development towards formal simplicity ap-
pears in Neoclassical architecture. European architects who
began studying Greek and Roman buildings intending to —
—
copy them for wealthy patrons became more ambitious: the
Neoclassical architect became the Neoclassical town-planner
and studied the writings of the ancient Roman architect, Vit-
ruviuv Neoclassical urban projects usually showed architec-
tural complexes based on regular grid or semicircular systems
which avoided cramped streets and small, mean dwellings.

Antiochus and Stratonice by Ingres; oil on canvas; 57x98cm (22x39m); 1839. Musee Conde, Chantilly
~40 NEOCLASSICISM

The work of the German Friedrich Weinbrenner (1766— 1826) Palmyra on to the existing redbrick Elizabethan facade to
at Karlsruhe, or that of the English architect John Wood the form an unusual portico which contrasts daringly with its
Younger (1 728— 81) at Bath, were realizations of such ideals. surroundings. But the academic nature of such an exercise was
The more visionary example of Neoclassical urbanization was soon eclipsed by the inventions of Adam's successors.
Claude-Nicolas Ledoux's saltworks at Arc-et-Senans in In architecture, Neoclassicism developed a new freedom

central France, constructed between 1771 and 1774, and his and sense of fantasy. The prophetic designs of Claude-Nicolas
unbuilt futuristic city project at Chaux, where Ledoux also Ledoux were able to carry the movement beyond the doctrine
envisaged a new social order. of merely copying Antiquity as an end in itself. Additionally,
Many early Neoclassical architects made journeys to view the work of architects like Sir John Soane (1753— 1837), exem-
new ideas. James Stuart (1713—
ancient ruins in the quest for plified in the new buildings for the Bank of England, London,
88) who, with Nicholas Revett (1720— 1804), was one of the showed a free adaptation of both Greek and Gothic forms. In
first English explorers to reach Greece, also designed the first public building, enormous demands were made on the archi-
building to use an accurate Greek Doric order since Classical tect at the end of the 18th century and the beginning of the
times: a garden pavilion in the shape of a temple, erected in 19th. Different types of civic building were required by rap-
1758 in the gardens of Hagley Park, near Birmingham. The idly expanding industrial societies. The theater, the church,
most popular British architect of the 1760s, Robert Adam the prison, the factory, and the college all offered the architect
(1728—92), spent four years in Italy and Dalmatia where he opportunities to exploit the new techniques and forms he had
made an analysis of Diocletian's Palace at Spalato, published learned from Antiquity. The importance of ancient structures
in 1 -64. Adam used ancient architectural units and decorative for large architectural complexes was especially important in

details as a means to create a new type of domestic architec- the erection of museums in the early 19th century. The conser-
ture. The best example of his stylistic compromise between the vation of antique works of art, brought back to Europe by
exoticism of antique architecture and native British styles is at archaeologists, and the formation of great national collections
Osterley Park on the outskirts of London (1761-80). Here of painting and sculpture, gave rise to much architectural
Adam inserted an exact copy of the Temple of the Sun from debate as to the kind of building suited to house such trea-

Osterley Park, Middlesex; the portico was designed by Robert Adam and built C1762
 NEOCLASSICISM 741

The Glyptothek, Munich, designed by Leo von Klenze; built 1816-30

Etienne Louis Boullee's vision for a monument to Sir Isaac Newton; c 1780-90. Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris
-41 NEOCLASSIC1SM

Cupid and Psyche by Antonio Canova; marble; 46 x58 x43cm (18X23X 17111); 1783-93. Louvre, Paris

sures. In Germany the AJtes Museum, built in Berlin between ing developed from the exploitation of structural simplicity
1823 and 1830 by Karl Friedrich Schinkel (1781-1841), and and lack of extraneous decoration. The epitome of the result-
theMunich Glyptothek, erected between 18 16 and 1830 by ing futuristic vision in architecture appears in designs by
Leo von Klenze [784—1864 showed how simple, cubic
. Etienne Louis Boullee (1728—99). His monument to Sir Isaac
forms and the orders of Antiquity could be adapted to plain, Newton fplans in the Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris) formu-
light interiors for the display of art objects. Latermuseum lated between 1780 and 1T90, was both prophetic and im-
buildings owe much to the work of these architects. In Ameri- possible to build. The edifice is a perfect sphere which also
ca, the museums of Washington and Philadelphia use similar incorporates a planetarium. The scale of the project is of an
designs. The apparent modernity of much Neoclassical build- immensity that perhaps reflects the scope of Newton's own
 NEOCLASSICISM 743

researches and their significance for the 18th century. Boul- troduced doctrinaire Neoclassical sculpture into England, and
lee's plan, with its decorative rows of tiny trees and geometri- the Dane, Bertel Thorvaldsen (1770— 1844), who first arrived
cal purity, summarizes the ultimate aspirations of the in Rome 1797
in and remained there for 41 years.
Neoclassical movement. In Rome, the sculptor's studio was generally open to vis-
Sculpture was probably the most expressive Neoclassical itors who could see work in progress and where replicas of the

artistic medium. It was also the most historically immediate, most popular statues were produced by assistants. Antonio
since fragments and even whole figures of Greco-Roman Canova ran the largest and most important studio and eventu-
statuary had survived in a state of reasonable preservation and ally became the most renowned sculptor of the 18th century.

could therefore be studied first hand. In Winckelmann's pam- His work was revered on a worldwide scale; at least five Euro-
phlet of 1755, antique sculpture formed the principal source pean monarchs became his patrons and the Pope made him a
of knowledge for the writer's description of the art of Anti- Marchese in 18 16. Canova studied Antiquity as a way of
quity. achieving his conception of perfect beauty in sculpture, which
Inevitably Rome became the center of Neoclassical sculp- might transcend the imperfections of nature. He was never a
ture. The city housed the best examples of antique prototypes blindly imitative artist, despite his dependence on antique pro-
available for the European artist to study and the foreign totypes, and his mature achievement preserved the doctrines
patrons and scholars who visited Italian collections formed of Neoclassicism without losing the originality of the artist's

the main market Most of these

for the professional sculptor. own vision. The dynamic qualities of Canova's style recreated

much time as possible in

leading European sculptors spent as the vitality of ancient notions of carving, as in Cupid and
Rome. Antonio Canova (1757— 1822) came to Rome from Psyche (1787—93; Louvre, Paris).
Venice 1780 and, under the tutelage of the painter Gavin
in In 1 8 10 the marble frieze from the Parthenon in Athens,
Hamilton, established himself as the most important Neo- which had been brought to England by Lord Elgin, was exhi-
classical sculptor. His principal rivals and colleagues were bited in London. This frieze initiated a new idea of ancient
John Flaxmon, who spent seven years in Rome, Thomas sculpture, and one opposed to the original strict rules of Neo-
Banks (1735-1805), who visited Rome in the 1770s and in- classicism. Some artists and scholars refused to accept the

The monument to Penelope Boothby by Thomas Banks; marble; 1793. Ashbourne Church, Derbyshire
744 NEOCLASSICISM

frieze as a genuine example of Classical Greek work; for ment ever made. It draped
consists of a frieze of classically
others like Canova, who visited London in 1815, the frieze man. At the time, this frieze was
figures, depicting all ages of

was a revelation. was realized, almost for the first time, that
It compared to a chorus from Sophocles. The figures seem to
ancient sculpture was not exclusively designed in terms of the advance towards the blackness of an open door, set in the side
static, compact outlines first described by Winckelmann. The of the tomb itself, which is a plain marble pyramid. Neither
Greeks had also created vital surface textures which conjured Banks nor Canova chose to add any supernatural images to
dramatic events. European sculptors were subsequently div- these monuments, despite the pathos and sentiment of both
ided in their approach to the recreation of antique ideals: works. They seem to be expressing a disillusion and doubt
those like Thorvaldsen continued to produce cool, statuesque which was also expressed by writers and philosophers at the
figures, while new experiments in sculpture appeared from end of the 18th century. In this context Neoclassicism can be
other Neoclassical masters. seen as a transitional phenomenon: contemporary uncertain-
John Flaxman was a particularly talented designer of low ties of faith and dramatic social and political changes
relief. His outline illustrations demonstrate his interest in un- experienced by 18th-century societies underlay much of the
dulating surface patterns which could also be transferred to Neoclassical nostalgia for the simpler ideals of the pagan
sculpture. Flaxman's tombs formed a new achievement in world. It is this sense of uncertainty and yearning for the past
shallow carving on plain marble surface, exemplified by the which, almost imperceptibly, introduces Romanticism into
monument to Agnes Cromwell (1800; Chichester Cathedral). the heart of Neoclassical artistic inspiration.
In tomb sculpture Flaxman found the greatest opportunity to SARAH SYMMONS
exploit his lapidary skills. It was also in this medium of tomb
design that many sculptors expressed the deeper concerns of
the Neoclassical movement. The most impressive English Bibliography. Arts Council of Great Britain The Age of Neo-
Neoclassical tomb was the work of Thomas Banks, the monu- classicism, London (1972). Bindman, D. (ed.) John Flaxman R.A.,
London Honour, H. Neoclassicism, Harmondsworth (1967).
(1979).
ment to Penelope Boothby (1793; Ashbourne Church, Derby-
and Taste,
Irwin, D. English Neoclassical Art; Studies in Inspiration
shire), a simple marble effigy of a dead child lying on a
London (1966). Klingender, F.D. Art and the Industrial Revolution,
classical sarcophagus. In Vienna, Canova's great tomb to the
London (1968). Rosenblum, R. Transformations in Late Eighteenth
Austrian Archduchess Maria Christina (1798— 1805; Augus- Century Art, Princeton (1969). Rykwert, J. The First Moderns: the
tinerkirche) is probably the most moving Neoclassical monu- Architects of the Eighteenth Century, London (1980).
 40

ROMANTICISM

Liberty Guiding the People by Delacroix; oil on canvas; 260 x325cm (i02Xi28in); 1831. Louvre, Paris (seepage 756)
746 ROMANTICISM

Romanticism was the principal movement involving of Blake's most eloquent protests, it was not until the 1830s
all the arts that flourished in Europe in the first half of that the effects of industrial progress became a cause of wide-
the 19th century. It gained its epithet because the spread social concern.
movement was understood to stand for an emotive and intui- While Romanticism was used by major critics — from Fried-
tive outlook, as against the controlled and rational approach rich Schlegel to the French poet Baudelaire in the 1840s — to
that was designated "classical". While modern opinions differ describewhat they considered to be most significant in con-
as to the meaning of Romantic, the history of the term's usage temporary art, it never became an explicit movement among
is clear. Deriving from the medieval chivalric tale the — visual artists in the way that later tendencies, Realism for
—
romaunt and used since the Renaissance to denote the fanci- example, were to become. In painting, sculpture, and architec-
ful or improbable, the word was first applied to a type of art in ture we ought properly to speak of Romanticism in terms of
[798 in the definition of "Romantic poetry" given by the the influence of, or analogy with, current literary and critical
German critic Friedrich von Schlegel (1772-1829) in notions.
Athenaeum, the magazine edited by himself and his brother In this sense, however, "Romantic" does have a positive
August Wilhelm (1 767-1 845). It rapidly gained currency in application, for we can see how intimately the predominant
Germany to describe the kind of literature and art supported pictorial tendencies of the period are connected with the
by the Schlegels: a literature that emphasized the subjective characteristics then currently being hailed as Romantic. Indi-
and fantastic and took as leitmotivs the art of the Middle Ages vidualism and intuition were central concerns — especially for
and a fascination with wild, uncultivated nature. The Blake and Goya. The fascination with the evocative qualities
Schlegels considered Romanticism to be modern in its broad- new impetus to landscape painting which is
of nature gave a
est connotation, applying it to the whole of the post-classical work of Turner, Girtin, Palmer, Friedrich,
reflected in the
age. In this sense the word first reached a non-German public Runge, and Corot. The enthusiasm for the Middle Ages en-
through De I'Allemagne (181 3) by the French writer Madame couraged a full-scale revival of pre-Raphaelite art by the
de Stael (1 -'66-1 8 17). As the poet Coleridge observed, this German Nazarenes and gave a new seriousness of purpose to
work made the British public (as well as the French) "familiar the Gothic revival in architecture — especially in England,
with the habit of distinguishing the productions of Antiquity where was championed by the fanatical A.W. Pugin (18 12—
it

by the appellation Classic, those of modern times by that of 52). Similarly, the "Romantic irony" first formulated by
Romantic". Friedrich von Schlegel, which stemmed from the contradiction
Romanticism was thus first seen as a revival of the funda- felt by the Romantic between his boundless idealism and the

mentally modern, spiritual, and fantastic ethos of the Middle reality of his situation, seems mirrored in a new type of pic-
Ages which had been subverted by the pagan throwback of torial subversion. This is already evident in the satirical fan-
the materialist Renaissance. And if such "modernity" con- tasy of Goya, but it was the French who took this furthest in

tained an implicit censure of the present, its corollary was an the atmosphere of anticlimax that followed on Napoleon's
ironic, anti-heroic view of the contemporary world. It was in final defeat in 1815. Pictures like Delacroix's nihilistic fantasy
both senses that the word became a battle cry during the on The Death of Sardanapalus (1827; Louvre, Paris) appeared
i8zos — particularly in France. The movement only seriously to flout all conventional notions of morality and pictorial pro-
lost impetus when the Realists began to champion a less emo- priety. It is significant that this period should also have seen
tively charged view of the present in the 1840s. the establishment of that enduring form of the mock heroic,
The attractiveness of the notion of Romanticism was great- the political cartoon, so brilliantly exploited by the English
ly enhanced by the circumstances in which it arose. The mystic James Gillray (1757— 1815).
satirist

idealism of the original German Romantics was inspired by Because Romanticism was essentially a matter of outlook,
the transcendental philosophies being developed by their as- we can hardly talk of it in terms of a set of formal stylistic

sociates J.G. Fichte (1762-1814) and F.W. Schelling (1775— characteristics. However, there were some predominant pic-
1854) from the Critiques of Immanuel Kant (1 724-1 804). torial tendencies. While styles ranged from the extreme linear-
Such a direction was more universally stimulated by political ity of the Germans to the extreme painterliness of the French
developments; the decline of the French Revolution of 1789 there was in both a peculiar intensity, a state of heightened
into the Reign of Terror and the subsequent Dictatorship of awareness that is at times visionary and at times simply sensu-
Napoleon seemed to many — especially those outside France ous. In both, too, there is a predominant interest in color
to give lie to the faith of the 1 8th-century Enlightenment in the that emotive property so scorned by Neoclassical theorists like
ability of pure reason and natural sentiment to sweep away Winckelmann (1717-68). Runge, Delacroix, and Turner all
and superstitions of the past. To these intellectu-
the injustices became deeply interested in color theory both for its symbolic
al and upheavals can be added a third: the Industrial
political potential and for the creation of more vibrant effects. The
Revolution, which brought social evils that cast serious interest in association evident here also led to the simulation
doubts upon the benefits of material progress. However, al- of styles from far-off times and places either for sheer effect
though industrialization had been gathering force in England or, in the case of the medieval revival, to censure the present.
during the late 1 8th century, and had been the subject of some The proliferation of stylistic allusions was matched by a disre-
 ROMAN IK ism 747

The Death of Sardanapalus by Delacroix; oil on canvas; 395 x495cm (156x195m); 1827. Louvre, Paris

gard for traditional distinctions among the different types of was never more than a notional ideal, and if it encouraged a
art. History painting lost its former moral supremacy — fre- move towards greater simplicity and succinctness it was
quently becoming merged with genre — and landscape was never able to suppress totally more expressive tendencies. In
seen by many as the most important of art forms. In sculpture the very city at the center of the classical revival, Rome,
the animalier came into prominence. There was a similar there flourished a circle of artists who were re-invigorating a
breakdown in tradition in architecture; the informal prin- Baroque sense of the megalomanic and bizarre, basing their
ciples of planning, unknown outside small domestic architec- awesome scenes on the exaggerations in the works of the
ture since the time of the Renaissance, were reintroduced into 1
-th-century Neapolitan painter Salvator Rosa (1615-73)
church building and such major civic edifices as the Houses of and of such surviving masters of the architectural capriccio as
Parliament in London (1836-65). Giovanni Paolo Panini (1691-1765). The most notable and
While "romantic" elements can be traced in certain works influential member of the Roman circle was the architect
of art in most ages, the late 1 saw the emergence of
8th century Giovanni Battista Piranesi (1720-78), a Venetian who settled

more tangible precursors to the historical movement. Despite inRome in 1740 and became renowned for his etchings of

the efforts of such propagandists as W'mckclmann, the emula- Roman antiquities and for his fantasies on massive darkened
tion of the "noble simplicity and calm grandeur" of (.reek art interiors, the Imaginary Prisons (C1745).
Landscape Painting Religious support was provided by the argu-
ment that God's creative spirit could be
directly observed in nature. Such reasoning
One of the most striking features in the art of image of the natural world had been evoked was used, for example, by theJohn
critic

the late 1 8th and early 1 9th centuries was the which provided a contrast to the corruptness Ruskin (181 9—1 900) when defending the
growing importance attached to landscape and artificiality felt to abound in contempor- landscapes of Turner in volume one of his
painting. This reflected new attitudes to ary society. At the same time, developments Modern Painters (1843).
nature.Under the influence of such writers as in the natural sciences encouraged a closer The landscape painting stimulated by such
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (171 2.-78) an idyllic studv of the individual forms of nature. interests tended to dwell on emotive effects.

These ranged from the dramatic and fright-

ening, as in Turner's The Shipwreck (1805;
Tate Gallery, London), to the soothing and
tranquil, as in Constable's affectionate por-
trayal of his native scenery in The Cornfield
( 1826; National Gallery, London). Yet such
works were also explorations of new means
of describing natural phenomena. There were
considerable naturalistic advances, particu-

A The Shipwreck:
Fishing Boats
tndeai'oring to Rescue
the Crew by Turner; oil

on canvas; r:x 241cm

(68x95m); 1805. Tate
Gallery, London

Landscape in

watercolor: Tintern
Abbey by Turner;
J7X i-cm s x m 1 1 1 ;

-94 British Museum,

1

London

Divine Revelation
witnessed in the

landscape of Kent: The

Magii Apple Treeby
Samuel Palmer;
\\ atercolor and pen;

, s X i~cm (14X 1 nn ;

1830. Fitzwilham
Museum. Cambridge

< The Cornfield by John

C unstable; oil on canvas;
14 ; * 1 2.2cm 56x48m);
1 816. National Gallery,
London
 —
GALLERY s I rm
larly in the field of atmospheric effects. It was
during this period that the habit of making
in oil and watercolor
out-of-doors studies
became common, although it was not until
the time of the Impressionists, later in the
1 9th century, that it became desirable to
complete landscape paintings out of doors.
While the new attitudes to landscape can
be found throughout Europe and North
America, they were most dominant in Britain
and Germany. It is perhaps easier, however,
to grasp the variety of Romantic landscape
painting by considering thematic types rather
than national distinctions.
In the later 1 8th century the painting of
sensational scenes became a major interest.
Part of the stimulus for this came from
Edmund Burke's critical treatise A Philo-
sophical Inquiry into the Origin of our Ideas
of the Sublime and Beautiful (1757) which
provided a striking new definition of the
Sublime, seeing it as a sensation generated
from feelings of repulsion and fear. Before
this time, however, the French painter
Claude-Joseph Vernet (1714-89) was evolv-
ing a type of stormy scene that provided
contemporaries with a frisson of alarm. Ver-
net's example was followed by many other
artists, including J. M.W. Turner (1775-
1 8 5 1 in his early years. Turner's The Ship-
J

wreck described a kind of disaster that was

highly common at the time. Some artists
deliberately exploited the popular appeal of
sensational themes. One of the most success-
ful of these was John Martin
789-1 854), (1

whose The Great Day of His Wrath 1 85 1-4; (

Tate Gallery, London) was part of a three-

picture spectacular based on descriptions
from the Book of Revelation.
The use of landscape to convey uplifting
spiritual sensations related to a more tra-
ditional conception of the Sublime than
Burke's. However, nature did not have to be
dramatic or overpowering to stimulate such Above: he (.rear Day I
r
A TheOaks by Theodore disdainful of topographers and the Pictur-
thoughts. The visionary painter and poet of His Wrath by fohn
Martin; oil on canvas;
Rousseau;
64x100cm
oil on canvas;
(15X39111
esque — made a virtue of depicting the every-
Blake talked of seeing "a World in a Grain of ;
day appearance of his native Suffolk. Similar
19- x iOKin (78X i9in) 1 ci 850-2. Louvre, Paris
Sand and a Heaven in a Wild Flower". Blake 8 —4 Tate Gallery, views were expressed by other artists
1 5 1 .

himself rarely practiced landscape, but he London throughout Europe and America, such as the
influenced a number of artists who did. Most Austrian Ferdinand Georg Waldmuller
notable among them was Samuel Palmer to the search for pleasingly varied scenes in (1793-1865) and the American painters of
( 1 805—8 1 who used the gentle scenery of
) the countryside. Under the stimulus of such the Hudson River School.
Kent to suggest Divine Revelation. In Ger- writers as William Gilpin (1724— 1804), such While the Romantic emphasis on height-
many approach to landscape was
a similar views became described as "Picturesque". ened awareness fell increasingly out of favor
explored by Philipp Otto Runge (1777- Around 1 800 it became a habit to make after 1 840, the close attention to natural
18 10) and Caspar David Friedrich (1774- "Picturesque tours" both and in Britain description remained influential, as, for ex-
1 840). The latter painted both dramatic and abroad. This fashion was encouraged by ample, with the French painters of the Barbi-
intimate scenes, using carefully constructed topographers who provided "Picturesque" zon school.
designs and exquisite light effects to intimate view famous beauty spots. Turner pro-
s of WILLIAM VAUGHAN
a hidden meaning in his works. duced such works in his early years.
Further reading. Clark, K. Landscape into Art.
The growing interest in the Natural in the I he Picturesque movement fostered the
London (1978). Parns, L. Landscape in Britain
1 8th century stimulated a love of irregular appreciation of especially scenic places. But
-1850, London (1973). Rosenblum, R. Modern
and unkempt effects. In England this led to there were those who emphasized that all Painting and the Northern Romantic Tradition,
the development of the informal garden and nature was worthy of attention. Constable I ondon 1
975).
750 ROMANTICISM

For the English connoisseur Horace Walpole (1717—97) art in Rome, England was the setting for another aesthetic
these scenes with their exaggerations in scale and chiaroscuro revaluation, one that encouraged the informal in art. Through
could be summed up by the word "sublime", and his use of the writings of such amateurs as William Gilpin (1724-1804),
this was typical of contemporary reaction. For after another Sir Uvedale Price (1 747-1 829), and Richard Payne Knight
English connoisseur, Edmund Burke (1729—97), had pub- (1750— 1824), the word "Picturesque" became applied to
lished his A Philosophical Inquiry into the Origin of our Ideas those pleasurable sensations felt before art and nature that
of the Sublime and Beautiful (1757) this term had taken on a were not powerful enough to be either beautiful or sublime,
new dimension. From being seen as an extreme kind of but which were nevertheless considered to be worthy of inter-
beauty, the Sublime now came to mean exactly the opposite. est. Of the theorists, Gilpin had the clearest idea about what

For Burke explained that whereas the sense of beauty was constituted the Picturesque, looking for an amalgam of the
derived from feelings of love and attraction, the sense of the features of Dutch and Claudian landscapes and insisting in
Sublime derived from feelings of hatred and repulsion. It was particular that there should be "variety" in the foreground
only the fact that we were experiencing the representation of as could be provided by rocks, cottages, or some homely scene
something horrid or overpowering rather than the thing itself of rustics and livestock —and a tranquil distance in contrast.
that caused such feelings to be transmuted into a thrilling Other theorists were more concerned with the evocative qual-
sensation of awe. In itself Burke's explanation was a rationali- ities of the Picturesque rather than in formulating precise
zation and left the door open for the uninhibited enjoyment of regulations. But however much views might differ, the notion
the sensational by men of taste and learning. stimulated a greater appreciation of the irregular and acci-
The "sublime" effects of Piranesi were emulated by many dental.
other artists who came to Rome, notably Claude-Joseph The Picturesque made its mark first on that art most directly
Yernet (1714—89), who began C1760 to add wild shipwrecks concerned with nature: landscape gardening. The taste for

and other stormy scenes to his Claudian repertoire, and "landscaping" gardens — as opposed to imposing a formal
Hubert Robert (1733— 1808), who made paintings of evoca- pattern on them as in Italy and France — was an English inno-
tive ruins popular in France. It was a painter trained in the vation. The first was the architect and
to establish the practice
French tradition, Philip Jacques de Loutherbourg (1-40- painter William Kent (1685-1748), whose Claudian glades
1812) who conveyed such landscapes to Britain when he set- can still be found at Rousham, Oxfordshire (C1730). He was
tled in London, after leaving Pans r:i. De Loutherbourg's
in soon to be followed by such consummate cosmeticians of
interest in dramatic effect was exploited to the full when he nature as Lancelot "Capability" Brown (1715—83) and Hum-
worked at the Drury Lane theater as a scene painter (1773— phry Repton (1752— 1818). And while the taste for an "Eng-
Si . He subsequently set up his own miniature theater, the lish Garden" spread throughout the courts of Europe —even
Eidophusikon. in which paintings were enhanced by moving penetrating Versailles during the reign of Louis XVI —the in-

parts, changing lights, and sound effects — a forerunner of the digenous product moved further and further away from the
dioramas and panoramas that became so popular in the early measured effectsof Claude. The apogee of wildness was
19th century. De Loutherbourg's illusionism gave a strong reached in the untamed woods that surrounded the mock-
impetus to dramatic landscape painting in England, particu- Gothic abbey of Fonthill, Wiltshire (1795-1800) built for the
larly affecting the young Turner. millionaire eccentric William Beckford 1 -60—1 844) by James
A concern for sublime effect also developed among figure Wyatt (1746-1813).
painters who came to Rome, especially after the 1 — os. For Fonthill Abbey had originally been conceived as a folly to
these, the vast murals of Michelangelo formed the point of adorn this wilderness; Beckford's decision to turn it into a
departure, particularly for John Henry Fuseli (1 -'41-1 825) dwelling represents a stage in the invasion of the principles of
and his associates — the Swedish sculptor Johan Tobias Sergei the Picturesque into domestic architecture. The progenitor of
1
-40-1814) and the Danish history painter Nicola Abraham this taste appears to have been Horace Walpole who, in 1749,
Abildgaard 1743— 1809). Among architects there was also an began to "Gothicize" his villa of Strawberry Hill at Twick-
emulation of Piranesian grandeur, which culminated in the enham and had by 1785 turned it into a confection of crock-
schemes of the French architects Etienne-Louis Boullee ets, battlements, and irregularly placed turrets. By that time
1-28-99) ar*d Claude-Nicolas Ledoux (1736— 1806) even the leading arbiter of mid-century classicism, Robert
schemes vast in scale and based on geometric forms of over- Adam (1728-92), had made essays in the "Castle style" and
powering simplicity. These architects devised some of the was concerned for the "picturesque of a composition" in such
most radical — if most impractical —ideas for buildings prior evocations of Roman Antiquity as Kedleston Hall, Derbyshire
to the 20th century; the sheer daring and scope of their ambi- c 1 -65-70). The dominant personality in late Georgian archi-
tion has often led tothem being accorded the paradoxical title tecture, John Nash (1752-1835), brought the Castle style to
of "Romantic Classicists". Yet is should be emphasized that such small villas as Luscombe, Devon (ci8oo). In these, infor-

such architects, like Fuseli and his circle, saw no breach be- mal planning was a major feature. Similarly, it is the graceful
tween their art and the ideals of Antiquity. but irregular sweep of the streets that provides the principal
If the Sublime was largely inspired by current and ancient charm of Nash's lavout for the area in London between Re-
 1 —

Elohim Creating Adam by William Blake; color print finished in watercolor (only known copy); 43 x53cm 17x21m);
( 1795. Tate Gallery, London

gent's Park and the Mall (181 2.-2.5). His chief rival, the more transcend even the Picturesque. Thus it could be chosen by the
ingenious and intellectual Sir John Soane (1753-1837), was architect William Chambers as a synonym for a kind of "en-
less ostentatious in the informality of his planning. Yet he had chanted" garden he supposed the Chinese to have devised. It

the most eclectic notion of proportion and delighted in the was also used for the wistful late lakeland scenes of Thomas
creation of "Gothic" lighting effects. Gainsborough (1727-88), such as the Rocky Landscape
In painting, the Picturesque has most effect in revising the (C1783; National Gallery of Scotland, Edinburgh). Finally, in

topographical view —the description of a specific landscape. a posthumous publication by Gilpin (1808), the term was
The change can be seen in the medium favored by the English firmly separated from the Picturesque when this auther sup-
for such work, watercolor. A consummate recorder like posed Arthur's Seat in Edinburgh to be romantic, but not
Thomas Sandby (1721-98), who began his career working on picturesque because it was "odd, misshapen, and uncouth"
a military survey, ended it painting rich and evocative scenes "a view with such a feature could no more be picturesque than
in Windsor Forest. But the most poignant of all such view- a face with a bulbous nose can be beautiful".
painters was John Robert Cozens (1752-97). The son of While the later 18th century saw an increasing move to-

—
Alexander Cozens (C1717-86) an artist best remembered wards the emotive and the evocative, it was not until the

for a system of inventing new compositions from random 1790s that these emerged anywhere as overriding principles.
blots —John Robert Cozens interpreted the mountainous and Although the effects of this change can be traced in all the arts
hilly scenes of central and southern Italy with an almost pain- it was explored most extensively in painting, considered at the

ful sensibility —see, for example, View from Mirabella (1-82.; time to be the most Romantic of the visual arts because it
Victoria and Albert Museum, London). His feeling for the depended on evocation to suggest such intangibles as color and
nuances of light was to have a great influence on a younger atmosphere. In this it contrasted strongly with the "classical"
generation of watercolonsts, particularly Thomas Girtin presentation of three-dimensional form by the sculptor.
(1775-1802) and J.M.W. Turner (1775-185
In the later 18th century the word "romantic" came to be Romantic painting. Before the formulation of any Romantic
used increasingly for those effects whose poignancy was felt to theory of the arts in Germany, there emerged in England and
Third of May, 1808 by Goya; oil on canvas; 266 x345cm (105x1 36m); 18 14. Prado, Madrid

in Spain two major and totally independent artists who made Wollstonecraft (the proponent of women's rights) and his
the Visionary a major feature of their work. In this sense, and own prophetic books —the kernel of his artistic production
this sense only, can we compare William Blake (1757— 1827) were deeply concerned with contemporary social and political

and Francisco Goya (1746—18x8). For whereas Blake con- problems. Casting such reforming zeal in the form of proph-
sidered his visions to be a form of Divine Revelation, Goya ecies was not unusual for that time —there were many other
explored the darker side of his creative imagination without emulators of the Old Testament seers who arose in the wake
attempting an interpretation. of Revolution, the millennialist Joanna Southcott for example.
Blake's declaration "talent thinks, genius sees" drew a clear Blake differed from the other prophets of the age, however, in

distinction between rational deduction and the insights of associating art with religious experience. For him even Christ
creative genius. All his life he fought a battle against the "law- was an artist, who acted "from impulse, not rules". The delib-
givers", whether they were political, religious, or artistic. Be- erately archaic nature of his own pictures and poems accorded
lieving that "one law for the Lion and Ox is oppression", he with his view of them as the product of Divine Revelation: he
defended the need of the individual to follow his own inner spurned the worldliness of acquired accomplishments. In
convictions rather than obey the regulations of others. In ar- painting, this led to the rejection of oil painting in favor of a
tistic matters this led him to attack the academic system of more rigorous and primitive form of tempera painting which
education, in particular the teachings of Sir Joshua Reynolds, he referred to as "fresco".
the first President of the Royal Academy of Arts in London, While expressing mounting independence of thought,
a
who had propounded a set of general precepts for painters in Blake's pictorial style was related to many of the concerns of
his Fifteen Discourses (1769—90). his contemporaries. His early watercolors of historical and

The on individual freedom

radical nature of Blake's views religious subjects, such as the scenes from The Story of Joseph
accorded with the upsurge in liberal opinions that emerged at exhibited at the Royal Academy in 1785 (Fitzwilliam
the time of the French Revolution. During the 1780s he was Museum, Cambridge), share the sentimental Neoclassicism of
an associate of such reformers as William Godwin and Mary his friend John Flaxman (1755-1826). Like Fuseli and other
 —
ROMANTICISM 753

imaginative history painters of the period, Blake had a great and his rapacious wife that it seems
tion of the ineffectual king
admiration for the vigor of Michelangelo's creations. This can to verge on caricature.
be felt most strongly from the series of large monoprints he But a more profound cause of Goya's development was the
made during the 1790s. Superficially, the succinctness and severe illness he suffered in 1792 which enfeebled him for
force of these designs have affinities with the "heroic" art of several years and left him permanently deaf. This traumatic
the 1790s elsewhere, as in David's Death of Marat (Musees experience and the resulting isolation appear to have made
Royaux des Beaux-Arts de Belgique) and the cartoons of the him more introspective. Soon after his illness he presented the
German J. A. Carstens (1754-98). But Blake has none of the Academy of Madrid with a series of vigorously handled satires
humanism of these classical artists. Nothing could be further on religious ceremonies and superstitions, such as The Burial
from Michelangelo's ennobling view of the Creation than of the Sardine (1792-3; Academy of San Fernando, Madrid)
Blake's Elohim Creating Adam (1795; Tate Gallery, London) which he claimed to have painted "to make observations for
where God the Father is shown as a harsh lawmaker enslaving which commissioned works generally give no room, and in
a free spirit with the coils of mortality. which fantasy and invention have no limit". But it was the
Blake's appreciation of the expressive in Michelangelo also savage and fantastic etchings Los Caprichos (1796-8) that
made him an admirer of the pictorial qualities of the Gothic. first showed his imagination in full spate. The plate The Sleep

His own books — printed by a method devised by himself of Reason Produces Monsters could be taken as a leitmotiv for
revived the interrelation of illustration and text to be found in the whole, showing as it does Goya being prompted involun-
the illuminated manuscript, using it to achieve a continuous tarily into action by the creatures of the night. Here, as else-

association of verbal and visual meaning. While an admirer of where in the series, he adds aquatint to the etching to combine
the Grecian line in the 1790s, Blake moved during the next somberness with sensitive detail.

decade to the position of exclusive medieval revivalist, declar- Goya's penetratinggifts were put to a very different use in

ing Gothic form to be "living" and Grecian to be "mathemati- his next series,The Disasters of War (18 10— 13; first published
cal". However, while his later work shows an increasing love in 1863), the outcome of his experiences of the Peninsular
of the undulating rhythms of the Gothic, he never abandoned War (1808—12). In these, Goya bore witness to the full horror
his admiration for Michelangelo. His last undertaking, an un- of the conflict between the occupying French forces and the
finished series of designs for Dante's Divine Comedy (1824— populace. Moments of heroism are few: Goya is more con-
7), shows a synthesis of the two. Such designs as the Circle of cerned to bring himself (and us) to face the butchery and other
Luxury: Paolo and Francesca (City of Birmingham Museums senseless acts of inhumanity than to spread any political mess-
and Art Gallery) have vibrant form and flickering color that age. He took a similar approach when painting two large
provide a perfect visualization of visionary energy. scenes for the restored regime in 18 14 showing the events that
An artist so concerned with individual inspiration was had sparked off the Spanish resistance: the uprising in Madrid
hardly likely to be concerned with imprinting his style on on 2 May 1808, and the retaliatory mass executions during
followers. And while his designs were occasionally adopted by the subsequent night {Madrid, the Second of May and Third
Fuseli(who confessed "Blake is damned good to steal from") of May, 1808; both in the Prado, Madrid).
his gifted admirer, Samuel Palmer (1805-81), worked in
most In his last years, Goya continued to explore his imagination,
landscape painting, a genre Blake rarely attempted. It was not producing another series of fantasies, Los Proverbios (C1815-
until the end of the century that his forms began to find imi- 24) and, more extraordinary still, a series of murals for his

tators among the Symbolists. house on the outskirts of Madrid. These starkly painted Black
While Blake gradually developed from the poetic to the Paintings (ci 821-3; Prado, Madrid) show a hypnotic series of
prophetic during the 1780s, the visionary tendencies of Goya visions — two giants clubbing each other in a landscape, a

(1746-1828) emerged in the 1790s with little prelude. Previ- witches' sabbath, a procession of leering pilgrims. The mean-
ously he had successfully pursued a professional career as a ing of most of these can only be guessed, but even recogniz-
tapestry-designer for the Spanish court and as the most able myths have been given a new twist to emphasize the
fashionable portrait-painter in Madrid. Nor did his excur- passions. Saturn Devouring one of his Children shows the god
sions into the imaginative affect his worldly status; he re- as a fear-crazed old man, acting out of a blind instinct for self-
mained in the service of the monarchy to the last decade of his preservation.
life, from 1799 as first painter to the King. In 1824, Goya left Spain to end his days in voluntary exile
The dramatic changes in Goya's art during the 1790s may in France, a gesture against the brutish actions of the current
have partly resulted from his sensitivity to the changing situa- Spanish King, Ferdinand VII. While living in Bordeaux, he
tion in Spain — the decline
government after the accession of
in apparently had no connection with the young French Roman-
Charles IV in 1788 and the growing threat from Revolution- tics in Paris, although Delacroix was later to become one of

ary France which culminated in the invasion of 1808. Certain- the first Frenchmen to admire Los Caprichos. Yet despite this,
ly Goya's portraits take on a more somber tone in the 1790s; itwas one of these younger artists, J.L.A.T. Gericault (1791-
his vast and grandiose group portrait of The Family of Charles 1824) who came closest to Goya's unflinching exploration of
IV f 1 800-1; Prado, Madrid) is so candid in its characteriza- experience.
 —

The Raft of the Medusa by Gericault; oil on canvas; 490 x716cm (193 x282m); 18 19. Louvre, Paris

Both Goya and Blake's subject pictures had, to a large painterly manner up these scenes of far-off places
to conjure
extent, developed out of the conventions of history painting. with persuasive vividness: it was this quality that, to his great
But even within the genre there was a gradual move towards a dismay, was to help the young Romantics bring a new im-
greater sensationalism and a more complex understanding of mediacy into history painting.
motivation. In England, the American-born painter Benjamin The first to respond to such febrile emotiveness was Theo-
West 738-1 820) had challenged the viability of painting
(1 dore Gericault (1791-1824). A pupil of the animal painter
noble events in a generalized manner when he depicted the Carle Vernet (1758-1836) and the history painter P.-N.
recent death of an English hero during the war against France Guerin (1774-1883), he fused both genres in his full-scale

in Canada Death of General Wolfe (1770; National Gallery early equestrian Salon pieces Officers of the Imperial Guard
of Canada, Ottawa) —
in contemporary dress. The immense (181 2; Louvre, Paris) and The Wounded Cuirassier (18 14;
success of this work was due to its skillful blending of appa- Louvre, Paris). The first of these is full of fire and movement,
rent reportage with a carefully controlled design based on a but the second, painted at the moment of the defeat of the
religious pieta. It was a formula to be repeated with even French, is heavy in color and subdued in design. Its somber
greater boldness and effect by David, a great admirer of West, mood was to remain a constant note in Gericault's later
in such modern subjects as his Death of Marat (1793; Musees works. The general atmosphere of anticlimax heightened
Royaux des Beaux-Arts de Belgique, Brussels). These topical Gericault's personal restlessness: after abandoning a scheme
moral exemplars reached their apogee in the vast celebrations to turn a modern theme, the "Race of the Riderless Horses",
of the Napoleonic campaigns by David's pupil A. -J. Gros into a formal classical design while studying in Rome (1815),
(1771-1835). Gros' own hero worship of the Emperor made he returned to France to devote himself to the topical. Bereft
it him to give a sense of deep conviction to his
possible for of the heroic, he turned instead to the sensationalism of crime
presentation of Napoleon as a man of compassion. \ isiting the and scandal. The Raft of the Medusa (1819; Louvre, Paris),
sick in The Pesthouse at Jaffa (1804; Louvre, Paris), mourning the vast canvas with which he sought to make his name at the
the dead in Napoleon on the Battlefield of Eylau (1808; Salon of was a monumentalization of ministerial in-
1 81 9,
Louvre, Pansj. Yet it also encouraged him to develop a rich competence. It showed the ghastly outcome of a shipwreck
brought about by the folly of a captain of a government ship.
The design, with its complex pyramid of rigorously studied
Left: Saturn Devouring one of his Children h\ Goya; detached figures and corpses, was an academic tour de force. Yet it
fresco on canvas; 147x82cm f s;8 x }2in); 1821. Prado, Madrid moved outside the conventions of history painting by depict-
756 ROMANTICISM

ing a scene without a hero, and by representing the whole with climax of a play by Byron shows the notorious eastern
a lurid pallor more nauseous than cathartic. potentate watching dispassionately as his goods and strug-
Disappointed at the tepid reception of his work, Gericault around him prior to their commun-
gling concubines are piled
attempted no other grande machine in his short life. However, al immolation. Painted in gleaming clashes of hot color, its

he continued to explore the disconcerting sides of modern life amorality and pictorial subversiveness brought him official
with rare sympathy, especially in his lithographs of the work- censure. No doubt his truly modern — if faintly ambiguous
ers and outcasts of London (which he visited in 1821) and in allegory celebrating the July Revolution of 1830, Liberty
some portraits of mental patients painted for a doctor friend. Guiding the People (1831; Louvre, Paris) was carefully
In the sense that Gericault was confronting his spectator with devised to keep him in favor with the new regime. Certainly
an unfamiliar, if unwelcome, truth, he still shared the moral the government of Louis Philippe supplied him well with
outlook of the classical history painter. But even this was official commissions, as well as enabling him to accompany a
brought into question during the 182.0s by Eugene Delacroix diplomatic mission to Morocco in 1832. The heightened sense
(1798-1863). of color he gained from this helped him to capture the
Although often seen as Gericault's successor, Delacroix sensuous tedium of the harem in Women of Algiers (1834;

rarely concerned himself with modern France, preferring in- Louvre, Paris), a work which, as Baudelaire hinted, was all
stead the exoticism and fantasy aready explored by such too relevant to the predicament of the Madame Bovarys of
favored painters of Napoleon's court as A.-L. Girodet-Trioson contemporary France.
(1767-1824) and P.-P. Prud'hon (1758-1823). Delacroix's Despite such innuendoes, Delacroix had reached a position
Massacre at Chios (1824; Louvre, Paris), a scene from the of total disdain for the modern world bymid 1830s and the
Greek War of Independence, may have been topical but it devoted his energies to the isolated task of becoming a great
was also exotic in its setting. The nonchalance and painterly mural painter. In his decorations of ministerial buildings and
lassitude objected to in this work were nothing compared to churches, which culminated in the tranquil poetry of Jacob
those in his principal contribution to the Salon of 1827, The Wrestling with the Angel in St Sulpice, Paris (1856-61), he is

Death of Sardanapalus (Louvre, Paris). This fantasia on the as traditionalist as his arch rival, the classicist Ingres. Only in

his continued exploration of the vibrancy of color did he

remain a Romantic.
The Mad Assassin by Gericault; oil on canvas; 60x50cm (24x20m); By the 1830s, Romantic history painting in France was
1822/3. Museum of Fine Arts, Ghent
popularly represented by artists like Paul Delaroche (1797—
1856), who and poignant
specialized in depicting such fateful
scenes from the past as The Princes in the Tower (183 1;
Louvre, Paris) in minute and seemingly accurate detail. Their
sensationalist style was emulated throughout Europe, notably
by Gustav Wappers (1803—74) and the macabre Antoine
Wiertz (1806—65) m Belgium, by Karl Friedrich Lessing
(1808-80) in Germany, and — in his later years —by David
Wilkie (1785— 1841) and by Daniel Maclise (1806-70) in
England.
Such vivid accounts of notable events are often hard to
distinguish from contemporary anecdotal genre. Delacroix
himself followed his friends R.P. Bonington (1801—28),
Eugene Deveria (1805—65), and A.-G. Decamps (1803—60) in

painting spirited, small medieval scenes, oriental subjects, and

other exotica. At the same time, low-life genre painting took a
more sentimental turn, following the lead of such virtuous
representations of peasant life as The Paralytic Tended by his

Children (1763; Hermitage Museum, Leningrad) by J.-B.

Greuze (1725-1805). In the early 19th century, Wilkie's
engaging Dutch-inspired Scottish scenes like The Penny
Wedding (1819; Collection of H.M. Queen Elizabeth II)
became highly popular, and after he abandoned the genre in
the 1830s it was continued by such artists as William
Mulready (1786-1863). Mulready's domestic lyricism was
matched in central Europe by a type of emotive but unpreten-
tious art referred to as Biedermeier —
seen for example in the
small interiors by the German painter G.F. Kersting (1785-
 ROMANTICISM 757

1847) and in the rosy narratives of the Viennese Moritz von ish human emotion painted by Sir Edwin Landseer (1802-73).
Schwind (1804—71). A similar mood can also be found in the In portraiture, too, there was an increasing emphasis on
works of such French genre painters as the meticulous Louis mood. The darkening tone of Goya's later portraits witnessed
Leopold Boilly (1761— 1845). not only the artist's changing disposition but also a growing
The interest in the passions gave a new significance to cult of melancholy. Manifestations of this in Napoleonic
animal painting. In England the 18th-century animal painter France can be found in Prud'hon's enchantingly soulful por-
George Stubbs (1724— 1806) had depicted such dramatic mo- trait of The Empress Josephine seated in a darkened forest
ments as White Horse Frightened by a Lion (1770; Walker (1805; Louvre, Paris) or in Girodet-Trioson's programmatic
Art Gallery, Liverpool). But it was James Ward (1769— 1855) image of the writer Chateaubriand, unkempt and tousled,
who reveled most fully in the untrammeled energy of purely before his native Breton heath (1808; Musee de St-Malo).
sensual creations, turning Rubensian vigor into savage conflict The most prestigious portrait-painter of the period was the
in his Bulls Fighting before St Donat's Castle (1804; Victoria Englishman Sir Thomas Lawrence (1769— 1830), who brought
and Albert Museum, London). Such uninhibited painting was a new suavity to the Augustan tradition of Gainsborough and
greatly admired in France in the 1820s and was imitated by Reynolds. His nonchalantly posed figures (for example
Gericault and Delacroix. In England, however, it was to de- Charles William Bell; 1798; Louvre, Paris) were admired not
generate into the sleight-of-hand animal surrogates for mawk- only for the brilliance of their handling, but also for epitomiz-

The Princes in the Tower by Delaroche; oil on canvas; 181x215cm (71X85U1); 183 1. Louvre, Paris
Rain, Steam, and Speed — the Great Western Railway by J.M.W. Turner; oil on canvas; 90 x 121cm (35 x48m); R.A. 1844.
National Gallery, London

ing the careless elegance of the English man of fashion, the Flemish and German primitives were rediscovered and col-
dandy. However, the finest Romantic portraits were not those lected by the Boiseree Brothers, who were later to instigate the

of the professional, but ones that penetrated to a more inti- completion of Cologne Cathedral according to the 14th-cen-
mate level like the sensitive self-portrait of Samuel Palmer tury plans. In Paris, many Northern and Italian primitive
(C1828; Ashmolean Museum, Oxford), the candid child por- paintings found their way into the Musee Napoleon (C1798-
traits of Runge (for example The Hulsenbeck Children, 1805— 181 5) — the vast agglomeration of booty from the Emperor's
6; Hamburger Kunsthalle, Hamburg) or the sympathetic campaigns. Among the pupils of David, J.-A.-D. Ingres
pathological studies of Gericault {The Kleptomaniac, c 18 2.2— (1780— 1867) and Fleury Richard (1777— 1852) evolved a
;; Museum of Fine Arts, Ghent). minuteness of manner from the museum's works by the van
While most Romantic figure painters sympathized with the Eycks and from other Flemish paintings. Indeed, Ingres was
fantasy and spirituality of the Gothic, the Romantic period roundly censured for his Gothicism when he exhibited his
also was an attempt to revive more thoroughly the pictorial three portraits of individual members of the Riviere familv
principles of the Middle Ages. As with Blake, it was the emu- (Louvre, Paris) and the hieratic Napoleon I on the Imperial
lation of Grecian purity that first led to a full appreciation of Throne (Musee de l'Armee, Paris) at the Salon of 1806. But
the primmvism of the Gothic. In the 1790s Rome became a and it
the style enjoyed the support of the Empress Josephine,
center for this, as reflected in the Gothic elements in the Out- was at the Imperial court that the foundations of what later
lines to Homer and Dante Flaxman designed there (1790—4). became known as the style troubadour were laid. Ingres him-
At the same time, the growing reaction to the changes that self, despite his Grecian predilections, returned to medieval
followed the French Revolution stimulated a nostalgic view of themes from time to time throughout his life, while the bright
theAge of Faith and its artifacts, notably in the writings of colors and sinuous lines of his style show an enduring debt to
W.H. Wackenroder (published 1797), Novalis, and Friedrich Gothic art.

von Schlegel (published 1803-4) in Germany, and of However, it was the German Nazarenes who staged the
—
Chateaubriand (published 1802, in France a mood strength- most far-reaching revival. Originally a "Guild of St Luke",
ened as sequestrations of church property brought to light formed by six art students in Vienna in 1809 to restore the
many previously unknown works of art. In the Rhineland, truth, purity, and character of pre-Renaissance art, the leading
 —
ROMANTICISM 759

members of the group went to Rome in 18 10 where they lived when dealing with the Cesa Bartholdi, "they have dignified
for two years in a deserted convent, hermetically sealed in a their style by depriving the spectator of the power of criticiz-

world of their own fancy and hoping to paint it into existence. ing the execution".
Together with the earlier neo-Grecian "Primitifs" in David's During the Romantic movement landscape painting
studio C1800, the Nazarenes —
so called on account of the emerged as one of the most important genres. This was partly
medievalizing costume they adopted —represent the beginning a legacy of the veneration of the Natural inspired by the phil-
of the familiar pattern of breakaway groups of the modern osopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-78); but added to this
avant-garde. And, as with all such groups, success modified its —
was the pantheistic belief so evident in the poetry of William
radicalism. The was dominated by the passion-
early period Wordsworth (1770-1850) —that intimations of the Divine
ately imaginative Franz Pforr (1788— 18 12), who painted such could be .ound in the workings of nature, and the observation
scenes of medieval chivalry as Rudolph of Habsburg and the that the moods of man could be reflected in its forms — later
Priest (18 10; Stadelsches Kunstinstitut, Frankfurt am Main) censured by Ruskin as the "pathetic fallacy". In landscape
with a radical naivety. After his tragically early death, the painting this led in two seemingly contradictory directions:
movement turned —under the influence of his close friend the exploration of the visionary or dramatic, evident in the
Johann Friedrich Overbeck —
789-1 869) towards a simple
(1 works of Samuel Palmer, John Martin, and Caspar David
piety, its Diireresque emphasis on character being modified Friedrich, and a close study of the appearance of local scenes,
into a schematized version of the early style of Raphael evi- as in the works of Constable and the French Barbizon painters.
dent in Overbeck's major didactic statement The Triumph of The greatest landscape painter of the period, J.M.W.
Religion in the Arts (1830-40; Stadelsches Kunstinstitut, Turner (1775— 1851), encompassed both within his art. A
Frankfurt am Main). In this form, Nazarene art became a truly protean figure, his vast output ranged from the quietest
model for the art of the international Catholic revival that and most intimate of moments to the wildest of storms. It is
flourished in the decades after the fall of Napoleon. In France true, as Ruskin remarked, that Turner dwelt on these two

it was emulated by such religious painters as Jean-Hippolyte extremes rather than on the middle ground, but there is more
Flandrin (1809-64). In England, the style of Overbeck was than exaggeration and showmanship to his work. For in his
particularly praised by Pugin and was adapted to English exploration of effect he moved beyond mere descriptiveness to
tastesby the architect's protege J.R. Herbert (1810-90). It the discovery of more vivid forms of pictorial equivalents. In
also met with more qualified approval from the Anglo- his last years in particular he conveyed his atmospherics

Catholic revivalist William Dyce (1806-64), whose combina- through the juxtaposition of pure colors and freedom of hand-
tion of medievalism and naturalism prefigured that of the ling unrivaled before the advent of abstraction.
Pre-Raphaelites. The son of a London barber, and with a poor formal educa-
Meanwhile the movement was also being channeled to- tion, Turner was from the start a virtuoso in painting. He was
wards a more secular revival by Peter Cornelius (1783-1867), made a full member of the Royal Academy in 1802 at the

who joined them in Rome in 18 12. Under the aegis of this youngest possible age of 27. Before then he had fully mastered
aspirant monumental artist, the group painted a series of the genre of topographical watercolor (which he was to prac-
scenes, the Story of Joseph (1815-16; Nationalgallerie, East tice throughout his life) and had become engaged in emulating
Berlin) in a room of the house of the Prussian Consul in Rome, and then intensifying the effects of the great 17th-century
Salomon Bartholdi. Painted in the manner of the Quattro- masters of landscape. From the breezy seascapes of the van de

cento and reviving the technique of pure fresco, this achieve- Veldes he developed such archetypally Romantic scenes of
ment commanded great respect in Rome. It also led to the man pitted against the elements as the Wreck of a Transport
adoption of the revivalist style as the official monument art Ship (1810; Gulbenkian Foundation, Lisbon) in which the
form in Germany, Munich, whither Cornelius
particularly in feeling of a storm is conveyed through a whirling, vortex-like

was summoned by Crown Prince Ludwig of Bavaria in 1820, composition which was to become increasingly familiar in his
and where he decorated the Glyptothek (decorations since later life. Snowstorm: Hannibal and his Army Crossing the

destroyed) and the Ludwigskirche with a Last Judgment Alps (1812; Tate Gallery, London) shows a masterful combi-
(1836-9). Although endowed with a genuine dramatic gift nation of the sublime effects of Salvator Rosa (1615-73) with
which occasionally emerged, as in cartoons such as the the control of Nicolas Poussin 594-1665); Crossing the
(1

Diireresque Four of the Apocalypse (1845;

Horsemen Brook (181 5; Tate Gallery, London) brought the ethereal
Nationalgallerie, East Berlin) —
in most of his work he re- calm of Claude to an idyllic rural scene.
verted to the principles of the High Renaissance, in which the Such themes had always been accompanied by an assiduous
Classical was more evident than the Gothic. recording of nature, mostly in pencil and watercolor, but oc-
Today, the revivalism of the Nazarenes seems lifeless and casionally in the open-air oil sketch; it was this receptiveness

—
pedantic it seems hard to credit the authority they exerted in that led Turner in the 1820s to develop a new approach to

their own day. This must be put down to an unquestioning color after he had experienced the vividness of southern light
faith in their thoroughness and idealism. For as one English during his first visit The outcome of this can
to Italy in 18 19.

admirer, the painter Sir Charles Eastlake (1793-1865) wrote be seen in Ulysses Deriding Polyphemus (1829; National Gal-
U reck of a Transport ship b> J.M.U . Turner: oil on cans as; i~} K 245cm 68 *96in I; 1810. Gulbenkian Foundation, Lisbon

lery, London where the Homeric hero mocks his former scale afterSnowstorm: Hannibal and his Army Crossing the
captor against a sunrise of strident bands of complementary was taken to improbable lengths by
Alps, this aspect of his art
colors. His new feeling for luminosity gave him a deeper ap- John Martin 1^89—1854). Scale was so much the essence of
;

preciation of the "mystic veil" of Rembrandt's color which this melodramatist's craft that he would often calculate the

can be felt in such interiors as Interior at Petworth (0835; exact height of his vast mountains to demonstrate their stu-
Tate Gallery, London). He also took a great interest in color pendousness. The main effect of Martin's The Great Day of
theory at this time, studying Goethe's Theory of Colors (Eng- his Wrath (185 1-4; Tate Gallery, London derives from the
lish translation published in 1840I and experimented in color literalness with which he attempts to visualize the eschatologi-
symbolism in such pictures as Peace: Burial at Sea (1842; Tate cal predictions of the Book of Revelation. Francis Danby
Gallery, London, where the unrelieved blackness of a ship's 1-93— 1 861) was his main rival in popularizing the extremist
sails dominates the silvery harmonies of a nocturnal seascape. side of Romantic landscape. But Danby was too sophisticated
In the 1 840s these developments culminated in such limpid a painter to vie with Martin's most uninhibited exaggerations,
atmospheric evocations as Rain, Steam, and Speed —the Great and his finest works were the small, fresh views of the neigh-
Western Railway 1844; National Gallery, London), a some- —
borhood of Bristol such as Clifton Rocks from Rownham
what ambiguous celebration of the awesome achievement of fields (ci8zz; City Art Gallery, Bristol) —
where he lived from
the new railways. While these last works seem close to ab- 181 1 to 1814.
straction, as do his innumerable studies and preparations, the The poignancy and them
calculated naivety of these relates
subject remained a crucial element in his art: in this funda- to the near-contemporary visionary landscapes of Samuel
mental relationship of pictorial effect to association and evo- Palmer (1805—81). Under the inspiration of Blake, Palmer
cation, Turner was completely of his age. studied nature "with a child's simple feeling and with the
While Turner abandoned all ostentatious exploitation of industry of humility". And during the 182.0s he was able to
 ROMANTICISM 761

endow his small scenes of the Kent countryside around

Shoreham —where he lived from C1827 to 1832 —with a
jewel-like intensity. The clear outlines and magnified features
of his rich vegetation and rounded hills, seen, for example, in
A Hilly Scene (0826-8; Tate Gallery, London) celebrate the
fruitfulness and spirituality of nature. Like Blake, he spurned
the illusionistic accomplishments of post-Renaissance art for
the precision of the primitives, declaring "there is no aerial
perspective in the valley of vision".
While Shoreham, Palmer was a member of a group of
at
similarly minded artists —
notably John Linnell (1792-1882),
Edward Calvert (1799— 1883), and George Richmond (1809—
96) —whose isolationism, archaism of style and costume, and
title "The Ancients" have affinities with the Nazarenes.

The German medieval revival also stimulated an intensive

form of local landscape, notable in the sensitive Diireresque
pen drawings of the surrounds of Salzburg and Vienna by
Ferdinand Olivier (1785-1841), a member of the Guild of St
Luke who never undertook the journey to Rome. However,
itwas in the Protestant north, beyond the sphere of the
revivalists, that the visionary landscape reached its apogee in

Germany. The most significant practitioners were two The Hiilsenbeck Children by Philipp Otto Runge; oil on canvas;
Pomeranians, Philipp Otto Runge (1777— 1810) and Caspar 130X 140cm (51 X55in); 1805-6. Hamburger Kunsthalle, Hamburg

David Friedrich (1774— 1840), both of whom came to ma-

turity under the influence of the Romantic circle in Dresden the spiritual in nature, he never attempted Runge's ambitious
after having studied in the Neoclassically orientated academy synthesis of landscape and religious ideologies. He concen-
of Copenhagen. Runge was essentially a figure painter, who trated instead on intensifying his actual experiences, advising
became obsessed with the notion of landscape while in Dres- the painter to "close your bodily eye, so that you may see your
den 1 801— 3). Believing that "a work of art comes into being
( picture first before your spiritual eye. Then bring to the light
only at the moment when we feel ourselves united with the of day that which you have seen in the darkness, so that it may
universe", he sought to encompass the universal in his scheme reflect upon others from the outside inwards." The remem-
to paint four interrelated pictures of the "Times of Day". The bered nature of his images can be felt in the precision with
outline plans he drew for these in 1803 are a beautiful series of which they are painted, but the features of the landscapes
arabesques interweaving genii, flowers, and other natural themselves are always based upon careful studies. For the
images into symmetrical patterns of growth and decay. was It most part he painted scenes that had a special meaning for
his ultimate aim to paint these as large canvases which would him, in particular the coastlands of his native Pomerania and
be shown in a specially designed Gothic building to the ac- the high mountains of theHarz and Riesengebirge which he
companiment of poetry and music. Like Blake, Runge was visited from Dresden, where he had settled in 1799. While

inspired by Jakob Bohme, sharing the early-i7th-century mys- never portraying moments of dramatic action, Friedrich was
tic's view of light as a spiritual source. During the last years of habitually a painter of extremes — barrenness, ruins, mists,

his life, while living with his brother in Hamburg, he made a and snow. Yet even in his midday scenes of verdant farmlands
thorough study of light effects and color, published a book on there is a sense of the transcendental, conveyed through his

the latter, and developed a fine sensibility for both in his paint- control of design and feeling for luminosity.
ings. His early death prevented the completion of the "Times Friedrich's deep sense of religion led him in 1808 to fulfill a

of Day" scheme and it might in any case have proved imposs- commission to paint a landscape as an altarpiece (The Cross
ible to convey his ecstatic feeling before nature "when every- on the Mountains, 1807; Gemaldegalerie Alte Meister, Dres-
thing harmonizes in one great chord" with the clarity that he den), a work that associated him in the popular mind with the
sought. Nevertheless he had great perceptive powers as a mysticism of the Schlegel brothers and their followers. His
painter, as can be appreciated in his portraits of his friends most radical achievement, however, was his abandonment of
and family, The Hiilsenbeck Children (1805-6;
in particular conventional notions of landscape design in favor of simpler
Hamburger Kunsthalle, Hamburg), which captures the ele- and more compelling arrangements. His Monk by the Sea
mental nature of young children without a breath of sentimen- (1809; Schloss Charlottenburg, West Berlin) shows an indi-
tality. vidual dwarfed by the endlessness of nature, using an un-
The longer-lived Friedrich created a more substantial broken horizon line and suppressing all introductory coulisses
achievement. However, while deeply imbued with a sense of to emphasize its monotonousness. In later years his style
j6z ROMANTICISM

became more spontaneous under the influence of the natural- Constable (1776-1837), was not. Although the formative
ist movement. Yet he still maintained a sense of reverence part of his career — from his declaration in 1802 that "there is

before nature by means of such devices as the inclusion of room for a natural painture" to the completion of The Hay
figures in the foreground staring towards the distance (for Wain in 1821 (National Gallery, London) — showed a grow-
example, Moonrise over the Sea, 1822; Nationalgalerie, West ing understanding of the effects of light and atmosphere, he
Berlin). never abandoned the notion of the composed grande machine
A number of German painters emulated the imagery and (which The Hay Wain in fact is) or of what he called the
lighting effects of Friedrich, in particular the Dresden artists "moral feeling of a landscape". Even his habit of making
E.F. Oehme (1797-1855) and C.G. Cams (1789-1869). open-air oil sketches for his finished pictures was not new. It

However, they lacked his intensive sensibility and religious was a well established practice among painters active in Rome
preoccupations. Carus' notion of landscape as "earth-life in the mid 18th century like Pierre Henri de Valenciennes
painting", expressed in his Nine Letters on Landscape Paint- (1750-1818) and Thomas Jones (1742-1803). It is true that
ing (1815-24), is closer to Goethe's scientific approach to Constable made a more frequent use of the oil sketch than
nature. By 1830, Romantic landscape painting in Germany either these or his contemporaries Turner and John Linnell.
had moved from the fatalistic towards the playful irony of His cloud studies show a far more analytical
in particular

Karl Blechen (1 798-1 840) and the lyrical sentimentality of interest in meteorological phenomena than those of such ear-
such Biedermeier artists as A.L. Richter (1803—84). lier artists as Alexander Cozens, while his habit of making a
As we saw in the case of Turner, the exploration of the full-scale compositional sketch for his large works helped to
emotive in nature in no way precluded a growing keenness of preserve in them something of the spontaneity of the original
observation. Yet there is an emphatic difference between the scene. But he never saw the art of landscape as a mere matter
search for more vivid effects and the analysis of appearances of recording appearance. Not only was he fully aware of the
for their own sake which is in the works of Realists and
found impossibility of imitating nature precisely, but he also re-
Impressionists later in the century. It is questionable whether mained convinced of the emotionally beneficial effects of his
any of the so-called painters of nature of the early 19th cen- art. The calm lyricism of The Hay Wain reflected his fond

tury were so dispassionate in their outlook. Certainly the memories of the countryside of his Suffolk childhood rather
leading representative of this tendency, the Englishman John than the strife-ridden rural world of the 1820s, in the grips of

Monk by the Sea by Caspar David Friedrich; oil on canvas; 1 iox 171cm (43x67m); 1809. Schloss Charlottenburg, West Berlin
The Hay Wain by John Constable; oil on canvas; 130X 185cm (51 x 73m); 1821. National Gallery, London

an economic recession. In later life, when his Wordsworthian like Chirk Aqueduct (C1804; Victoria and Albert Museum,
delight in the Natural had darkened under the strain of such London) used flat, simple washes to bring a sense of the
losses as the death of his wife (18Z9), he sought a catharsis for monumental to the chance view. But the most fashionable
his sadness in such stormy handling as that of the sketch for watercolorists were those who painted with a breezy
Hadleigh Castle (1829; Tate Gallery, London). virtuosity, such as Peter de Wint (1784— 1849) and David Cox

(1783-1859).
How some wise purpose is every bit of sunshine clouded
for
In France, the spontaneity of the English schoolhad a great
over in me. Can it be wondered at that paint continual storms
I

effect on the Romantics in the 1820s. Constable's The Hay

"Tempest o'er tempest rolled"? Still the darkness is majestic
and I have not to accuse myself of ever having prostituted the Wain was greatly admired by Gericault when he visited Eng-
moral feeling of Art My canvas soothes me into a forgetful-
. . .
land in 1 821. And when the work was subsequently shown in
ness of the scene of turmoil and folly and worse. the Salon of 1824 (where, characteristically, it was described
as a "sketch") it stimulated Delacroix to rework parts of his
(Leslie, C.R. Life of Constable, 1843.)
main exhibit there, The Massacre at Chios. It was at this time
Constable's most influential achievement was to bring a that Delacroix became a strong admirer of English art and a
new freshness into salon painting, and he was censured, as close friend of the Anglo-French painter Richard Parkes
Gericault was, for painting the apparently trivial on a monu- Bonington (1801-28), whose brilliant watercolor effects he
mental scale. In English watercolor painting, the local land- emulated. A Constabelian bravura can be found in the moody
scape was being recorded with a similar vividness and in more landscapes of Paul Huet (1803-69); but the profoundest re-

acceptable dimensions. The fine sensibility for light of J.R. sponse to the English master in French landscape came from
Cozens (1752—97) was emulated both by Turner and by P.E.T. Rousseau (1812-67), the leader of the group of artists
Thomas Girtin (177 5- 1802) when Dr Monro set them to that formed in the 1830s around the village of Barbizon in the

copy paintings by Cozens in the 1790s. While Turner was forests of Fontainebleau to studv a pure and unaffected
inspired by these to a bolder exploration of atmospherics, nature. Rousseau, who had been greatly impressed by The
( nrtiii captured more of their quiet control and poignancy, as Hay Wain when he saw it in 1833, shared Constable's poetic
can be seen in The White House (1802; Tate Gallery, pantheism and love of trees. The other principle members of

I ondon). Another master of the structured watercolor (in his the group, Jean-Francois Millet (1814-75), Charles-Francois
early years, was John Sell ( ,'otman (1^82-1842) who in works Daubigny (1817-78), and Virgilio-Narcisse Diaz de la Pena
764 ROMANTICISM

The^Tiite House by Thomas Girtin; watercolor; 30x52cm (12x20m); 1802. Tate Gallery, London

(1808-76) had differing interests in nature and rural life but The graphic arts. The early 19th century saw a great expan-
were all convinced of the need to study their subjects on the sion in graphic illustration stimulated by a growing popular
spot. There were at the same time more indigenous traditions demand for books and by the introduction of cheaper and
of French naturalism, such as the Dutch-inspired renderings of —
more rapid reproduction techniques lithography and wood
the heathlands around iMontmartre by Georges Michel engraving, for example. It also saw the establishment of reg-
(1763-1843): Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot (1796-1875) ular pictorial journalism, the scabrous and fantastic satires of
brought to the naturalist movement the careful tonal control James Gillray (1757-18 15) being followed by the more inno-
of the oil sketches of the Roman school. In later life he became cent wit of George Cruikshank (1 792-1 878), who in later life
popular for a feathery, silver-toned, manner of painting whose turned to the exposure of such social evils as drunkenness in

wistfulness is romantic in a more conventional sense. The Bottle (1847). In France the continued political upheavals
If links can be forged between the naturalist movements of provoked a more trenchant and heroic form of comment, not-
England and France, these are more tenuous in the case of ably in the lithographs designed by Honore Daumier (1808-
Germany and Scandinavia. The cloud sketches made by the La Caricature and he Charivari. While Daumier ab-
79) for
Norwegian painter Johan Christian Clausen Dahl (1788- sorbed some of the repertoire of romantic effects such as —
185^) at Dresden in the 1810s have remarkable affinities with darkened ambiences and a brilliant nervous line — his unsenti-
those of Constable. They were partly inspired by the mental exposure of corruption and poverty is best seen in
meteorological interest of the German Romantics, and partly connection with the Realist movement. Amongst other
by the objectivity of his former master at the Copenhagen graphic artists, the imaginative side of Gillray and Goya
Academy, the Roman trained C.W. Eckersberg (1783-1853), stimulated a lively fantasy. Cruikshank's book illustrations
who was also the instructor of the greatest Danish naturalist, notably those to Grimm's Fairy Tales (18Z4) and Dickens'
Christen S. Kabke (1810-48). A similar interest in freshlv Oliver Twist (1838) — delight in bizarre characterizations and
handled local scenes can be found throughout central Europe effects. But the most extreme illustrator in this direction was
in the 1830s, notably in the work of Andreas Achenbach the French satirist Grandville (J.-I.-I. Gerard; 1803-47) who
(1815-1910) in Diisseldorf, Karl Blechen (1798-1840) in skillfully concealed his social and political attacks in an
Berlin, and Ferdinand Waldmuller (1793-1865) in Vienna. almost surrealist juxtaposition of improbabilities, Un autre
 ROMAN IK ISM 765

Monde (1844) for example. At the same time Charles Meryon tendencies than painting —
at the time it was considered an
(1821— 68) was employing a Gothic sense of the macabre to un-Romantic art. Yet while such sculptors as Bertel
essentially
suggest the sinister aspects of the modern city (for example, Thorvaldsen (1770-1844) maintained the most unyielding of
Etchings of Paris, 1853). classical styles, there was a more emotive side to most Neo-
The rise of interest in medieval art also affected book pro- classical sculpture. This is especially the case in the Gothic
duction. While Blake's return to the illuminated page went overtones of Flaxman and the sensual innuendos in the work
unregarded, the German revival of the border design — first of Antonio Canova (1757—1822) and such French sculptors of
evident in Strixner's lithographic reproduction of Diirer's pen the Napoleonic period as Joseph Chinard (1756-1813) and
drawings for the prayer book for Emperor Maximilian I Antoine Chaudet (1763— 1810).
(1808) — led to the popularization of the expensive, sumptu- It was only in France, however, that a programmatic stand

ously illustrated "ballad book". The finest example of this in was taken against classicism in sculpture. The principal rep-
Germany was the 1840 edition of the Nibelungenlied, which resentative of this movement was Pierre-Jean David d'Angers
contained brilliant page designs by Alfred Rethel (1816—59); (1788— 1856), a sufficiently dedicated modernist to insist on
it was emulated in England by such works as Daniel Maclise's clothing his monuments to famous men in the costume of their
designs to Lenore (1844). While largely historical in outlook, age (for example Conde, 18 17; Versailles). His modeling had
revivalist illustration was also used to comment upon contem- a fiery bravura, admirably suited to a subject like the virtuoso
porary events by Alfred Rethel, especially in his Another violinist, Paganini (1830; Musee des Beaux- Arts, Angers).
Dance of Death 849) in which the consequences of the 1848
( 1 D'Angers fully subscribed to the Romantics' adulation of
Revolution are depicted in the format and style of a 16th- genius, and traveled throughout Europe to record the physiog-
century woodcut. nomies of such men as Goethe, Napoleon, and Victor Hugo,
turning their features into phrenological case studies along the
Sculpture. Sculpture was less strongly affected by Romantic lines of F.J. Gall (1758-1828) andJ.K. Lavater (1741-1801).

Death approaches the town, the second plate in Alfred Rethel's Another Dance of Death; 1 849
766 ROMANTICISM

The finest sculpture that can unequivocably be referred to

as Romantic, however, is the work of Antoine-Louis Barye
(1796— 1875). A pupil of Antoine-Jean Gros (1771-1835), he
brought a painterly sensibility to sculpture, preferring the tex-
tures and light effects that could be achieved in modeling and
bronze. Early in his career he restricted himself to portraying
animals, although he did occasionally combine figures with
these in such fanciful themes as Roger and Angelica on the
Dragon (1847; Louvre, Paris), an incident from Ariosto's Or-
lando Furioso. In the choice of subjects he usually followed
Delacroix, Gericault, and Ward in depicting savage conflicts,
as in his famous Jaguar Devouring a Hare (1850; Louvre,
Paris). Despite his close association with the subjects and tech-
niques of contemporary painting, Barye had a profound
understanding of the resources of his medium and of three-
dimensional design. Perhaps understandably, he never emu-
lated the experimental nature of the models of two painters
with strong interests in the tactile: Gericault and Daumier.
The latter has a rival — in topic, if not in ability — in the
grotesque and humorous portrait satires of the professional
modeler Jean-Pierre Dantan (1800—69).
Outside France, Romanticism hardly penetrated sculpture
beyond the sporadic illustration of dramatic or medieval
themes. Curiously, there was no revival of the sculptural style
of the Middle Ages, except where this was a matter of archi-
tectural decoration, as in the case of the carving supervised by
A plaster model for part of The Departure of the Volunteers, 1792, John Thomas (1813—62) for Barry and Pugin's Houses of
by Francois Rude; 1835. Louvre, Paris
Parliament (1836—65) in London.

A more complex personality was Francois Rude (1784— 1855), Architecture. In architecture the Gothic revival became a
a devotee of the painter David, who sought to maintain the powerful movement, particularly in England. Already in the
monumental in the modern age in a manner similar to 1 8th century there had been a renewed interest in Gothic
Gericault. Like Gericault, his figures have a weighty reality, building as a result of the Picturesque movement and a grow-
whether they were of Classical subjects (for example, ing taste for the exotic —culminating not just in such medieval
(Theseus, 1806; Louvre, Paris) or modern ones (Bust of fantasias as Fonthill Abbey, but also in a proliferation of such
David, 1833-8; Louvre, Paris). His masterpiece is The Depar- outlandish modes as the Oriental trappings with which Nash
ture of the Volunteers, 1792 on the side of the Arc de decked out the Prince Regent's seaside residence at Brighton,

Triomphe in Paris (1835-6). Although the volunteers are the Pavilion (181 5-21). In subsequent decades there was a
shown here in antique costume, they are impelled forward by move away from such extremes to an increasing interest in the
a figure of the "motherland" whose maenadic energy outstrips associational, in the choice of style for a building in ac-
that of Delacroix's Liberty Guiding the People. cordance with its provenance and function.
In France, England, and Germany, Gothic became associ-
Jaguar Devouring a Hare by A.-L. Barye; bronze; 42x95cm (17x37m); ated with national interests; it was supposed at that time that
1850. Louvre, Paris Gothic had been indigenous to each of these countries. In

Germany, the Wars of Liberation (1806-14) gave an impetus

to Gothic architecture as it did to medievalism in painting.
However, while the leading Prussian architect K.F. Schinkel
(1781-1841) designed a number of Gothic monuments, for
example, the War Memorial, Berlin (1819-21) and churches,
the Werderkirche in Berlin (1825) for example, the style never
became widespread. The most enduring achievement of the
Gothic revival in Germany was the completion of Cologne
Cathedral in accordance with the original plans —an idea gen-
erated during the period of the Wars of Liberation by the
Boiseree brothers and undertaken by three generations of ar-
 ROMANTICISM 767

*£L

The Houses of Parliament, London, by Sir Charles Barry and A.W. Pugin; built 1836-64

chitects between 1824 and 1880. On the other hand the pre- Middle Ages was fanned by such detailed evocations as those
dominance of Romanesque buildings in southern Germany in Scott's "Waverley" novels, archaeological interest, evident

led to the forging of an alternative "national" style, the in the publications of John Britton (1771— 1857) and Thomas
"round-arched" style, in which Romanesque elements could Rickman (1776-1841) led to a creative revival. Gothic had
be blended with the forms of the early Renaissance. This style already become well established as a picturesque villa style by
was widely used in Munich in the ambitious building program such architects as John Nash, but after an Act of Parliament in

undertaken by Ludwig of Bavaria, for example, E. Gartner's

I 1 818 to provide new churches for England's rapidly increas-
Ludwigskirche of 1829-40. In France the medieval revival ing population Gothic was revived as an ecclesiastical mode.
was also less original in its manifestations, but one architect, Finally, the seal was set on the success of Gothic by its adop-
E.E. Viollet-le-Duc (1814-79) devoted the majority of his tion for the new Houses of Parliament in 1 836. It is a measure
energies to restoration work, and achieved incomparable re- of the growing respect for historical accuracy that the archi-
sults with such famous buildings as the Sainte Chapelle and tect chosen for this building, Sir Charles Barry, should have
Notre Dame in Pans. d in an expert, Augustus Welby Pugin (1812—52), to
In England, where the fascination with the life of the design the details for him. But Pugin was a polemicist as well
768 ROMANTICISM

as an architect. A Catholic convert, he sought to demonstrate destroyed), in the English Pre-Raphaelites' alliance of revival-
in his Contrasts (1836) that the abandonment of Gothic in the ism with naturalism, and in the German artist Adolph von
1 6th century had been symptomatic of a social and moral Menzel's use of the painterly manner to make dispassionate
decline engendered by the Reformation. In fact, most of the records of contemporary bourgeois life in Berlin.

evils Pugin censured could be more closely associated with the While these developments effectively challenged the
Industrial Revolution, was as a reaction to this that the
and it Romantics' claim to modernity, much of the imaginative im-
medieval world was made
a paradigm by the economist agery of the movement survived in the art of the later 19th
Thomas Carlyle in Past and Present (1843), and by Disraeli's century. It can be found, for example, in the wistful medi-
revivalist "Young England" faction in the conservative party. evalism of Dante Gabriel Rossetti (1828—82) or in the ma-
Pugin's greatest ability was for decorative effect, and his cabre fantasy of Gustave Dore (1832-83). The movement left

buildings appear at their best in the evocative etchings he a more permanent legacy in its expressiveness and exploration
made of them in such works as An Apology for the Revival of of the irrational, which have been an inspiration to such
Christian Architecture (1843). Nevertheless, he also insisted movements as Symbolism, Expressionism, and Surrealism.
on the functional nature of Gothic, and during the 1840s The image of the artist as an independent, self-determining
—
other architects notably Anthony Salvin (1 799-1 881), Sir original, moreover, has remained a cherished ideal of the
George Gilbert Scott (181 1-78), and William Butterfield avant-garde.
—
(1814— 1900) concentrated on this aspect of the style. The WILLIAM VAUGHAN
outcome was the widespread use of Gothic in Victorian dom-
estic and ecclesiastical architecture with a pragmatism distinct

from the picturesque and associational interests of earlier gen- Bibliography. Boase, T.S.R. English Art 1800—70, Oxford (1970).
erations. Clark, K. The Romantic Rebellion, London (1974). Eitner, L. Neo-
classicismand Romanticism 17^0-1850 (2 vols.), New Jersey (1970).
Friedlander, M. From David to Delacroix, Cambridge, Mass. (1952).
The decline and legacy of Romanticism. The change in atti-
Hitchcock, H.-R. Architecture: Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries,
tude to Gothic in the 1840s was part of a general reaction to
Harmondsworth (1977). Honour, H. Romanticism, Harmondsworth
the assumptions of Romanticism. In painting this can be
(1979). Novotny, F. Painting and Sculpture in Europe: 1780— 1880,
found in the French painter Courbet's evolution from the Harmondsworth (1978). Rosenblum, R. Transformations in Late
posturings of his early self-portraits to such untheatrical por- Eighteenth Century Art, Princeton (1967). Vaughan, W. German
trayals of modern life as The Stonebreakers (1849; believed Romantic Painting, London (1980).