RESEARCH GUIDE

DEPARTMENT OF MARKETING MANAGEMENT

1.0 INTRODUCTION
A dissertation is a final stage of the study program which provides students with the
opportunity to showcase the skills and knowledge gained in order to organise and undertake a
research project. It should demonstrate that students have acquired the necessary skills in
identifying areas potential for research, setting research objectives, locating, organising and
critically analysing the relevant secondary data and authoritative literature, devising an
appropriate research methodology, gathering and analysing primary data related to the
research project, drawing and synthesis relevant literature in the field of study, drawing
conclusions and where appropriate making recommendations as well as providing avenues
for further research. A dissertation is a formal document with rules that govern the way it
should be presented. It should include chapters that provide introduction and background to
the study, problem statement, review of related literature, justification of the data collection
techniques and research methodology, analysis of data and finally conclusions and
recommendations.

In case of applied research, the study is expected to culminate into sound business
recommendations. Due consideration should be given to the selection of the research topic.
Dissertation at masters’ level is distinguished from other forms of writing by its focus on
striving to analyse the research area in a broader perspective. It should seek to answer,
explain, make comparisons and arrive at generalisations which can be used to extend theory
as well as explaining what can be done and addressing the underling WHY of the study. To
achieve this, the student is expected to read this guide before starting your dissertation and
consult it whenever necessary throughout the research process. This guide aims to help
students to take off on the research journey and acts as your second supervisor to the
academic supervisor allocated. Your respective supervisors are also expected to provide
insights into the specific recommended research methodology and data analysis techniques.

PLEASE NOTE:
The research guide has been produced for general guidance only and students are expected
to consult the various recommended texts, journal articles and related references on

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research techniques appropriate to the research methods of your subject discipline. Students
should not use the guide as justification or reference for any methodological approaches or
techniques in your dissertation.
2.0 DISSERTATION STYLE
Dissertation at masters’ level needs to demonstrate knowledge and understanding beyond the
undergraduate level and should reflect a level of scope and depth expected at master’s level.
All dissertations should be presented in an appropriate academic style and format to ensure
that the precise aims and objectives of the dissertation are met. Students are expected to
clearly spell out the objectives and such objectives should be achievable in the context of that
research. Academic style does not only refer to the use of citations and referencing but also
relates to the clearly structured approach to the justification and validation of facts, theories
and opinions that are presented clear arguments.

3.0 DISSERTATION SUPERVISION

3.1 Supervision
Students will be supported throughout the research period by an academic supervisor. The
Marketing Management department’s research committee/research coordinators are
responsible for supervisor allocation in consultation with the department chairperson. Based
on ethical grounds students are not allowed to choose their own preferred academic
supervisors. The academic supervisor will normally have background expertise in the
student’s research area. However, this may not always be possible hence students may not
always be allocated a supervisor with more general subject knowledge. Regardless of the
subject background of the supervisor, the academic supervisor understands the research
process. Where a non- expert supervisor is appointed, students will still be under the guidance
of the academic supervisor, and they should be allowed to consult a subject expert. The
expert’s input will usually be limited to advice on the literature review section.

3.2 Responsibility of the Academic Supervisor

The supervisor performs many functions and is there to facilitate and not to lead the research
process, therefore the responsibility for quality and content lies with the student. Among
other roles the supervisor shall be responsible for:

a). Advising the students whether or not the proposed research is feasible and the possible
risks that may be involved such as access to data, potential poor response rates to surveys
concerning politically, socially or commercially sensitive issues.

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b). Assisting students in driving the proposed research within the confines of the research
constraints/limitations.

c). Assisting students at the onset in identifying useful and relevant reading material and
appropriate academic framework within which to place the research topic.

d). Advising students on the suitable methodological approaches and methods of data
analysis.

e). Monitoring progress and to advise on what is required to achieve successful results.
Where possible to assist students resolve any problems related to research and to recommend
students to the research committee or department chairperson whenever necessary.

g). Marking the first draft and recommend submission of final draft.

PLEASE NOTE
It should be emphasized that the dissertation is entirely the work of the student. However,
students may ask the supervisor to provide general guidance. Proof reading, grammar,
expression, choice of the methodological approaches and data analysis methods, quality and
content remain the responsibility of the student.

3.3 Responsibilities of the student

a). Maintaining regular contact with the academic supervisor. It remains the responsibility of
the student to inform the supervisor of progress and to lead the development of the
dissertation. Challenges should be communicated at the time they are encountered.
Retrospective communication or information or challenges are not acceptable

b). Writing the proposal or dissertation in a good academic style with good, standard and
clear English, appropriate citation and referencing style which the Marketing Management
Department subscribes to. The Harvard and APA referencing are widely applied; however,
the marketing department normally considers the Harvard system ahead of all the referencing
styles. It is the duty of the student to choose the referencing type and to use it consistently
throughout the dissertation. It is not the responsibility of the supervisor that this condition is
met

c). Writing the dissertation with guidance from the supervisor. The student must claim
ownership of the dissertation manuscript. The dissertation should reflect the student’s subject
understanding and research abilities and not that of the supervisor

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d). Students are expected to obtain prior permission from the company/organisation in the
case of undergraduate dissertation and masters level to obtain clearance from the regulatory
body /association governing the industry or sector in which the research is undertaken

e). Students are expected to maintain close liaison with the supervisor and to inform the
supervisor of any absence (sickness, family matters, holiday, work commitments, national
duty) that is affecting the student’s commitment to working on the dissertation

PLEASE NOTE

During the research process, where the focus and direction of the dissertation changes
substantially from that outlined in the proposal / initial topic as presented to the viva panel
or research committee, the student should immediately discuss with the allocated supervisor
who will then discuss with the research committee.

4. RESEARCH PROPOSAL
This is a roadmap and is a working document which will however be transformed into a an
introductory chapter upon approval by the supervisor in the case of undergraduate level
dissertation and by the Viva panel/research committee in the case of masters level
dissertation. The main sections of the proposal are a replica of the dissertation. The Proposal
as a roadmap shows the feasibility of the research and spells out the amount of time required,
research equipment required, financial resources required, contextual setting of the study,
how and when research will be conducted. The proposal should also show the main sources
of secondary and primary data that will inform the research. A proposal represents the
detailed skeleton of the whole dissertation. The proposal usually contains the following:

4.1 Working title

There must be a research topic which should inform the research purpose. However, it is
important to realise that the working topic will remain tentative and is subject to change and
continuous refinement in line with gaps identified from review of both theory and empirical
trends.

4.2 An introduction to the topic

Provides a brief outline of the topic, the aims, research objectives and research
questions/hypotheses to be addressed. The aim of the research provides a description of what
the researcher wants to achieve from carrying out the research. Research objectives outline
the specific issues that the researcher needs to address in order to achieve the broad aim.

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Research objectives are more specific as they help outlining the dimensions of the research
topic which are relevant to the overall research purpose. Research questions are more
particular and cover specific insights or data that need to be collected in order to achieve the
research objectives. Students should take not that research questions normally start why a
why, how or what etc.

4.3 Preliminary Literature Review

Review of literature should indicate (1) that the researcher has studied the work of other
authors in your research field, (2) that the researcher is familiar with major theories or themes
relevant to that subject area, (3) What further investigations the researcher intends to pursue
as part of this dissertation. Review of literature is done so that researcher develops sharper,
more insightful and focused research questions about your topic. Therefore literature review
should lead to and justify your research objectives and hypotheses.

4.4 Research Methodology

This sectional discusses the methods the researcher will employ in order to address research
questions of the dissertation. Students need to justify why the chosen methods are preferred
ahead of all other alternatives methods. It is also important for students to outline the likely
constraints to be encountered in terms of access, time and so on. Students should desist from
reference to the general advantages and disadvantages of the various methods and techniques
without specifying their relevance to the present study. Such a practice is unacceptable.
Additionally, it is also advisable to relate methods back to the needs of the research
objectives.

4.5 Timetable
Students should provide a detailed timeline that they will anticipate to complete the
dissertation.

4.6 Budget
Provide the costs that are likely to be incurred on the various activities of the dissertation
from its conception to the submission of the final draft. Such costs are related to research
materials, travelling, stationery and communication requirements.

4.7 Writing the Dissertation

It is important for student to remember that most of the sections on subheadings contained in
the Research Proposal will also be part of the dissertation once the proposal is approved,

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however, grammar will change to present tense or past tense especially when compiling the
final draft

Preliminary Pages
 These should be numbered in roman numerals. These include:
(i). Release page
 Student makes declaration of ownership to the dissertation having exclusive rights to
production and reproduction of the academic work

(ii). Approval page

 Provide particulars of researcher/student, contact details and physical addresses
 Provide evidence of permission to submit final draft

(iii). Dedications
 Normally made to the exclusive powers, inspiration or forces from which motivation to
complete the research work is dedicated. The source could be the Almighty, parents
family or children.

(iv). Acknowledgements
 Acknowledge help received on writing the dissertation. This should be restricted to
those people and institutions who rendered support including the academic supervisor
and not necessary family members or relatives
(v) Abstract
The abstract represents the brief executive summary of the whole dissertation. It should
contain up to 350 words. A good abstract is difficult to write and can only be completed after
the full dissertation has been done. The abstract allows the reader to get an idea of what is
contained the whole manuscript without the need to read the whole dissertation. Other
scholars read the abstract to determine if reading the whole dissertation or research is
worthwhile. The abstract should provide sufficient information about all the chapters of the
dissertation. The following are some of the tips for producing a quality abstract for your
dissertation:

 Aim & Objectives: Showing the main themes, ideas, or areas of theory being
investigated.
 Boundaries: The context, the background to the dissertation showing areas of theory,
or business practice the reader should focus attention on.

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  Methodology: Showing main methods employed to gather and generate results.
 Results: Indicate main findings.
 Recommendations where appropriate – showing solutions offered in answer to the
problems posed in the research objectives.

(vi). Contents pages

(vii). List of Figures
(viii). List of tables
(viv). Definition of terms and abbreviations
(x). Appendices

5.0 Introduction

 Provide overview of motivation for the study

 Provide general information and sections contained in chapter 1
 Provide summary of dissertation organisation (summary of chapters)

5.1 Background to the problem

This should set out the background to the research and address the following:

 Rationale of the study can be defined as the need for the study where researcher spells out
the events, situations and circumstances that are compelling the present study to be
undertaken
 Examine the developments / shifts in knowledge that prevailed around the research area
in recent times
 Such shifts or developments have to be considered from both theoretical empirical
perspectives
 Provide both quantitative and qualitative evidence in defining the research problem and
highlight credible sources for such quantitative or qualitative data. Research problem is
seen from two perspectives (1) problem as in challenges confronted in the sector,
industry, national or regional level (2) opportunities that can be realised if the present
study is pursued
 Consider the funnel approach in presenting the rational of the study

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 The context in which the research is taking place
 It shows why the subject or issues are so important
 Shows the important trends or pivotal variables of which the reader needs to understand
 It can also show the succinct and clear statement of the purpose and aims that the
dissertation is going to address
 The background should show compelling reasons for the research to be undertaken e.g is
the study undertaken to test some aspects or business practice, theory or framework of
analysis
 Is the research being undertaken to fulfil the demands of a business organisation,
industry, sector or national interests
 The final section of the background should tell the reader what areas are going to be
addressed in each of the chapters and how the chapters are related to each other. In this
way you provide the reader with a roadmap of the work ahead, thus at a glance readers
can see:
1). Where they are starting from,
2). The context in which the journey is taking place,
3). Where they are going to end up, and
4). The route they will take to reach the final destination.

The road map will enable the reader to navigate their way through your work much more
easily and appreciate to the maximum what you have done.

5.2 Statement of the Problem

 This is the summary of the rational of the study where the researcher winds up the
situation compelling the study.
 Provide quantitative and or qualitative evidence of the problem highlighting credible
sources
 All the information on the problem statement must be supported by data in the rationale
of the study
 You may state the problem statement by explicitly stating, for example, Therefore the
problem statement that this present study aims to address can be phrased as
“………………………........................................................................................”

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6.0 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

Confusion cannot be avoided when it comes to the understanding of the conceptual

framework as most students take conceptual framework to be synonymous to a theoretical
framework. Students should extensively consult literature on the difference between the two.
So far evidence from literature points to the fact that a conceptual framework can be
constructed from a theoretical framework. This means that the researcher identifies a theory
that is informing the research and then uses the elements on the theory to build a conceptual
framework which will then form the basis upon which objectives and corresponding
hypotheses can be formulated. In quantitative studies a conceptual framework is normally
associated with theoretical framework.

6.1 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

 Research objectives represent the research purpose
 Research objectives are more specific as opposed to the aims of research which are broad,
general
 In quantitative studies research objectives can be constructed from the conceptual
framework
 Research objectives can be formulated in such a way that they provide solutions to the
alleged research problem as defined in the problem statement,
 A minimum of 3 and maximum of 4 objectives can sustain research in academic
dissertations
 Students should consult widely on how to formulate focused research objectives. Among
other references, Sekaran, Creswell, Saunders provide vivid approaches to research
objectives formulation. According to Creswell (2014) in quantitative researches,
objectives normally contain terms such as ‘impact, effect, affect, influence, relate,
association, relationship’ while in qualitative studies terms such as ‘explore, describe,
identify e.tc are common. Following the research objectives, come the research
hypotheses or research questions.

PLEASE NOTE
It should be born in mind that decision to use hypotheses or research questions depends
upon the nature of the research where quantitative researches call for hypotheses and

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 qualitative researches call for research questions. Where, for example some objectives
are quantitative and others or one of them is qualitative this is a mixed or hybrid
research where both hypotheses and research questions are used where a quantitative or
relational objective will be associated with a statement of hypothesis and that objective
which is qualitative or descriptive in nature will be associated with a research question.

6.5 RESEARCH ASSUMPTIONS

 Read on what assumptions are and be able to formulate good assumptions.
 Good assumptions should be the ones that are related to the research problem.
 Formulate assumptions regarding cooperation of respondents, regarding validity of data
to be generated as well as regarding the environment in which research is undertaken,
regarding communication or language barriers between the researcher and the targeted
respondents.

6.6 RESEARCH JUSTIFICATION

Research justification is normally provided in terms of the following:

 Theoretical contribution of your research: Theories or concepts your research aims at

contributing to the existing body of knowledge.
 Methodological contribution: New methods or different ways of gathering and generating
results which can be adopted by other future researchers where possible.
 Practical contribution: Solutions and policy recommendations to various stakeholders
such as the organisation, industry or country at large.

6.7. RESEARCH DELIMITATIONS

Provide research boundaries in terms of the following:
 Geographic boundary in which research is undertaken.
 Theoretical scope: Providing a theoretical framework which guides and governs
literature exploration and evaluation.
 Data period: It is important for researcher to justify why a particular period should be the
focus of the research.
 Delimitations of the research participants.

6.8. STUDY LIMITATIONS

 While some researchers include time, finances, work or social commitments to be
limitations, some scholars prefer those limitations that are related to methodological
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 issues employed in the research. For instance, relating limitations to sample size drawn,
data collection method employed, research design or philosophy among others.
 Some scholars also prefer measures researcher will adopt to counter limitations while
others argue that declared limitations should not be associated with counter measures,
hence students should provide justification for the course of action taken

7.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

There is no universally agreed method of conducting review of related literature. It is
important that students understand the following:

 Literature review involves an extensive exploration, critical evaluation of the existing

literature related to the present research with a view to identifying nexus between
variables in quantitative studies as well as identifying areas of convergence and areas of
divergence in ideas, opinions, concepts, arguments or philosophies from various scholars
in the discipline.
 Students should present and analyse critically the published literature which is relevant
to the present research and which acts as a complete understanding of the context in
which you are conducting your research. Please take not that being critical does not
mean focusing on the negatives but forming an evaluation. Also avoid reviewing in an
accepting way.
 Critical analysis of the published material which can be textbooks, journal articles,
reports, case studies, conference papers, the internet, magazine articles, however,
students need to ensure that the most important source of academic literature are the
journal articles and you should ensure that you are familiar with the most recent
publications in journals relevant to your subject area. Recent publications in this guide
refer to that which is NOT MORE THAN 5 YEARS OLD.
 Students should remember that literature review should lead and justify the research
objectives and research hypotheses. Literature review should not be a catalogue of
authors, frameworks and ideas but should attempt to introduce a critical evaluation of
those authors’ works.
 Detailed literature review gives the reader the opportunity to assess the worth of one’s
writing, analytical and research skills.

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 Literature review also helps to demonstrate the researcher’s knowledge of the area of
interests is detailed enough to that you are able to identify gaps in the coverage of the
topic, thus justifying the purpose of the research.
 Literature review should expose the key variables of the research and the trends in the
environment of your research.
 Literature review also helps to show whether research findings are consistent with the
previous researches conducted.
 Students should read research publications and books for a step by step process in
literature reviewing.

8.0 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Methodology is a very important stage in any research process. All the best quality research
papers, articles and academic dissertations are judged by the quality of research methods
which the researcher employ to achieve the research purpose. Researcher/students may begin
this section by stating the research objectives / hypotheses and then choose the method(s) for
gathering and analysing data. Among other issues the following must be provided:

 Research philosophy (research paradigm) which is a must for post graduate level
students where researcher provides the philosophical assumption guiding the research.
Students should are expected to choose the research philosophy, describing how it will
be applied in the dissertation and justify why the chosen philosophy is necessary ahead
of all other alternatives
 Research design should be clearly stated. Various scholars provide different views on
research design hence students are expected read widely before choosing a particular
design. The research design chosen must be consistent with the research philosophy in
the case of postgraduate students.
 Research strategy and research approach should be clearly stated, and outline their its
suitability in line with the research objectives
 Target population must be clearly stated, describing the elements that constitute the
target population. It is also important to justify why elements of the target population are
of interest in the research by indicating the type of data to be collected from such
population elements in line with the research objectives. Additionally, it is normally
necessary in quantitative researches to indicate the estimated size of the target population
and provide the credible sources for such a statistic.

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 Sample frame, sampling methods, sampling techniques should be clearly indicated. It is
needless for students to provide general information about the sampling methods and
techniques but to state and outline those methods techniques which you will employ in
your research, outlining how the chosen methods and techniques will be applied and
provide justification as why these are appropriate in your research. Factors to be
considered in determining sample size such as the nature of the target population, the
margin of error desired among others must be clearly outlined as well as providing the
formula or models or drawing sample size,
 Data sources should be clearly highlighted. Please do not generalise on the data sources,
for instance on secondary data, some student simply state that internet, books,
newspapers, company magazines. This is not acceptable but to categorically state the
type of secondary source and show its relevancy to the research. State clearly under
separate subheadings the specific research instruments employed / to be employed in
collecting data. In most business and social science researches, questionnaire, interviews,
focus group discussions, and observation, although observation only begging to be
popular in business researches. Students should read and consult their respective
supervisors on how to present information regarding the research instruments used or to
be used in their dissertation.
 Data collection procedure and how this was administered in the dissertation should be
clearly outlined. Measures to guarantee validity and reliability of research instruments
must be vividly provided as well as articulating measures for ensuring good ethical
conduct by researcher.
 Lastly, provide method(s) for analysing quantitative data and those for analysing
qualitative data describing how this was/will be employed in your dissertation. State the
techniques or tools for presenting both quantitative and qualitative data

PLEASE NOTE
Various research methods provide focused approaches on research methodology and among
the many scholars, Saunders et al. (2012) provides a vivid research onion which students can
easily master and apply in academic dissertations.

9.0 DATA ANALYSIS

This section depends on the type of your study and hence it’s not generic. In this section,
describe the statistical analysis that will be undertaken for the study. Data itself will not

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provide you with the answer to your research question/s. The data has to be analysed and
interpreted.

9.1 QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS

Highlight the framework you will follow when conducting qualitative data analysis. Strauss
and Gorbin (1968) provide a grounded theory framework with stages such as open coding,
theme refinement, thematic mapping etc. Thematic content analysis is commonly used for
qualitative studies aided by software such as ATLASti. Make sure that you have access to
software you intend to use and whether you have the knowhow of running such software
before you commit yourself.

9.2 QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS

Common software used in quantitative studies includes SPSS and STATTA. Common types
of quantitative data analysis include the following: descriptive analysis in the form of
frequencies, tabulations, pie charts, bar charts that can be used to describe the composition of
the sample and the biographical aspects of respondents. In order to explore relationships,
correlations can be computed between variables (such as customer service and customer
satisfaction). Regression analysis can be undertaken to examine causal and predictive
relationships among variables. Independent sample-t-tests can be used to establish differences
between variables such as gender. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) can be used to examine
differences among more than two variables. You also need to indicate which statistical
package will be used to analyse the data.

In order to assist you in more detail regarding statistical analysis, some basic statistical
concepts are discussed.

9.1 DESCRIPTIVE ANALYSIS

Descriptive statistics are those statistics, which organizes and summarizes numerical data.
The figure below provides an overview of the basic descriptive statistics most frequently
used.

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 Figure 1 Descriptive statistics

DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS

Measures of central Measures of Relational measures

tendency dispersion

Mean, mode & Standard deviation Rate, ratio &

median percentage

9.2 INFERENTIAL STATISTICS

Inferential statistics assess the association between independent and dependent variables.
These may be bivariate (measuring the effect of a single independent variable upon a single
dependent variable) or multivariate (involving more than two variables). Two categories of
inferential tests are shown below:

INFERENTIAL STATISTICS

ParametricNon parametric
val or ratio data. Assumes that the data is drawn a normally
These are
distributed
used withpopulation
ordinal ori.e.
nominal
data isdata
not and
skewed
the assumptions parametric tests need not be met

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9.3 TESTS OF ASSOCIATION

Tests of association refer to those tests that measure whether two or more variables are
related, that is, as the independent variable changes, then the dependent variable changes
accordingly. There are a number of tests that you may consider using.

9.3.1 Correlation

Correlation investigates the relationship between two variables consisting of interval or ratio
data, for example, the relationship between advertising spent and sales of a particular sports
product. A correlation can indicate:
 Whether there is a relationship between the two variables
 The direction of the relationship, i.e. whether it is positive or negative
 The strength or magnitude of the relationship.
A positive correlation exists where higher scores on one variable correspond with high scores
on another, for example, performance may increase self-efficacy. A negative correlation is
where higher scores on one variable correspond with lower scores on another, for example,
performance in a complex sporting task may decrease with increasing levels of anxiety. A
score of -1.00 represents a negative correlation, that is, as the score on one variable decreases,
then the score on the other variable increases. A score of 0.00 represents variables are not
correlated or have no relationships with each other. Correlation of +1.00 represents a perfect
positive correlation, that is, the variables increases or decreases together.

Whilst correlations are useful to identify relationships, they are unable to determine causality,
that is the extent to which variable X causes variable Y or does Y causes X. For this reason,
regression analysis is undertaken.

9.3.2 Regression analysis

Regression analysis between two variables effectively calculates a “best fit line”. This line
will subsequently predict the effect of one variable upon the other. Regression analysis is a
powerful procedure for analysing relationship between variables. It can be used to:

 Determine whether the independent variable (IV) explain a significant variation in the
dependent variable (DV), i.e. whether a relationship exists.
 Determine how of the variation in the dependent variable can be explained by the
independent variable/s i.e. the strength of the relationship

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 Control other independent variables when evaluating the contributions of a specific
variable or a set of variables.

9.3.3 TESTING DIFFERENCES

Tests of differences generally assess whether differences between two samples are likely to
have occurred by chance, or whether they are the result of the effect of a particular variable.

9.3.3.1 The independent samples t-test

Using this test, we examine whether the mean scores of two different groups can be
considered as being significantly different. For example, we randomly assign participants to
two groups, one a rehearsal and one non-rehearsal group with regard to golf putting. We then
compare their scores to see if there is a significant difference. This test can be used when:

 The data is interval or ratio in nature.

 The groups are randomly assigned
 The variance, or spread in the two groups is equal.

9.3.3.2 Paired samples t-test

The paired t-test measures whether the mean of a single group is different when measured at
different times. For example, we wish to establish whether the performance of a group on
putting task after mental rehearsal was significantly different from that before the rehearsal.

9.3.3.3 Analysis of variance (ANOVA)

ANOVA is similar in nature to the independent t-tests. However, it allows you to ascertain
mean differences between more than two groups.

9.3.3.4 Chi squared test

This test is useful for non-parametric nominal data. The chi-squared test compares the actual
or reported frequencies of a given variable with frequencies that would be expected if the
data was to suggest no differences between groups.

9.4 RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY

9.4.1 Reliability

Reliability refers to the extent to which a scale or a questionnaire produces consistent results
if repeated measurements are made (Malhotra, 1999:281). Therefore, reliable instruments

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provide stable measures at different times under different conditions (McDaniel & Gates,
1996:350). There are three ways to assess reliability.

9.4.1.1 Test-retest reliability

Here respondents are administered identical sets of scale items at two different times under
nearly the same conditions. The time interval should be between 2-4 weeks apart.

9.4.1.2 Alternative forms

Two equivalent forms of the scale are constructed and administered to the same respondents
at two different times (2-4 weeks apart). Reliability is measured.

9.4.1.3 Internal consistency

Internal consistency reliability is made up of two types, namely split half and Cronbach
alpha. In split half reliability, the scale items are divided into halves. Reliability is then
calculated to examine correlations. High correlations indicate high internal consistency. The
Cronbach alpha technique is the average of all possible split-half coefficients, resulting
from different ways of splitting the scale items. Values range from 0 to 1. A value of 0.70 and
above suggests satisfactory levels of reliability (Malhotra, 1999:282).

PLEASE NOTE:

Commonly used methods are Cronbach alpha and Split-half methods. Other methods have
major disadvantages and often difficult to apply.

9.4.2 Validity

Validity is the extent to which a scale measures what it supposed to measure. There are
various types of validity.

9.4.2.1 Content/face validity

It is a subjective evaluation of a scale’s content to establish whether the scale covers all
aspects of what is being measured. For example, a scale on store image would be inadequate
if it omits major dimensions such as quality, variety, assortment etc. This type of judgment is
made by the researcher or experts in the field.

9.4.2.2 Construct validity

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Construct validity addresses the question of what construct or characteristics a scale is in fact
measuring. Construct validity requires a sound theory of the nature of the construct being
measured and how it relates to other constructs. There are two common types of construct
validity, namely convergent validity and discriminant validity. Convergent validity is the
extent to which a scale correlates positively with other measures of the same construct.
Discriminant validity is the extent to which a measure does not correlate with other
constructs from which it is supposed to differ (Malhotra, 2010). It involves demonstrating the
lack of correlation among different constructs. In convergent and discriminant validities, one
can use correlation analysis.

9.4.2.3 Predictive validity

Predictive validity is the extent to which a future level of a criterion variable can be predicted
by a current measurement on a scale. For example, can a job insecurity scale predict the
intentions to quit a job or can a purchase intention scale predict the actual trial of a product in
the future. Here you can use regression analysis.

9.4.2.4 Concurrent validity

Concurrent validity is concerned with the relationship between the predictor variable (job
insecurity) and the criterion variable (intentions to quit). For example, a long version and a
short version of an instrument can be administered to respondents and the results can be
compared.

NB: Commonly used methods are: Construct, content and predictive validity.

At the proposal, stage students are required to state which methods are going to be used.

9.4.2.5 RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY FOR QUALITATIVE STUDY

The trustworthiness and credibility of the qualitative study should also be justified. Some of
the approaches used include prolonged engagement, member validation, bracketing etc.

9.5 ETHICAL ISSUES

Ethics refers to moral principles or values governing the conduct or behavior of an individual
or a group (McDaniel & Gates, 1996:84). Some of the ethical issues that are relevant for a
study are as follows:

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 Permission must be obtained from the management of the company in writing where a
company is used as a case study. If various companies are used, permission must be
obtained from all the companies.
 Participation in the study must be voluntary. Respondents will not be forced to participate
in the study.
 Personal data of respondents will be processed fairly and lawfully and used only for the
purpose of the study.
 Personal responses from individuals will not be ascribed to any individual. All data will
be computed in aggregate and not be linked to any respondent.
 The questionnaire will not contain the names of respondents - anonymity of respondents
will be maintained throughout the study
 Personal data shall be adequate, relevant and not excessive in relation to the purpose of
the study for which they are processed.
 Professional competence in the data collection and analysis will be maintained.
 Independent objectivity in the interpretation of the survey findings will be upheld.

PROPOSAL FORMAT

CHAPTER ONE /SECTION : GENERAL INTRODUCTION

RSEARCH TOPIC

1.0 INTORUDCTION
1.1. BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY
1.2. PROBLEM STATEENT
1.3. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
1.4. RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
1.5. RESEARCH HYPOTHESES / RESEARCH QUESTIONS
1.6. RESEARCH JUSTIFICATION

1.6.1 PRACTICAL CONTRIBUTION

1,6.2 METHODOLOGICAL CONTRIBUTION

1.6.3 THEORETICAL CONTRIBUTION

1.7. RESEARCH ASSUMPTIONS

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1.8. STUDY DELIMITATIONS

1.8.1 GEOGRAPHIC DELIMITATION

1.8.2 THEORETICAL DELIMITATION

1.8.3 DATA PERIOD DELIMITATION

1.8.4 PARTICIPANTS DELIMITATION

1.9 STUDY LIMITATIONS

1.9.1 METHODOLOGICAL LIMITATIONS

1.9.2 FINANCIAL LIMITATIONS

1.9.3 THEORETICAL LIMITATIONS

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 INTRODUCTION
2.1. LITERATURE RELATING TO THE DEPENDENT VARIABLE
2.2. LITERATURE RELATING TO THE INDEPENDENT VARIABLE
2.3. LITERATURE RELATING TO THE RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
2.4. SUMMARY

CHAPTER THREE : RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.0 INTRODUCTION

3.1. RESEARCH PHILOSOPHY

3.1.1 RESEARCH DESIGN

3.2 TARGET POPULATION / UNIT OF ANALYSIS

3.2.1 SAMPLE FRAME AND PROCEDURE

3.3. SAMPLING METHODS AND TECHNIQUES

3.3.1 SAMPLE SIZE DETERMINATION

3.3.2 SAMPLE SIZE

3.4. DATA SOURCES

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3.4.1 SECONDARY DATA

3.4.2 PRIMARY DATA

3.5. RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS

3.5.1 QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN

3.5.2 PERSONAL INTERVIEWS/ FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSIONS/OBSERVATIONS E.T.C

3.6 DATA COLLECTION PRODURE AND ADMINISTRATION

3.7. RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY OF THE RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS

3.8. ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS

3.9 DATA ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION TOOLS

4.0. BUDGET SECTION SHOWING TIMELINES FROM CHAPTER 1 TO 5

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