Building Construction Materials

TIMBER
Content of Timber
 Introduction
 Advantages and Disadvantages
 Some important terms
 Structure of tree
 Classification
 Defects
 Conversion of wood
 Seasoning of timber
 Preservation
 Properties
 Characteristics of construction timber
 Special timber products
 Common timber in India
 Introduction
 Wood or Timber?

 Wood is usually used to refer to the material in its natural state...timber refers
to it after it has been modified by man

 Timber is the oldest material of construction

 First to be used by men for various purpose from ancient time to till date
 Only mature trees are cut for obtaining good quality timber, which is suitable
for construction purpose

 These types of tree having following parts:

Crown

Trunk (Structural Timber)

Root system
 Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages
 Natural material and renewable resources
 Easily workable
 Quickly transported
 Durable
 Light in weight but strong
 Fire resistance
 Good aesthetic view
 Properly protected timber give hundreds years of
service
 Repair, addition and alteration are easy
 Can resist corrosion
This visitor centre in Tokyo
by Japanese architects
Kengo Kuma & Associates
looks like a stack of smaller
buildings with sloping roofs.
Named the Asakusa Culture
Tourist Information Center,
the building is located near
the outer gate to ancient
Buddhist temple Sensō-ji,
which was constructed in the
sixth century and is the
oldest of its kind in the city.
The Fogong Temple Wooden Pagoda of Ying
county, Shanxi province, China this fully-
wooden pagoda was built in 1056 AD during
the Khitan-led Liao Dynasty of China.

(Hindu calendar vikram sambat 1112–1113)

52-metre office tower will qualify
as the world’s highest to be held
aloft not by steel and concrete,
but timber and glue.

5 King Street in Brisbane,

Australia.
Some example
in India
 Advantages and Disadvantages
Disadvantages
 Major Disadvantage is combustibility
 Conflagration hazard
 Ex- Forest fire

 Destroyed by decay of fungi and insects

 Swells and shrink with change in climate
 Some Important Terms

 Standing Timber

Timber available in living tree

 Green Timber

Freshly felled which has not lost much of its moisture

 Rough Timber

Timber obtained after felling tree

 Converted timber

Timber sawn in to various market sizes

 Dressed Timber

sawn to the exact required condition

 Structural Timber

Timber used in load bearing and framed structure

 Clears Timber

Free from defects

 Structure of Tree

From the visibility aspects the structure of tree can be divide in two category

1. Macro Structure

The structure of wood which is visible to naked eye or at a small

magnification is called macro structure

2. Micro Structure

The structure of wood which is visible only at great magnification is called

micro structure
 Structure of Tree

1. Macro Structure
Macro Structure
Macro Structure

 Most Important
Annual Rings: it consists of cellular
tissues and woody fibre arranged in
circular circles or rings round the
pitch generally once in a year, so the
age of tree may be count from
number of annual rings
 2. Micro Structure
It is a microscopic or sub microscopic structure of different shapes and sizes
 Classification of Tree
Classification of tree according to

Growth of tree Botanically leaves Structurally

Exogenous Angiosperms Deciduous Softwood

tree tree tree

Endogenous Gymnosperms Conifers Hardwood

Tree Tree Tree
Exogenous tree

 Grow out ward and increase in bulk by formation of annular rings, deposited every
year, so it is used for engineering purpose
 Ex- Deodar, Chir, Sal, Kail, Shisham, Teak, Walnut, Mango etc.
Endogenous tree

 Grow inward or endwards

 Too flexible
 Not much suitable for engineering purpose
 Some time use for temporary construction
 Ex- Canes, Bamboos, Palms etc.
Angiosperms tree

 Seed is enclosed within fruit or nut

 Ex- Mango etc.

Gymnosperms tree

 Seed have no such cover

 Ex- Pines etc.
Deciduous tree
 Shed leaves in autumn, put new in spring
 Close grain, strong
 Heavy dark colour, durable
 Non-resinous
 Hardwood
 Use for engineering purpose
 Ex- Mango, Teak, Oak etc.

Conifers tree
 Remain evergreen
 Needle pointed leaves
 Softwood
 Light colour
 Resinous
 Light and weak
 Ex- Deodar etc.
Softwood
 Lightweight timber
 Show distinct annual rings
 Soft to work
 Weak in strength
 Most common construction timber
Hardwood
 Denser
 Annual rings are faint
 Dark colour
 Strong
 Ex- Teak, Ash, Oak etc.

Structural timber may be derived from either of this two

Pre Test
 State macro structure of Timber
 State Micro structure of Timber
 What is difference between exogenous and endogenous tree
 What is difference between Angiosperm tree and gymnosperm
tree
Defects in Timber
A defect is an irregularity or abnormality occurring in or
on wood which is responsible for its
1. Strength Reduction
2. Lowering Of Durability
3. Lowering Of Utility
4. Poor Appearance
5. Decay
 Defects in Timber

Defects in timber classify in two category:

 Natural Defects

From technical point of view these are the defects that developed
during its growth, so it can not controlled by human being

 Artificial Defects

These include the defects which develop during felling and

conversion process
Natural Defects Artificial Defects
Knots Warps
Shakes Checks
Rind Galls Honey Combing
Cross Grains Vane
Upsets Torn and
Twisting Fibers Diagonal Grain
Burr
Dead wood
Durxiness
Due to Fungi
Due to Insects
 Natural Defects:
I. Knots
• Roots of small branches which not grows as branch
• It is most easily seen by its darker appearance and harder character
• Place of weakness
I. Knots

• Create discontinuity
• Great variation in size, shape and development
Ex- Round knot, Elongated knot, Face knot, Knot cluster, Edge cluster,
Pin knot
• Live or Sound knot
• Dead or Loose knot
 Knot cluster

Round knot
 Elongated knot

Face knot
 Edge knot

Pin knot
 Live or Sound knot
Live knot:-it is thoroughly fixed in wood and
cannot separated out from body of wood.it
is free from cracks and decay wood.

Dead or Loose knot

Dead Knot:-knot which is separated from
body of wood.it is not safe to use wood
with such a knot for engineering purposes.
 Natural Defects:
II. Shakes
• More common and serious defects
• Also called cracks or fissures
• Result of ----- Shrinkage cause due to aging of tree
----- Movement cause due to wind action in growing tree
----- Freezing of the sap
• There are various types of shakes depending upon their position in tree
trunk
 Heart shakes

• Occur in over matured tree

• Due to shrinkage in heartwood
• Indicate beginning of decay of tree
• Become thinner as they extend towards sapwood
 Star shakes

• Occur due to severe temperature difference

• Also called radial shakes
• Arise in sapwood
• Become thinner as they extend towards inner region of tree
• More serious because it get separate in to number of pieces when get sawn
 Cup shakes
or Ring shakes

• Occur along the annual rings

• Due to unequal growth of tree
• Cup shakes extend only a part around
• Ring shakes almost round way
 Radial shakes

• Occur due to exposed to sun for seasoning

• From bark to centre
• Similar to star shakes but there are fine and irregular
 Natural Defects:
III. Rind Galls
• Rind means bark and gall means abnormal growth
• Swelling caused on any surface of tree
• Developed on injured surface of tree or improper cutting of branches
 Natural Defects:
IV. Cross Grains
• If the tree grows rapidly, the annual rings are widened. It is known as the
cross grain timber and such timber possesses less strength
 Natural Defects:
V. Upsets

• Due to improper felling of tree

• Exposure of tree in its young age to fast blowing wind
 Natural Defects:
VI. Twisting Fibres
• Twisting of tree in one direction due to blowing of wind
• Thus fibers gets twisted
• Unsuitable for sawing
• Used for post and poles in unsawn conditions
 Natural Defects:
VII. Burr
• Occur when tree receives shock or injury in its young age
• Due to this irregular projections appear on the body of timber
• Also occur due to unsuccessful attempt of formation of branches
• Technically it is defect but they are valuable figure wood
 Natural Defects:
VIII. Dead Wood
• The timber which is obtained from dead standing trees
 Natural Defects:
IX. Druxiness
• Indicated by white decayed spots
• Formed by access of fungi
 Natural Defects:
X. Due to Fungi

Brown Rot Wet Rot

Heart Rot Blue Stain

 Natural Defects:
XI. Due to Insects
• Beetles
• Marine Boarers
• Termites
 Artificial Defects:
I. Warps (stressing and uneven Shrinkage)
• Bow
• Cupping
• Twisting
• Spring
 Artificial Defects:
II. Checks (Strains Developed during Seasoning)
• Separate fibre of wood
 Artificial Defects:
III. Honeycombing
• Caused due to stress develop during drying
• In interior portion of timber
• Kiln seasoning
 Artificial Defects:
IV. Wane
• Presence of original rounded surface on manufactured part of timber
 Artificial Defects:
V. Torn and Diagonal grain
• Small depression is formed on a finished surface of timber by falling a
timber – Torn Grain
• Improper sawing of timber – Diagonal Grain

Torn grain
 Conversion of Wood to Timber

Conversion of wood to timber can be done by two steps:

 Felling of tree

 Conversion of log in to planks

 Seasoning of Timber
 Seasoning of timber is the process by which moisture content in the timber is reduced
to required level. By reducing moisture content, the strength, elasticity and durability
properties are developed

 Seasoning
 When timber if first fell down it has very high moisture content of approx. 50%
 Before it can be used it must be dried
 If this process is not controlled properly defect can occur that can ruin timber
 Aim of seasoning is to dry out the wood to suitable moisture content of 15% or less.
 Reasons of Seasoning
 Seasoning is the controlled process of reducing the moisture content (MC) of the
timber so that it is suitable for the environment and intended use.
 Wood will dry naturally so seasoning helps us to control the process and keep the
timber more stable and more useful.
 Prevents splitting
 Prevents a lot of fungal and insect attacks
 It is less lightly to distort or warp later
 After seasoning timber is easier to work with, because it is lighter, harder and
stronger.
 Moisture Content
 Seasoning of Timber
Seasoning of Timber

Natural Artificial
Seasoning Seasoning
Kiln
Air Seasoning
Chemical
Water
Seasoning Boiling

Electrical
 Air Seasoning
 With this process the timber is roughly sawn to size and stacked using spacers called
stickers, with the timber stacked in the open air.
 Vertical spacing achieved by using timber battens (25mm) of the same species.
 The piling sticks should be spaced close enough to prevent bowing (600 to 900 mm
centres)
 This allows the free movement of air.
 The stack should be protected from the direct influence of the elements.
 The ends of the beams must be painted to prevent splitting.
 Water Seasoning
 Water seasoning is the process in which timber is immersed in water flow which
helps to remove the sap present in the timber.
 It will take 2 to 4 weeks of time and after that the timber is allowed to dry.
 Well-seasoned timber is ready to use.

Quick method renders timber less liable to shrink or wrap but weakens timber by
making it brittle
Advantages
 No expensive equipment needed
 Small labour cost once stack is made
 Environmentally friendly- uses little energy
 It does not requires skilled supervision
Disadvantages
 Slow drying rate
 Large area of space required for a lot of timber
 Only dries the timber to approximately 20% M.C. so leaving it open to
some insect and fungal attacks while it is only suitable for outdoor
joinery
 Seasoning by Boiling
 Seasoning of timber is also achieved by boiling it in water for 3 to 4 hours.
 After boiling timber is allowed to drying.
 For large quantity of timber boiling is difficult so, sometimes hot steam is passed
through timber logs in enclosed room.
 It also gives good results. The boiling or steaming process develops the strength and
elasticity of timber but economically it is of heavier cost.
 Klin Seasoning
 Kiln Seasoning
 Timber to be seasoned is placed inside it.
 Then fully saturated air with a temperature 35°C to 38°C is forced in the kiln.
 The heat gradually reaches inside timber.
 Then relative humidity is gradually reduced and temperature is increased, and
maintained till desired degree of moisture content is achieved.
There are two main types of kiln used in artificial seasoning
 Compartmental Kilns
 Progressive Kilns.
 Both methods rely on the controlled environment to dry out the timber and require
the following factors:
 Forced air circulation by using large fans, blowers, etc.
 Heat of some form provided by piped steam.
 Humidity control provided by steam jets.
 The amount and duration of air, heat and humidity again depends on species, size,
quantity, etc.
 In general, the atmosphere in the kiln at first will be cool and moist. The temperature
is gradually increased and the humidity reduced until the required moisture content is
achieved.
 Compartmental Klins
This kiln is a single enclose
container or building, etc.
• The timber is stacked same
manner as air seasoning
• Whole stack is seasoned
using a programme of
settings(temperature and
humidity) until the whole
stack is reduced to the MC
required.
 Progressive Klins
• A progressive kiln has the stack on
trolleys that ‘progressively’ travel
through a sequence of chambers.
• Each chamber has varying
atmospheres that change the MC
of the timber stack as it travels
through.
• Advantages of this system- has a
continuous flow of seasoned
timber coming off line
Chemical Seasoning:
• In this method, the timber is immersed in a solution of suitable salt.

• Then the timber is dried in a kiln.

• The preliminary treatment by chemical seasoning ensures uniform seasoning of

outer and inner parts of timber.

Electrical Seasoning:
• In this method high frequency alternate electric current is passed through timber.

• Resistance to electric current is low when moisture content in timber is high.

• As moisture content reduces the resistance reduces.

• Measure of resistance can be used to stop seasoning at appropriate level.

Seasoning of Timber

Importance:
 Reduction in Weight
 Increase in Strength
 Improvement in Workability
 Freedom from shrinkage defects
 Longer life or durability
 Deterioration and Prevention of
Timber

Causes of Decay
Fungi
• The white Rot
This type of fungus destroys the lignin
part of the cell tissue leaving behind the
fluffy light coloured cellulose part in
rotten form.

• The brown Rot

It eats up the cellulose part of the cell
tissue leaving behind brownish lignin part
in a rotten form
• The blue stain
It is the fungus that lives on starch and
sugars in the cell tissue. Such a fungus
causes staining or discolouration of the
original wood.

• Mold
It is the cotton like growth of fungus
spread over various parts on the surface of
the board. It may not spoil the inner
portions of the wood but its appearance on
the surface is quite displeasing.
Insects
• White ants commonly found attacking wood furniture in homes

Facts regarding decay of timber

• No timber is immune to attack by fungi or insects. The environment
existing may favour or disfavour the decay.
• Moist conditions invariably inviter decay
• Strength of timber has no relation towards its resistance to decay
• Effects of attack are visible after some time when the timber has
already been decayed
 Preservation of Timber

“Art of treating timber with some chemical to increase the life”

 To protect timber from attack of insects

 To achieve good strength

 For durability
 Method of Application

• Application of some chemical substances on the surface of the

timber
• Injection of the preservatives into the body of timber
• Construction of the protective covering or shields around the timber
Types of Preservatives:

According to IS : 401-2001

 Oil Type - Ex. Coal Tar creosote oil (Destructive Distillation of

coal)
Advantages
• It has the higher degree of the permanence
• It penetrates quickly and easily in the wood tissue
• It is highly destructive for the fungi
Disadvantages
• Unpleasant appearance
• Do no allow paint and bad smell too
 Water Soluble - Toxic Chemicals Ex. Zinc chloride, boric acid,
borax
Advantages
• Easily Dissolved and used
Disadvantages
• Easily washed away if timber is in moist condition

 Organic Solvent Type - make solution with petroleum

Methods of Preservation According to IS : 401-2001

1. Surface Application

• This is done by brushing, spraying or dipping in the preservative solution

for a short period.
• Timber ( if it is round ) is debarked thoroughly.
• For the oil type of preservatives, the moisture content in the material shall
not be more than 20 percent
• With aqueous solutions, moisture content treatment of 20 to 30 percent is
permissible.
• At least two coats should be applied,
Methods of Preservation:

2. Soaking Treatment

• In this, the material is debarked thoroughly and the treatment is carried out
by submerging it in the preservative solution for a sufficiently long period
until the required absorption of the preservative is obtained.

• Normally, soaking of veneers in the preservative solution for a period of 1

to 2 min is adequate for thickness up to 1.8 mm

• Prefinished joinery/furniture components/items can also be treated with

light organic solvent type wood preservatives by this process.
Methods of Preservation:
3. Hot and Cold Process
• The timber is submerged in the preservative oil or solution
• Then heated to about 90°C and maintained at this temperature for a
suitable period, depending on the charge
• Then allowed to cool until the required absorption of preservative is
obtained
• During the heating period, the air in the timber expands and part of the
moisture is converted into vapour and is expelled
• During cooling, the residual vapour/air in the timber contracts, creating a
partial vacuum, which causes the preservative to be sucked into the timber
• This process is recommended for material containing sapwood, easily
treatable heartwood
Methods of Preservation:
4. Boucherie Process
This approach consisted of attaching a bag or container of
preservative solution to a standing or a freshly cut tree with bark,
branches, and leaves still attached, thereby injecting the liquid into
the sap stream.

Through transpiration of moisture from the leaves the preservative is

drawn upward through the sapwood of the tree trunk.
• Treatment of sapwood of almost all green round timbers
• Using any of the inorganic water soluble preservatives
Methods of Preservation:

5. Pressure Process

• Pressure process may be employed with any type of preservative

• In the case of oil type preservative, a temperature of 80 to 90°C shall be

maintained during the pressure period.

• There are various types of pressure process describe below

Methods of Preservation:
 Full Cell or Bethel Process
• When maximum absorption of the preservative is desired
• Timber introduced into the cylinder
• The door is tightly closed and then a vacuum of at least 56 cm of mercury is
created and maintained for half an hour
• The object of this operation is to remove as much air as possible from the cells
• At the end of the vacuum period, the preservative is introduced into the cylinder,
with the vacuum pump working
• This injects preservative into the timber, finally a vacuum of mercury for about
15 min is once again applied to free the material from the dripping preservative.
Methods of Preservation:
 Rueping process
• In this process an initial air pressure of 2.0 to 5.0 kg/cm2 is applied for a
specified period, depending on the sapwood content and is maintained during the
subsequent stage of filling up the cylinder with preservative.
• When the cylinder is filled with preservative, an antiseptic pressure of 3.5 to
12.5 kg/cm2, depending on species, size, etc. is applied until sufficient
absorption is obtained
• In this case, the preservative may expelled on the release of the antiseptic
pressure
• This process is especially recommended for treating timber of mixed species and
also timber containing sapwood and treatable heartwood.
 Characteristics of Good Timber
 Uniform Colour
 Sweet smell
 Regular annual rings
 Sonorous sound
 Straight and close fibres
 Heavy in weight
 Free from shakes, dead knots
 Free from compact medullary rays
 Bright surface with silky lustre
 Durable
 Resistance to attack
 Fire resistant
 Hard
Heavier and dark coloured
 Strong
timber is usually strong
 Elastic
 Properties of Timber

 Colour and Odour

• Each and every tree has typical colour and odour
• Walnut wood is distinguished by its typical dark brown colour
• A freshly cut teak wood has a golden yellow shade
• Teak wood has aromatic smell
• Pine has smell of resins

 Specific Gravity
• Wood is very light and its specific gravity is lesser as compared to water. Hence wood floats
on water
• If wood is compacted and not even few pores are left out in it, then its specific gravity will
increase and it become heavier than water and it sink
• Some trees has Sp Gr of 0.3 and some may have up to 0.9
• Heartwood is always denser as compared with sapwood
• Hardwoods are always denser as compared to softwood
 Moisture Content
• All woods are porous and hygroscopic
• They gain moisture from the atmosphere depending upon the moisture content in the
cell walls and surrounding humidity in atmosphere
• Wood may absorb moisture mote than 2 to 2.5 times than its own weight Hence Mc for
wood may be as high as 250%
• A moisture content of 12 to 15% of air seasoned wood is considered safe for the timber
in any construction

 Grain
• In normal wood tracheids and vessels grow parallel to the length of the tree trunk. This
type of structure is called straight grain
• The fibers are very tight and closely packed giving rise to finely grained texture in wood
• In other case grains are broader and quiet wider the structure is called coarse grained.
 Shrinkage and Swelling
• On drying wood shrinks
• Similarly dry wood on getting rain soaked or wetted may undergo
considerable swelling
• When dry wood is wetted the water the water is first received by the
cell walls. Only when walls become saturated water goes to the cell
cavitied. Hence on wetting the swelling starts quickly
• Thick wall cells shrinks more than thin walled cells
• Shrinkage in longitudinal direction is least whereas it is highest in a
direction tangential to cell walls
• Deformation is caused in the broad cut from timber due to shrinkage
and swelling
 Strength
• Density: Higher the density of timber greater will be the strength
• Moisture content: Higher the moisture content, lower is the strength of timber.
• Presence of Defects: There may be number of natural and artificial defects which
may decrease the strength of the timber.

 Compressive strength
• Timber for most of the cases is strong in case of compressive load as 500 kg/cm2 to
700 kg/cm2
• Compressive strength parallel to grain is always less as compared to perpendicular to
grain.
 Tensile strength
• Wood is very strong to tensile forces acting parallel to grains
• But weak when acting perpendicular to grain
• Tensile strength of wood parallel to grain is from 500 to 2000 kg/cm2
• In case of perpendicular to grain lies between 10 to 100 kg/cm2
 Bending strength
• Wood is largely used as beams
• Wood has very high bending strength as 300 to 900 kg/cm2
 Special Timber Products

 Veneers – A veneer is essentially a thin sheet of timber with

a thickness varying between thin sheets of 0.4 to 6 mm
thick.
 Plywood – It is the most common type of processed wood
containing thin sheets glued together.
 Laminated Timber--It is another type of processed wood, it
consists of suitably selected wood sheets or veneers that
have been glued together in such a way that grains of all the
sheets or laminations are parallel longitudinally
 Fibre Boards– These are made by pressing together
fibrous materials such as fibers of wood, cane and even
vegetable matter. The fiber mass is first heated and then
pressed hard in that hot state. On cooling a rigid material
of light density and good utility is obtained. Its thickness
varies between 3 mm to 10 mm.
 Common Indian Timber and its uses
Type of Timber Uses
Cheap and rough Furniture, railway,
Deodar
Packing boxes, Structural Work
Construction purpose, agricultural tools,
Babul, Chir
low costs house
Teak Heavy construction, high class furniture
Construction purpose, furniture,
Shisham, Sal, Kail agricultural tools, bridge piles, Doors and
windows
Mango Packing, cheap furniture, ornament boxes
Mahogany high class furniture, ornament boxes
Decorative Work and furniture
Walnut Box

Bamboo Partitions, Flooring, Roofing