Earthmoving Plant

AN INTRODUCTION TO ITS SELECTION, OPERATION AND COSTING
V, V. Tucker
C.Eng.,M.I.Mech.E., F.I. Plant E., A.M.B.I.M.
WOODHEAD-FAULKNER CAMBRIDGE
Published by W-oodhead-Faulkner Limited
8 Market Passage, Cambridge CB2 3PF
First published 1980

@ V V Tucker 1980
ISBN 0 85941 037 4
Conditions of sale
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system or transmitted, in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or
otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner.
Typesetting by Cambridgeshire Life Limited, St. Ives,

Cambridgeshire
Printed in Great Britain by J W Arrowsmith Limited, Bristol
The excuse for this book, if an excuse is needed, is that there is not one
like it and my experience with the Construction Industry Training
Board led me to believe that there should be. People who spend their
lives in the construction plant world find it difiicult to realise just how
ignorant many of the young civil engineers with whom they work
really are on this subject. The aim of this book, therefore, as its title
suggests, is to present basic information about earthmoving plant, its
operation, maintenance and costing, to serve as an introduction to the
appreciable volume of more complicated material that is available.
I wish to express my grateful appreciation and thanks to Caterpillar
Tractor Co. and J. C. Bamford Excavators Ltd. for allowing me to use
information, graphs and illustrations from their own publications.
My personal thanks also must be given to Mr E. G. Mabbs,
B.Sc.(Eng.), of Sir Robert McAlpine & Sons Ltd., and to Mr F. Ballard,
M.I. Plant E., Paving Manager of Messrs J. Laing, for their advice and
help, which has always been freely given, both when I was with the
C.I.T.B. and since.
V.V.T.
NOTES OM UNITS OF MEASUREME
Both Imperial and metric speeds and capacities are used in this book,
the reason being that much British equipment still has instruments
graduated in miles per hour and capacities specified in cubic yards.
Conversion tables for Imperial, metric and US units are provided on
pages 91-92.
Page
Preface iii
Note on units of measurement iv
Introduction l
Earthmoving plant -description and characteristics 4

The bulldozer. The crawler loader. The wheeled loader. The wheeled
loader/backhoe. The rope-operated excavator (dragline). The
hydraulic excavator. The scraper. The grader.
Factors affecting the output of earthmoving plant 28

Soil swell. Operating conditions. Terrain formation. Operator
efficiency. Machine condition. Job efficiency. Machine matching.
Summary of factors.
Estimating the output of earthmoving plant 33

Bulldozer output. Crawler loader output. Wheeled loader output.
Dragline output. Hydraulic excavator output. Scraper output.
Tracks or wheels -some practical considerations 51

Soil classification. Wheeled plant. Tracked plant. Traction.
Power loss (altitude).
Construction plant costing 57

Fundamental considerations. Fixed costs. Variable costs.
Forecasting probable costs. General note.
Plant selection 72
Task indentification. Preliminary selection. Machine output
estimation. Machine matching. Output costing. Selection in practice.
v
7 Construction plant maintenance
The technical reasons for maintenance. Forms of maintenance.
Inspection. Routine lubrication servicing. Integrated system of
servicing and preventative maintenance.
8 General considerations
Manufacturers' data. Computer facilities. Plant training.
Conclusion.
Appendix: Some useful tables and data 89

Plant requirement chart. Swell and load factors. Conversion of
metric and US weights and measures. Travel time in minutedtravel
distance in feet. Grade conversion. Volume of material in
piles. Approximate weights of materials.
Index 97
Hundreds of millions of pounds are spent annually by the construction
industry on earthmoving and other forms of construction plant. In
any large civil engineering project up to 25% of the cost of that project
may be associated with the provision of the construction piant, yet the
selection and management of such plant is still given a relatively minor
place in the training curriculum of the average civil engineer.
Even the industry itself has been slow to recognise that the proper
employment of such a large capital asset is as important to the survival
of a company as the efficient management of the construction activity.
The past twenty years have seen a gradual change in the organisation
of construction companies, aimed at focusing management expertise
on plant operation. Contractors with large holdings have formed plant
companies which offer a plant hiring service to all comers and a
priority plant provision service to the parent company, whilst
independent plant hire companies have proliferated, to the extent that
they now form the major portion of the market for new plant in the
United Kingdom. These plant companies have professional tnanagers
who are there to offer advice on plant selection, but for the civil
engineer dependent on these experts for information there is always
the possibility that the advice may be coloured by the fact that certain
plant is available within the plant company rather than by consider-
ations as to the most efficient and economical way of carrying out the
task. In addition, it is possible that the plant manager approached is an
expert in a very limited range of types of plant. Companies tend to
specialise in a certain field, e.g. compaction equipment, or loaders,
and he may therefore not be able to advise authoritatively on other
types of plant.
The proper selection of plant is important for several reasons. The
first and most obvious is that of achieving the lowest cost of carrying
out the construction task. Using a machine not really designed for the
task or of unsuitable capacity can result in a high cost operation. The
safety of men on site and of the machine operator may be put at risk
and a slow operation can keep other staff on site longer than planned,
holding up succeeding operations and delaying the completion of the
whole contract. Too small a machine may suffer frequent breakdowns
from overloading or abuse as the operator tries to obtain high
production. Most construction operations today are built around items
of plant and if the plant stops the job stops. The consequential loss to a
contract due to plant breakdown is always high compared with the
additional cost incurred by use of the correct plant in the beginning
or by carrying out good effective maintenance. Even when an efficient
system of machine replacement is available, production time is lost
and the cost of bringing the machine to site may be appreciable.
The aim of this book is to introduce the subject of earthmoving plant
selection, operation, output estimation, costing and maintenance to
the young civil engineer. It keeps the subject simple and provides
basic instruction which can readily be added to by reference to the
sources of further information mentioned. The book also contains
useful output data and tables.
The earlier chapters cover the basic operational roles of the more
common items of earthmoving plant, namely the loader backacter, the
wheeled and tracked loaders, the bulldozer, the rope and hydraulic
excavators, the scraper and the grader. Subsequent chapters define
the factors that affect the output and give examples of corrections to
the theoretical output which must be made to determine probable out-
put on site. The use of output graphs and additional sources of output
information are mentioned. The simple theory relating to the limit-
ations and advantages of wheels and tracks is then dealt with in some
detail because of its importance in the selection process.
Calculating the cost of owning and operating plant has always
proved difficult because of the several variables involved. All the
elements that combine to form the hourly cost of plant are considered
and methods of their calculation suggested. Examples of the costs
relating to differing periods of ownership are shown and the consider-
ations which affect the decision to hire or buy are mentioned. Any
relation of the cost figures with the actual cost of plant was probably
destroyed by inflation before the printer's ink was dry but the prin-
ciples may be followed safely. The approach to plant selection is dealt
with by considering the basic earthmoving tasks and the advantages
and limitations of conventional machines to carry out these tasks. This
is the preliminary or first stage of the selection process. Having
determined the machines which could carry out the task the second
stage is the estimation of probable outputs. These must be related to
the time available for the task and the cost of completing the task,
thus permitting the selection of the most efficient machine. A chapter
on the importance and method of maintaining plant, followed by an
Appendix of useful tables, completes the book.
It is hoped that the logical progression of the material from the plant
capability to output estimation and selection will make the subject
easy to follow. This book should, as its title suggests, serve as an
introduction to this fairly complex subject and to those keen to extend
their knowledge are recommended the publications of leading plant
manufacturers. In the opinion of the author the books of Caterpillar
Tractor Co. are the best and should be studied first. Other manufactur-
ers are following the lead of this enlightened company and orgaxfisa-
tions such as Massey-Ferguson, John Deere International and, at
home. J. C. Bamford also have information available.
THE BULLDOZER
The bulldozer is a crawler tractor with some form of blade mounted
transversely across the front end. As will be seen in a subsequent
section, the crawler loader can be converted for the bulldozing (or, as
more commonly expressed, dozing) role, but the bulldozer proper is a
machine designed and purpose-built for its role. The blade is usually
raised, lowered and tilted by means of hydraulic rams although
machines with cable-raked and -lowered blades may still be found.
Fig. l. Bulldozer
Over short distances (up to about 100 metres) bulldozing is the cheap-
est way of moving spoil from one place to another on site. The earth is
pushed in front of the blade, and it is rather surprising to find that the
greatest resistance comes not from the weight or mass of earth moved,
but from the high frictional resistance of moving the spoil across the
grouiia.Hence thmkElity of special "U" or bowl blades (Fig. 2).
which keep the material rolling in front of the blade, reducing the
frictional drag and permitting the movement of a greater mass than the
standard straight blade; such blades find application in the movement
of large volumes of light, essentially frictional, materials.
The dozer is also used to speed up scraper bowl loading by pushing
from the rear during the loading operation; push loading is frequently
used for wheeled scrapers but much less frequently for crawler-towed
scrapers.
Stability and safety
The person at greatest risk is the dozer operator: operating too near
the edge of an excavation or downhill dozing over the edge of a bank
may result in the edge crumbling and the machine toppling into the
hole. Operator training is in the main the only real safeguard.
Capacity and outputs
The theoretical output of a bulldozer will depend on the size and type
of blade, on the power of the tractor driving it, and even more on the
dozing technique used. For instance, slot dozing, a technique whereby
many passes are made over the same piece of ground, forming a trench
or slot. improves output by reducing material spillage around the sides
of the blade. Downhill dozing will improve output by using gravitation-
al forces to assist the tractor's own engine power. Where two or three
dozers are to be used, if they operate side-by-side again spillage
around the blades will be reduced, increasing output. A rough
approximation of a dozer blade load under good conditions is the
volume encompassed by the blade at a 1-in-l slope to the ground
from the top edge of the blade, plus 20%.
Manufacturers measure the soil heaped in front of the blades under
various conditions and pr3duce output tables or graphs for specific
machines and specified conditions. These may be regarded as the
optimum or theoretical, to be modified by all the practical factors
which will be enumerated in subsequent chapters. Examples of graphs
and their use are given in Chapter 3.
Dozer blade types and uses
The Straight (S) blade is the most commonly found pattern of blade on
site. It has a high horse power per foot of cutting edge ratio, which
makes it a good general purpose dozing blade with good ground
penetration and load characteristics. If the dozer is fitted with a blade
tilt cylinder, versatility and productivity of the blade may be increased.
Fig 2. Dozer "S" blade Fig. 3. Dozer "U" blade
~qufppedwith a push plate it may be used-with good effect for push

loading scrapers.
The Universal (U) blade differs from the S blade in that it is longer
with large wings on each end. Its large area and side wings make it
particularly suitable for moving large volumes of light materials. It
may be used for land reclamation, hopper and conveyor belt loading
and stockpile work. It has a lower ground penetration ability than the
S blade.
Fig. 5. Dozer "A" blade
The Cushion (C) blade is used primarily on the larger commercial

dozers, e.g. Caterpillar D9 Tractor, for push-loading operations.
Being shorter than the normal blade it is less likely to damage Scraper
tyres, which tends to happen if a conventional dozer approaches the
rear of a Scraper on the turn.
The Angling (A) blade can be positioned straight across the front of
the tractor or at an angle of 2.5" to either side. It is designed for side-
casting, pioneering roads, backfilling and cutting ditches. It is
invaluable for cutting roads along the slope of a hillside.
THE CRAWLER LOADER
The crawler loader is a very commonly found item of plant on site.
Because of its ability to negotiate rough ground and by virtue of the
good traction imparted by its tracks, it may be used for digging base-
ments, ponds and ditches. When digging a basement it may dig its
own ramp, and, using the ramp, dig out the basement, loading the soil
dug directly into the tipper truck. It may b e used as a loader, loading
from stockpiles into haul units, crushers and hoppers; with a ripping
tooth attachment fixed to the rear of the tractor it can break up hard
ground or old roadworks. A backacter may also be fitted for trench and
pit digging. (See Fig. 8 for details of front attachments; most of the
attachments shown in the hydraulic excavator section are available for
the backacter if fitted.)
A 4-in-1 (multi-purpose) front bucket (Fig. 7) permits land clearing,
spreading, grading and clamshell operations. Outputs of 4-in-l
bucket machine in terms of spoil moved may be 15% less than a
machine with a standard bucket, due to the extra weight of the bucket.
However, this lost output is offset by the wide range of activities that
may be carried out without time-consuming front-end attachment
changes.
h
Fig. 7. 4-in-lor melti-purpose bucket
Teeth Cutt~ngEdge
S d e Bit
C ldm
Se~t~on
:,"cf\lde)
Grab
Teeth
Mouidbodrd
Cutting t d g e
The lighter machines may be lowered by crane into a basement

where they can excavate. The spoil can then be removed from the floor
of the basement by a grab. The low overground speed of 3-8 mph
requires that the distance from the dig to the haul unit be kept as low
as possible to ensure reasonable outputs.
The greatest instability occurs when the laden crawler loader travels
across a slope: sudden turns on a cross slope with the laden bucket in
the raised position may result in the equipment rolling over. Lives have
been, and still are, lost on site in this way.
Loading haul trucks over the cab in which the driver is sitting, or
sudden reversals without first looking to see that the way is clear are
just two examples of dangerous manoeuvres. The noise of the loader in
operation coupled with the increasing tendency to use cabs to protect
the operator, which prevent him hearing warning shouts, contribute to
this problem; good training which instils safe operating techniques
in the operator is the only truly preventative action that can remove
or at worst reduce the hazards to site staff.
The need to select the correct bucket for the material to be loaded to
avoid instability through overloading applies to this equipment as it
does for the wheeled version.
Standard bucket - used for loading. Bulk handling bucket -for handling
bnckfilling, site stripping and levelling. lightmaterials such ascoke and coal but
not suitable for digging.
Crane attachment - within the

machine rated capacity may be usedfor
general lifting tasks. The jib may be
Fork lift attachment -can be used for adjustable for length.
lifringandstackingpalletised loadssuch
as bricks.
Fig 8. Front attachments for crawler loader

The theoretical output is simply the output per cycle of operations,
multiplied by the number of cycles specified or carried out in the
time allowed. It is usually expressed in cubic yards or cubic metres per
hour. The theoretical output may be calculated as follows:
Time allowed for the
Theoretical operation
output =Theoretical capacity of bucket X
Theoretical cycle time
Example Calculate the theoretical output for a 2-hour period of
continuous bank dig and loading operation for a crawler loader,
given the bucket capacity of 2 cubic yards and a single cycle time
of 0.5 minutes.
Theoretical -
- 2 X 2 X 60 mins -
- 480 cubic yards in the 2-hour
output 0.5 mins period or 240 cubic yards per hour
Such a calculation takes no account of the time required to reposition
the machine along the bank, the inevitable stoppages, unfilled
buckets, material swell, operator efficiency and so on. All of these
factors will be considered and evaluated in the section on machine
outputs. The object of the above example is to illustrate the maximum
output theoretically attainable.
THE WHEELED LOADER
Where ground conditions permit, the wheeled loader is finding
increasing favour on the construction site - especially the larger,
Fig. 9. Wheeled louder

heavier, more powerful versions permitting the use of larger wheels
and tyres with consequent improvement in traction. Articulated
versions offset the reduction in manoeuvrability of the larger models
which might otherwise limit their use on the more congested site.
The wheeled loader is still primarily used for the movement of loose
bulk materials in industry, quarries, coal yards and sand and gravel
pits, where it is used to load haul units, hoppers and batching, mixing
and crushing plants, from stockpiles.
On site the wheeled loader may also be used for loading haul units
from stockpiles, for limited excavating in soft soil conditions and for
levelling and backfilling; fitted with forks it can handle palletised
loads such as bricks. The wheeled loader's greatest advantage over the
tracked/crawler loader lies in its greater speed over ground. This
keeps cycle times low when the haul unit is of necessity some distance
from the loading area, thus permitting a reasonable level of output to
be maintained. Travel distances of up to 500 feet from load to dump
point may be made with the larger units so that costs per cubic yard
moved are minimal.
Special buckets may be fitted to handle light materials or heavy
duty patterns for rock; side dump models are also available. Buckets
may be fitted with teeth to improve face digging or excavating
performance. Attachments illustrated in Fig. 8 may be fitted.
The articulated wheeled loader probably has greater stability in
operation than the fixed frame version. Tighter turns are possible,
which facilitates the presentation of the loading bucket squarely to the
load, thus reducing any tendency to tip.
Because varying capacity buckets are available to cater for materials
of different densities, the load to be carried (maximum) in the bucket
must be calculated and checked against the manufacturer's recommen-
dation for safe operation, particularly if the machine is to be driven
laden downhill. Ballasting the tyres or the rear of the tractor may be
necessary. When laden the machine should always be driven with the
bucket lowered and when parked the bucket should be lowered to the
ground.
In general the larger the wheeled loader the greater, proportionately,
its output, but the larger bucket may, because of the stockpile repose
angle or the low height of the bank being worked, prove more difficull
to fill. There is a greater risk of damage to the haul unit from the
bucket and from the mass of the load to be dumped. Matching haul
unit to the loader output is likely to prove more difficult; for the mosl
efficient match the loader capacity should be % to Y3 of the haul unil
capacity, hence the common employment of loaders with 1 to 2
cubic yard bucket capacity: larger loaders would require larger haul
units than are commonly employed in the UK.
The theoretical output may be calculated as follows:
Theoretical -- Theoretical Time allowed for the operation
output capacity of bucket X Theoretical cycle time
Example Calculate the theoretical output per hour of a wheeled
loader with a bucket capacity of 1% cubic yards, loading sand from a
stockpile into a hopper. Time to fill loader bucket, reverse away from
a stockpile and dump into hopper and return to stockpile is 0.3
minutes.
60 minutes
Theoretical output = 1.5 X =300 cubic yards per hour
0.3 minutes
As has been stated previously, the theoretical output bears little
relationship to that achieved in practice.
THE WHEELED LOADER/BACKHOE

The present purpose-designed and built loader/backhoe has its origin
in the agricultural tractor to which was added a front bucket controlled
by ropes and a winch. The machine illustrated is typical of the modern
version and shows the front bucket controlled and operated by
hydraulic rams and the "backhoe" or "backacter" also controlled and
operated hydraulically. When the backhoe is used the machine stands
on its front bucket and the two stabilising legs at the rear. Independent
operation of the stabiliser legs permits vertical trenches to be dug in
cross-sloping ground. So that trench excavation may be carried out
close to a building or wall, the backhoe may be locked into the mount-
ing frame at the rear of the machine in a range of positions. The
machine's front end is designed for truck and hopper loading and for
handling palletised materials when fitted with a fork lift attachment.
Fin. 10. Wheeled loader/backhoe k

The backhoe is used extensively for trench digging (width 12 in.
to 36 in.) and in the crane role for handling drain sections, etc.
(Note When used in the crane role "Construction and Use" Regula-
tions must be complied with.) Attachments are available to enable
square "post" holes to be dug, ditches to be cleaned and "grab"
operations to be carried out, e.g. deep hole clearance or, when fitted
with tines, handling of fibrous materials. Extension pieces may be
fitted to the dipper to give greater digging depth, but with a con-
sequent loss of digging power. Buckets may be fitted with side cutters
to cut wider trenches.
Depending on site soil composition and dryness, stripping and site-
clearing operations may be undertaken, but the output is limited by the
available wheel traction.
When digging trenches the machine wheels should be clear of the
ground, the machine should be supported on the front bucket and the
stabiliser legs. The manufacturer's maximum load rating for the
loading bucket should not be exceeded, the bucket should be lowered
for travelling, particular care being taken when braking and turning
or operating down slopes with a laden bucket. When parking the
machine, all attachments should be lowered to the ground, the starter
key removed and the cab locked.
Typical bucket capacities: Front l cubic yard
Backhoe Yz cubic yard
Typical digging depth backhoe 12 feet
Larger and smaller capacity machines are available. The theoretical
output may be calculated as follows:
Theoretical Theoretical capacity Time allowed for the operation
output - of front bucket X Cycle time (theoretical)
Example
l cubic yard bucket X 60 minute task operation time
20 seconds loading cycle time
Theoretical output = 60 60 = 180 cubic yards
20
These figures take no account of stoppage for bulking, job discussion,
timbering, bad weather, operator needs, breakdown, maintenance,
waiting for haul units, etc. These factors will be considered and
assessed in subsequent chapters, but it should be hoted that actual
output may be 50% or less of the theoretical.
THE ROPE-OPERATED EXCAVATOR [DRAGLINE]

The dragline is unique, in that it can carry out tasks which cannot be
effected by any other single item of equipment. Depending on the
machine size, it can dig 100 feet or more away from its own base
and well below its own base level. It can also dig underwater or in
marshy or swampy ground, it can place the soil dug well away from the
excavation area or it can, with buckets of 2 to 3 cubic yards or larger,
load the soil into haul units. It has an operating arc of 360' which adds
to its versatility. It has applications in river dredging, digging large
basements in waterlogged ground, digging trenches and ditches,
in quarries and stripping overburden.
Its limitations are that it cannot dig in very hard ground; bucket
control is difficult, depending on the operator's skill, on the bucket's
own weight (laden or unladen) and on the pull of the drag rope. In
consequence, the wall and bottom finish of the excavation may be
rough. Usually its operating cycle time is long and this is reflected in
its output when compared with other equipment with similar capacity
buckets but without the same reach.
Many types and patterns of buckets are available; Fig. 12 shows a
typical bucket. The varying shapes are designed primarily to improve
digging and dumping performance. Buckets in different gauges of
steel are available for light, medium and heavy conditions and some
K Fig. 12. Dragline bucket
D
, ump sheave (Tipping sheave)
Drag clevis Drag chain Drag rope
types are perforated to allow water to drain off. The teeth on the bucket
are designed for easy replacement: sharp teeth are essential for high
outputs in relatively hard conditions.
Additional roles
The dragline is one of a small family of plant items with a crawler-
tracked crane base. It is probably the most important and the common
version, but two others have extensive use for earthmoving operations
in the construction industry; these are the face shovel and the clam-
shell or grab.
The face shovel (Fig. 13) is primarily used for the excavation of
high banks, such as are found in quarries. In operation the jib is fixed
and the "dipper arm" carrying the face cutting bucket is racked in or
out to or from the excavation face. Racking towards the face "crowds"
the bucket causing it to bite into the bank, raising the bucket rotates
the "dipper arm" about a point on the jib, forcing the bucket through
the banked material and filling it.
On some shovels the "dipper arm" cannot be racked i n and out,
but rotates about a fixed pivot point on the jib, and because no crowd
E%. 14. Priestman rope-operated
digging grab
action is possible this type cannot dig such hard material. It is,
however, a simpler machine to operate, although its output is less
than the "crowd" version.
The spoil dug must be loaded into haul units because the dumping
radius in this configuration is small. In quarries, shale and blasted
rock may be handled, its cycle time is low, the bucket moving upwards
through the banked material is quickly filled and its output is much
higher than a dragline with equal capacity bucket. Note, however, that
a haul unit must be used (except where a hopper or conveyor is
loaded), whereas the dragline mostly operates without. Large hydrau-
lic face shovels are now in common use, tending to replace the older
rope machine.
The clamshell or grab (Fig. 14) may be fitted to the dragline in place
of the "dipper arm" and bucket. The grab has teeth and is used for
hard materials, the clamshell has no teeth and is used to handle softer
materials, e.g. sand. Both attachments are operated by two ropes from
the dragline boom or jib, a hoist rope for raising or lowering and a
holding rope to hold the grab whilst the hoist rope is lowered off to
open it. A rope from a tagline drum prevents the grab from rotating
during the hoist and lower operations.
The problem of stability of this equipment in use approximates to that
for the crane role, except that it is derated in the dragline mode to
about 80% of the crane capacity. The essential requirement for
maximum stability is a firm level base; if the ground is soft, the
equipment should stand on timber sleepers or steel mats, not too near
the edge of the excavation. The second requirement is that safe
working loads at the varying radii are not exceeded (the maximum
bucket load for the material dug must be calculated and heeded).
Sudden jerks or stops must be avoided lest the load swings beyond the
radius for stable operation, and finally, ropes must be regularly
inspected for crushing and broken strands, etc. In fact, the require-
ments for the regular inspection of all lifting equipment are clearly
laid down in various regulations and must be strictly complied with.
DRAGLINE
The equipment bucket sizes range from % to 2% cubic yards for tht
smaller commercial machine frequently found on site or in smaller
quarries, up to more than 100 cubic yards for the very large open
mining type of operation.
The length of time needed to fill the bucket depends on the angle
and depth of the dig, on the hardness of the material and, especially,
on the skill of the operator. Tables of outputs for draglines are avail-
able which specify the conditions, usually optimum, under which they
were or could be achieved; the figures in these tables may be used for
the preliminary selection of the machine size for a particular operation,
but they will need to be modified to more realistic levels in accordance
with the factors detailed in Chapter 3. As an example of an output, a
dragline with a 2 cubic yard bucket, digging gravel under optimum dig
conditions, i.e. bucket quickly and easily filled, assuming no delays,
a 90" boom swing angle from dig to dump and all material loaded into
haul units, may achieve an actual hourly output of 280 cubic yards;
- under adverse conditions this figure could be halved.
FACE SHOVEL
Working into a bank the shovel is quickly filled and the time required
is low, hence the theoretical output may be taken as the product of the
bucket size and the number of cycles. As will be seen in Chapter 2,
included in the factors which modify the theoretical outputs is the type
of material dug: the output when digging light sandy soil will be nearly
three times that achievable when digging poorly blasted rock. The
need to move the machine as the face advances, plus the need to
clean up the floor of the excavated area to reduce risk of haul unit
damage, also reduces output.
GRAB/CLAMSHELL
Both of these attachments (rope operated patterns only) rely on their
own weight to provide digging power. The grab interlocking teeth
provide the additional penetrating facility which permits moderately
hard materials to be dug. When handling soft materials in, for
example, an industrial application from barge to hopper, the theoret-
ical output is again the simple product of clamshell capacity and the
number of cycles. On site, however, the operation is likely to be
intermittent, with the grab/clamshell only partially filled and the
depth of dig increasing every few cycles. For these reasons figures for
the output of grab/clamshell are seldom computed or published.
On site grabs/clamshells are normally used for specialist operations
such as deep, small hole excavation or removing spoil from timbered
trenchworks. They are not normally regarded as production tools,
as are the other excavation attachments referred to in this chapter.
THE HYDRAULIC EXCAVATOR
The hydraulic excavator represents the classic application of hydraulic
power to construction tasks. By means of an engine-driven hydraulic
pump, control valve system and double acting rams, the bucket may be
accurately and forcefully positioned to dig and load hard materials.
Special purpose-designed buckets are available for specific tasks
(see Fig. 16) and other attachments such as rock breakers, face
shovels, crane hooks and hydraulic grabs are commonly used.
The hydraulic excavator differs from the wheeled tractor mounted
backhoe previously described in that it is capable of 360" rotation and
is equipped with much larger buckets. In the principle of operation,
however, they are the same.
The basic tasks that may be carried out by the excavator are base-
ment dig, leaving clean interior faces, trench digging, small square-
hole digging for columns and backfilling. Fitted with a grab attach-
ment it has the ability to apply downward pressure to the grab cutting
edges.
From the foregoing it can be seen that the hydraulic excavator is a
very versatile machine which may be used for a wide range of con-
struction activities. As an example, in its normal excavation role it can
Fig. 15. Hydraulic excavator -
Fig. 16. Types of bucket
Ejector Bucket
Parallel or tapered sides ejects sricky soil
by means of an inner blade.
3-in-1 Bucket
For normal trenching, square hole
digging and a face shovel.
Ditch Digging Bucket

Forclearinf ditches. Somepatternsmay
be widene by - -f i ~ r n
. gside blades.
Square Hole Bucket
For digging holes for stanchions, poles
or pylons.
Hydraulic Grab
For clearing narrow deep trenches,
digging h o k s and for rehand
r use with very sticky clays, etc

allow curve facilitates materia
Note: Depending on the type of bucket, side curt er.^ can

re ositioned to alter digging widths and sometimes reversed to
o j e r a fresh cutting edge. Bucket ieeth may be removed for
sharpening or replacemenr.
dig a deep or even a stepped level trench and then, fitted with a hook
attachment in place of the bucket, it can lower heavy drain sections
into the trench, and with the bucket refitted it can back-fill the trench
compacting the fill either with its own tracks or with a hydraulic
powered compactor fitted in place of the bucket.
The common configuration is tracked, but the wheeled version is
finding increasing favour because it may be driven or towed quickly
and easily from site to site, whereas the tracked version requires
transporting on a low loader. The excavator can often, by use of its
bucket boom and dipper, recover itself to hard ground when bogged;
this facility often perinits the use of a wheeled machine even when
conditions are very wet and the ground soft.
In its basement dig application there is an ever-present risk that the
excavator will topple into the hole it has dug. As with all earthmoving
plant, the banksman must keep watching the bank state and the
tendency of the machine to tip under load for maximum safety.
Basement digging depths of 9 metres is the usual maximum on UK
sites. As with the dragline overloading, snatching or jerky movements
affect stability and must be avoided.
In the roles mentioned for this type of equipment, particularly
when digging trenches, the machine and the timberers or drain
layers will form an integrated unit working in close proximity. The
hazards to the site labour are obvious, and men must be trained to be
aware of the sight and hearing constraints imposed on the operator
by the configuration and noise of the machine. When men are working
in a basement, etc. a timber, sleeper or other obstruction must be fixed
in the ground at least 3 to 4 feet from the edge of the hole to prevent
the machine inadvertently approaching too close to the edge.
The bucket capacity of excavators commonly found on sites in Great
Britain seldom exceeds 1%cubic yards. The theoretical output in the
normal excavation role is the product of bucket capacity and number of
operating cycles. When digging trenches the spoil may be dumped
clear of the trench for backfilling later; in the basement dig the
material dug may need to be cleared from the site of the digging
operation. In this event the output may be affected by an erratic
availability of the haul units at the site of the dig. The output in the
face shovel mode, where as has been stated the material dug will
probably be loaded into haul unit, hopper or conveyor, follows the
same "law". Maximum outputs are likely to be achieved where move-
ment of bucket, dipper, boom and swing angle to dump are kept to a
minimum.
Further mention must be made here of the grab attachment, which
has the ability to work hard materials. It is connected to the dipper end
by tubular sections, thus providing a solid link from excavator to the
grab teeth. By continuing to lower the boom/dipper arm after the grab
teeth have contacted the ground some of the machine weight can be
transferred to the grab teeth, permitting digging action in relatively
hard ground. All these patterns of grab are closed hydraulically,
thus ensuring minimum spoil loss on closure.
THE SCRAPER
The logical development of earthmoving plant has been the increase
in the bucket size until the machine configuration became essentially
a large bucket with a wheel at each corner towed by a crawler tractor.
This indeed is the shape of the first scrapers which came to Great
Britain from America and is the form of many scrapers in use today
(Fig. 18). The bowl, as the large bucket is more normally called, is
filled by lowering the front cutting edge until it is about 6 inches below
ground level and by dragging the cutting edge through the ground
so that incoming material displaces that already cut to the rear of the
bowl gradually filling it. Raising or lowering the edge is effected by
cables running through the towing arm to the crawler tractor allowing
control to be effected by the tractor operator. The bowl tilted back is
closed by an apron to enclose the load and the tractor scraper
combination driven to the tip. Unloading is effected by raising the
apron, tilting the bowl forward leaving the cutting edge raised and by
pushing the spoil from the bowl by an ejector plate system at the rear.
On modern scraper units, such as that illustrated in Fig. 17, electric
and hydraulic control mechanisms have largely replaced the cable
control. An advantage of the hydraulic control system is that the
apron can be force-closed with a hydraulic ram; this is superior to the
cable system which relies on the weight of the apron to close - its
fast complete closure is important to prevent spillage.
The crawler tractor-towed scraper proved very effective for
excavating, hauling and spreading materials in digs categorised as
easy-to-moderate. Its shortcomings were apparent when haul dis-
Fig. 17. Scraper

- - - p
-
Fig. 18. Towed scraper
tances exceeded 300 metres (one way); then the slow hauling speeds
(approx 10-12 kph) made cycle times excessively long and the
crawler-drawn scrapers began to be superseded by the rubber-tyred
motorised scraper. Haul speeds of 60 kph are possible on good haul
routes for these self propelled rubber-tyred machines. However,
because traction over ground is inferior to the crawler tractor-towed
machine it is usually necessary to provide assistance during the load-
ing operation by pushing with a crawler tractor.
A compromise machine, i.e., one which has high overground speeds
yet possesses an ability to load light soils unaided is the elevating
scraper. This form (Fig. 19) is a self-propelled, rubber-tyred unit with
a motor-driven multi-bladed elevator passing over the cutting edge;
when the scraper is loading the elevator by working towards the rear
of the bow it continuously removes the cut spoil from the cutting edge,
reducing the loading effort required. Hence easy and moderate dig
materials may be loaded in reasonably economic times without
recourse to a crawler pusher. With more difficult-to-dig materials the
Fig. 19. Self-propelled,

self-loading [elevating] scraper
pusher is needed and there is a risk that the elevator may jam. To
dump and spread the spoil the direction of movement of the elevator
blades is reversed and the dirt ejected from the bowl.
A further development to improve traction has been the provision of
a second engine in the wheeled tractor-drawn unit driving the two
scraper wheels, the two tractor wheels being driven normally, as for
the two-wheel models, by the tractor power unit. Both engines on the
two-engined models are controlled by the tractor operator. These
scrapers are described as tandem drive machines. An operating
technique currently finding favour is to couple two machines together,
described as a tandem push-pull unit. The combined tractive power
is used to load each scraper in turn, hence the description push-pull.
Scrapers excel at mass excavation and haul and spread tasks where
the haul distance for wheeled versions is 300-400 metres; they may
be used economically for hauls of up to 3000 metres. The primary task
on which scrapers are employed is excavation to reduced levels and
spread dumping the excavated material; channels and ditches may be
cut and limited maintenance of haul roads carried out.
The scraper is an inherently stable and relatively safe item of con-
struction plant; the tractor-drawn versions, having low overground
speeds, do not present a great hazard to other site workers and in any
event their operations demand space and usually comprise the first
activity on site. The higher-speed wheeled scrapers offer more of a
hazard but, as will be shown in the section on capacity and outputs,
scrapers operate on a continuous defined circuit which reduces the risk
to other site staff. The cutting edge is below the bowl and thus
guarded. There have been accidents with tractor-drawn scrapers when
low tensile steel bolts have been used in the crawler towing link in
place of the correct high tensile pin. Subsequent failure of the bolt
under load has resulted in severe injury to the operator.
A large pusher block is provided at the rear of the scraper to provide
a robust and safe point of contact for the pusher tractor to assist and
speed the loading operation.
Scrapers are rated by bowl size; "Struck" capacity represents the bowl
capacity without any heaping. "Heaped" capacity, as the description
suggests, is when the bowl is full and the soil piled high at an angle of
repose of 140-1.
Bowl sizes of machines in common use range from 7 cubic yards
struck to about 45 cubic yards; however, larger models are available.
Manufacturers usually give struck and heaped bowl ratings because
it will be appreciated that the heaped capacity varies with the plan
area of the bowl and two bowls with the same struck capacity may
differ in width and thus in heaped capacity.
For many earthmoving tasks the four-wheel rubber-tyred, two-
wheel drive scrapers are satisfactory. For severe operations where
steep grades and irregular haul road surfaces obtain, the four-wheel
drive machines are preferred; higher speeds and thus lower cycle
times are possible with the extra power. Tyres are all-important and a
substantial component of the cost of any scraper operation. There is a
frequently reported account of the daily loss incurred by a scraper fleet
owner on a large muck-shifting task, running into thousands of
pounds, because unsuspected razor-edged flints in the ground under
excavation cut the tyres to pieces in a few cycles.
The cycle of operation is as follows: on the approach to the area to be
excavated the operator tilts the bowl, raises the soil retaining apron
and lowers the blade to a depth of 6 to 9 inches; maximum power is
applied without spinning the wheels, and if required the pusher
crawler tractor contacts the pusher block and assists the loading
operation. When the bowl has picked up the required amount it is
raised and the apron lowered. The scraper then starts the haul cycle
element. Loading can be best effected downhill using gravitational
force as a power aid. Scrapers on occasions have cut on downhill
gradients of 40°, using the cutting blade as a brake.
At the end of the haul cycle tipping commences. The apron is raised
with the cutting edge remaining in the raised position. The ejection
plate is moved away from the rear of the bowl ejecting the soil onto the
ground at a uniform rate in a wide strip.
Considering once again the loading operation, it will be appreciated
that initially the rate at which material enters the bowl is high. As the
bowl fills, however, it becomes more difficult to force additional
soil into it. In other words, the rate of fill slows gradually until no more
can be collected. If the rate at which the bowl fills is plotted against
the loading time a graph of the following form will be obtained
(Fig. 20).
1 4
I 7 - ? F i g . 20. Bowlfilr
I 2
j I related tofill time
-6 o I F
I
3
E
-
E
X 1 1 l4 --L
;
-2E
6 -
E l / . / 1 I
I j l ,
! l
+E 4
I ( ' 1
1 V
/
JlP++
0 I0 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 V0 100 110
l
170
'4 of tot41 CrlP.7CltV
It may be seen from the graph in Fig. 20 that about 0.6 minutes is
needed to 86% fill the bowl, approximately a further 0.2 minutes is
required to fill it to 99% capacity; i.e. the last 13% of bowl space to
be filled takes more than twice as long to fill as 13% of bowl space
during the earlier part of the load cycle. On a short excavate, haul and
dump cycle it could prove more productive to load the bowl to only
85% of its capacity, the shorter loading time permitting more cycle:
in a given time offsetting the lost production per load. Additionally, the
excessive tractive effort required to fill the last 10-15% of bow!
capacity strains scraper motive unit and pusher tractor. This mal
damage transmission, tyres, etc. and will certainly precipitate
breakdowns.
The total cycle time may for all practical purposes be considesec
to be composed of a "fixed" and a "variable" part. The "fixed'
cycle time consisting of the load, manoeuvre and dump/spread time
the "variable" cycle time consisting of the haul to dump and thc
return to load times. Typical load and dump times for wheeled scraper:
are
Load Manoeuvre anc
Spread/Dump
Wheeled self loading 0.9 minutes 0.7 minutes
Wheeled push loaded 0.6 minutes 0.7 minutes
The variable cycle time will depend on haul distance, haul roac
gradients, haul road condition, type and size of scraper, load, operatol
ability and machine condition. Two principal methods of determining
the haul time will be detailed in subsequent sections. The sum of thc
fixed and variable cycle times gives the total cycle time.
Theoretical output = Bowl capacity X Time allowed for the ooeratior
Cycle time
Example A tandem-powered scraper of 450 h.p., with a 15 cubi
metres heaped bowl capacity, excavates for l minute then travel
1000 metres over a good level haul route to spread-dump the load
Manoeuvre and spread time averages 0.7 minutes. Given that th
average haul speed is 40 kilometres per hour, what is the output ii
loose cubic metres (LCM) per 60-minute working hour?
Fixed cycle time = 1-4-0.7 =1.7minutes
Variable cycle time - Distance travelled in metres

Speed in metres per hour
2
= -hours
40
= 3 minutes
Total cycle time = 1.7+3
= 4.7 minutes
Number of cycles per hour = 60
4.7
= 12.8
Theoretical output per hour = 15 X 12.$
= 192 LCM
Fig. 21. Time/distance graph [scraper]
If available for the particular machine considered, Time/distance

graphs like Fig. 21 may be used to determine the variable cycle times.
Additionally, manufacturers' output tables for specific machines
and specified conditions may be consulted; these should not be applied
blindly but modified in the light of the relevant output modifying
factors. In the section on wheels and tracks the method of calculating
tractive effort and probable speeds is described.
CRAWLER TRACTOR PUSHERS
To reduce loading time and to ensure a worthwhile load, wheeled
scrapers are assisted during the loading cycle by crawler tractors.
One tractor can assist several scrapers: the precise number may be
calculated simply, in the following way.
Number of scrapers assisted - Scraper cycle time

- Pusher cycle time
The pusher cycle covers the load assist time, the return to the begin-
ning of the cut for the next assist and the manoeuvring time at each
end of its travel. An average time for this cycle is l .S minutes: hence,
if the sctaper cycle time is 9 minutes, the number of scrapers one
pusher can serve is 9 = 6
l .S
THE GRADER
The grader is an item of earthmoving plant designed specificall
for a particular task. That task is the blade dressing of ground to fin1
limits. The blade which displaces or dozes the soil is wider but not a
deep as the conventional dozer blade: it may be adjusted througl
an angle of about 300' in the horizontal plane and it may be angled tl
the horizontal for bank finishing to 90' or more. The blade may bl
offset from the centre line of the machine and it may be reversed tl
work when the machine is reversed. This latter feature is useful whe~
working close to banks or buildings.
Machines are commonly six-wheeled: the four wheels under thc
engine unit are driven while the two front wheels steer and may bl
tilted from the vertical to counter the side thrust when the grader i
working around bends or corners. Four-wheel steering versions arc
available, facilitating operation in confined or small sites.
The method of operation differs from that of the straight-bladec
dozer in that the grader blade is set at an angle to the direction o
travel and the displaced spoil rolls along the blade forming a windrov
at the end; subsequent passes can displace the windrow laterall:
sideways or spread and wheel-compact it. When spreading, the bladc
is set at right angles to the centre line of the machine, the bladc
height being controlled by the operator.
The importance of haul road maintenance, particularly with scrape
fleets, has been mentioned and, as an indication of the economic
advantage of using graders, a 10% increase in speed of rubber tyre(
scrapers in a l000 metre haul will cover the cost of the use of a grader
any further increase is a bonus.
Activities carried out in addition to the above include:
(a) Ditching: the first cut is made by the toe of the blade which i!
set deeper as the work progresses, the spoil leaving the heel of tht
blade set to spill off inside the track of the rear wheels.
(b) Bank cutting: blade offset and angled to the horizontal, tht
wheels nearest the bank in a ditch at the foot. The windrov
formed at the foot of the bank must be cleared frequently, e.g
on alternative passes.
(C) Scarifying: scarifying rakes may be fitted in front of the blade:
facilitating the break-up of hard ground.
Blacktop mixing and snow-ploughing may also be carried out. Bucket
and dozer blades may be fitted to the front of some models but suc
attachments have very limited outputs.
The grader as a finishing "light work" tool is an inherently safe an1
stable machine; the greatest risk to site staff is its high ground speed
which may reach 50 kph.
Capacity and output
Grader output is a direct function of its overground speed in general.
First gear or low range is used in heavy going conditions, working on
inclines and for fine grading.
Second gear or medium range is used for heavy grading, ditching,
bank work and scarifying.
Third gear or high range is used for maintenance grading, windrow
spreading and blacktop mixing.
Speeds in gears or different ranges depend on the model but average
figures would be 6 kph in first gear, l 5 kph in second and 40 kph in
third.
To calculate the time required for a grading operation the number of
passes required must be known or estimated and the speed of the first
and subsequent passes known.
2 FACTORS AFFECTING THE
OUTPUT F EARTHM G PLANT
The factors that affect the performance of earthmoving plant are easy
to identify but difficult to quantify. In Chapter 1 the calculation of the
theoretical output was described and the statement made that the
actual output on site may be 50% or less of the theoretical. In this
section it is proposed to describe the reasons for the lost production
and to attempt to put a value on the production loss. It will b e apprec-
iated that the figures given are approximate and provide a guide only
to the probable output. There are many occasions, however, when such
calculations are necessary to enable an estimate of the cost of the
earthmoving aspects of a project to be made.
For ease of reading, the output modifying factors will be considered
under the following headings: soil swell; operating conditions; terrain
formation; machine condition; operator efficiency and job efficiency.
SOIL SWELL
Soil dug from a bank breaks up as the bucket disturbs it and in the
bucket it consists of irregular clods, stones, etc., and voids. The
volume it occupies in the bucket or in front of a dozer blade is greater
than its original bank volume. The increase in volume is greater for
some materials than for others. It will be obvious that sands and small
aggregates will swell little because of their resistance, by virtue of
small size, to the formation of voids. Clays on the other hand break up
into large clods and in consequence have a higher swell factor. Dry
clay swells approximately 40%, i.e. 1 cubic metre of dry clay before
digging becomes 1.4 cubic metres after. Earthmoving operations are
usually priced on bank metredyards, hence the need to take account of
the swell factor when estimating the capacity and number of haul
units required and the time the operation will take. Conversely, it
is sometimes required to convert from loose or dug cubic metres to
bank cubic metres, which is effected by dividing the loose cubic metres
(LCM) by 1 + Swell factor. For example, 150 LCM dry clay would
become 150 + (1 4- 0.4) = 107 bank cubic metres (BCM).
Swell factors vary with moisture, the degree of compaction, in-
clusions such as rocks or roots and material particle size. The only
truly accurate method of determining the swell factor is by testing the
material to be dug. One London contractor lost a considerable sum of
money through underestimating the swell of "blue" clay: the contract-
or was in error in failing to consider the possibility that the swell
factor could be different for different classifications of clays.
A table of approximate swell factors and weights of common
materials may be found in the data section at the end of this book.
OPERATING CONDITIONS
In the construction world the weather is more than just a topic of
conversation. Prolonged rain can speedily convert a profitable job into
a loss-making operation. The possibility of this happening may be
reduced by getting a detailed report from the meteorological office
of conditions that have obtained in that locale, for the proposed period
of operation, in previous years. They will also produce for a modest
charge a forecast of conditions likely to occur and armed with this
information the estimation of the earthmoving task has at least a
chance of being a little more accurate.
On well drained sites, moderate rainfall poses little problem to the
work task, but on badly drained sites and on cohesive soils, e.g. clays,
output will be reduced and work may eventually cease. Under such
conditions only tracked machines can operate; wheeled machines
simply do not have the traction in wet conditions. Even crawler tractor
performance is materially reduced, speed over ground is slower,
buckets pick up water as well as the material under excavation,
visibility is reduced and accurate placing of bucket or blade more
difficult, and, last but not least, operator morale may be badly
affected.
In the absence of rain, weather can still affect the operation adverse-
ly; cold frosty weather makes the ground hard and difficult to dig.
Quantitively, the difference between an easy dig in good conditions
and a reduced output dig because of bad operational conditions can
amount to a loss in output (theoretical or optimum) of at least 15%.
It must be a matter for subjective judgement as to the loss estimate
for particular conditions, rating severe as a 15% loss and moderately
severe perhaps as 10% loss, difficult, e.g. moderate frost or heavy
intermittent rain, at 7%-8%, and good, at zero lost output.
TERRAIN FORMATION
The terrain of the site area should be considered as early as possible to
determine the most effective way of using ground slopes and features
to assist the plant operation. Dozing should always be carried out
downhill: the gravitational force available assists the engine to produce
a greater dozing effort and it helps also to keep the load rolling once
started, reducing the dozing effort required.
Haul road routes should be selected so that slopes are ascended by
empty trucks, scrapers, etc. and descended laden. Haul routes should
be kept in good condition to enable maximum haul speeds to be
maintained. A high average haul speed keeps cycle times down,
maximising output.
It is possible to quantify the additional output from downhill working
by use of output graphs or, less commonly, by calculating the increase
in ground speed due to the force acting down the slope and relating
this to the shorter cycle time.
OPERATOR EFFICIENCY
An operator who persistently fails to fill his bucket, who moves thc
boom or bucket further than the job demands, who wastefully cut:
with his dozer blade longer than is productive, whose co-ordination o-
controls is poor, who travels in a lower gear than conditions demanc
or who badly positions his machine in relation to the haul unit will no1
produce maximum output. It is possible to measure the loss in outpul
attributable to bad operating by using different operators on the same
machine and same task in succession. The output difference will be
measurable in terms of haul unit loads counted. If the bad operators
are employed by the contracting company, replacing them may be the
simplest way to improve production; unfortunately with the currenl
practice of hiring machine and operators, control over quality is
difficult to exercise. Hence it may be necessary to include in the
estimation of output a factor for probable operator efficiency (perhaps
better expressed as inefficiency).
The loss of output for a bad operator could easily reach, and may
even exceed, 20% of the theoretical output. Taking 20% as a sensible
maximum loss for a bad operator, then an average operator may be
reckoned to produce 10% below the best possible achievement figure.
No modifying factor is used for a highly competent and efficient
operator.
MACHINE CONDITION
Low engine output, worn or blunt teeth or tool points, inadequate
lubrication and maintenance (including maladjusted clutches, etc.)
will reduce output. The increase in internal friction due to dry bearings
or mating surfaces can increase the machine operating cycle by
many seconds, producing a corresponding reduction in output. No
output modifying factor is included in the output estimation for
machine condition because losses from this cause are unacceptable;
it is referred to here because a basic requirement of any earthmoving
operation is sound eqliipment in a good state of maintenance. Machine
breakdown, of course, results in periods of zero output. The possibility
of breakdown can be reduced by planned/preventative maintenance.
JOB EFFICIENCY
A further factor compounded of many smaller constraints is the job
efficiency factor. No machine on site works continuously 60 minutes
every hour, hour after hour. Stops will be required for job discussion,
marking out, work checking, operator needs, machine adjustments
or minor repair, attachment changes, repositioning, waits for haul
units, etc. For this reason a so-called "job efficiency factor" is intro-
duced into output considerations and it simply assumes that for every
elapsed hour on site the machine works for 50 minutes. When delays
are likely to be frequent then a 40 minute work hour should be used.
When delays are very frequent then a 30 minute work hour may be
all that can be achieved.
For example, if the output of a machine is calculated at 120 cubic
metres per hour for 60 minute working, the estimated output on site
allowing for the job efficiency factor is only
50
120 X - minutes
60
= 100 cubic metres per hour.
MACHINE MATCHING
As a matter of theoretical reasoning the maximum output from a
machine/haul unit combination ought to be when machine and haul
unit capacity ratio is 1 to 2, for example, a crawler loader with a
2 cubic yard bucket filling a 4 cubic yard haul unit. In practice such a
combination is unworkable. Dumping 2 cubic yards as one load into
a relatively small (4 cubic yards) haul unit is likely to damage the
suspension or bodywork of the unit and accurate placement of the load
without excessive spillage is difficult. The optimum ratio proved in
practice is l to 4 or l to 3. A greater ratio than this requires too many
machine cycles to fill the haul unit resulting in a high loading time and
a poor production rate.
On this same theme, machine matching means that the loader
should easily be able to fill the tipper or truck, e.g. the truck should not
be so high-sided that filling is difficult. It also assumes that the
excavating plant never waits for a truck, dumper or tipper.
SUMMARY OF FACTORS
As has been shown, the theoretical output of an item of earthmoving
plant, which at its simplest is the product of the maximum possible
output per cycle and the number of cycles, must be modified by:
soil swell, which reduces the bank cubic yarddcubic metres dug
or dozed;
operating conditions, which at worst stop production but more
normally may reduce it by up to 15%;
terrain formation, which may, thanks to gravity, better the
theoretical output;
(d) operator efficiency, when the modifying factor for an excellet
operator is 0%, but for a poor performer may reach 20% or eve
higher;
(e) machine condition, which could further reduce output, but shoul
not, because it is to a large measure controllable;
(f) job efficiency, which reduces t h e theoretical timing of one hot
to an actual period of 30 to 50 minutes according to the variablc
involved;
( g ) machine matching, which gives the ratio of loader to haul un
capacities as 1 to 4 or 1 to 3 ?or optimum efficiency.
In the next chapter probable outputs will be calculated for variol
machines and the use of time/distance and output graphs demo.
strated.
The best source of information for estimating machine outputs for any
g i ~ - l ntask and conditions are records of previous tasks or studies.
In the absence of these the second best source is the data published
by the machine manufacturers. Caterpillar, through their UK dealers,
provide tables and graphs for their extensive range of machines.
Some of the material which follows was taken from Caterpillar
publications.
ULLDBZEW OUTPUT
Use should be made of the output graphs, an example of which is
shown in Fig. 23.
Fig. 23. Bulldozer output graph
l5 3(1 -15 60 75 90 105 I20 135 150 165 180 195 Metres
1000
1200 900
800
1000
700
g 800 603 ;
.
>. 1
500
h(l(l 5
400
400 300
200
7011
100
0
100 2W 300 400 500
Average Dozmg Dlstdnce
These curves are obtained from field studies under specified

conditions for specified machines. The example given is for a
270 h.p. crawler tractor dozer with straight and universal blades.
Curves for other blades, machines and conditions are available.
The conditions which obtained when the data was obtained were:
(a) 60-minute working hour;
(b) first-class operator;
(C) machine cuts for 15 metres;
(d) soil density 1370 kg per loose cubic metre (LCM);
(e) material swell factor 30%;
(f) hydraulic-controlled blades.
Example The requirement is to estimate the probable output for the
270 h.p. bulldozer fitted with a straight blade in banked cubic metres
dozing under the following conditions:
(a) ground moderately hard - dry, frosty conditions; output
modification factor assessed at 8%
(b) terrain level - no grade or gravity factor;
(c) operator efficiency - average; output modifying factor assessed at
10%;
(d) job efficiency -50-minute working hour;
(e) average distance material to be moved - 80 metres.
From the graph:
Output under conditions specified for an 80-metre doze = 250

LCWhour
Output lost for hard conditions 250 X 0.08 = 20.0
Output lost for average operator 250 X

-
0.10 = 25.0
Total loss 45.0 LCM
Output per 60-minute hour = 250 - 45 = 205 LCM
Output corrected for job efficiency factor = 50 X 205 = 170 appra

60
Therefore, probable output = 170 Loose Cubic Metre per hour

Converted to Bank Cubic Metre = 170 X l=131 BCM per hour
1.3
If in the above example the operation had been carried out down a
15% grade the output would have been greater because of the
assistance afforded by the gravitational force acting down the slope.
From the gradient fador graph (Fig. 24), the multiplying factor is
1.19, the probable output would then become 131 X 1.19 = 156
approx. BCM per hour.
Fig. 24. Gradient
factor graph
' i Grade
Note In the event that dozing has to be carried out uphill then the
unfavourable section of the graph has to be used and the effect of
the adverse gradient would be to reduce the output.
CRAWLER LOADER OUTPUT
The theoretical output of the crawler loader is the material loaded per
cycle multiplied by the number of cycles in a specified time, e.g. 60
minutes.
The cycle time has two principal elements:
(a) the fixed cycle time, consisting of the time for the loader to move
forward into the bank or stockpile, to fill the loading shovel, to
reverse turning to face the haul unit or dump location; to dump
and to return to the start position for the cycle, and
(b) the travel cycle time, when the dump site or haul vehicle is at a
distance from the digging location.
Note The term "fixed" is a convenience term and must not be taken
literally; for all practical purposes the variations in the time taken by
any particular machine for the activities specified under this heading
may be ignored and the average time regarded as a "fixed" time.
Fixed cycle time
Digging from a bank or stockpile there is a positional relationship of
digging location, loader and haul unit (as shown in Fig. 25) for
optimum efficiency.
For the set-up shown, the times for a complete dig and loading cycle
for the loaders commonly found on UK sites are fairly uniform and
consistent. Typical figures are:
(a) 30 seconds for power-shift transmission crawler loaders;

(b) 40 seconds for manual-gear change crawler loaders.
r P'
Fig. 25. Dig and loading optimum position
If the material Leing dug is large rocks, boulders, roots or broken

concrete, then these times may increase by 8 to 10 seconds.
Travel cycle time
If, as is more usually the case, the haul unit has to be located at a
distance from the digging area, then in addition to the manoeuvring
time of the fixed cycle the time to travel from the site to the truck or
tipper must be calculated. The fixed cycle and travel times (both ways)
must be added together to yield the complete cycle time for the
operation. Two methods of determining this time are commonly used:
(a) Arithmetical calculation.

(b) Time/Distance charts.
ARITHMETICAL METHOD
Travel time -
- Total distance travelled (both ways) in feet
in minutes Speeainmph X 88
88 feet per minute = 1mile per hour
Example Determine the travel time for a crawler loader travelling at

an average speed of 3 mph from the bank being dug to the tipper
100 feet away.
Travel time (total) = 100 X 2 = 0.76 minutes or 45 seconds

3 X 88
CHART METHOD
The simplest method of obtaining this figure is to use the time/
distance travel charts supplied by machine manufacturers. An
example of such a chart is shown in Fig. 26.
Note the difference in speeds when travelling forward or in reverse.
Fig. 26. Travel time estimating chart [crawler loader]
8 15 23 30 38 46 53 60 Metres
(Min) 1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 Feet

One-way Travel Distance
Speed in reverse gear is invariably faster over short distances from dig
to dump. It may therefore be quicker to reverse laden for half the travel
distance, turning and driving forward to dump, in which case forward
and reverse graphs must be used to find the total time.
Example A Caterpillar 955K Track Type Loader travels 30 metres in

second gear from the digging area to the haul unit. If the fixed cycle
time is 0.5 minutes, what is the total cycle time, assuming the Axed
cycle time covers the manoeuvre time at each end of the travel?
From the chart 30 metres in second gear requires 0.34 minutes to
traverse, the total trip will require twice this which is 0.68 and the
+
total cycle time (i.e. fixed and travel) = 0.5 0.68 = 1.18 minutes.
Gear selection
The reader with an enquiring mind might now be tempted to ask how
is it possible to assess whether the track loader can be driven in third
or second gear. From Fig. 26 it can be seen that over a distance of,
say, 50 metres the travel time in second gear is 12 seconds longer than
in third gear, making a difference of 24 seconds on the whole cycle
time, an appreciable loss of output over a day's operation. This
question of gear selection, fundamental to output estimation, is
governed by engine output and frictional/rolling resistances , etc.,
which are covered in Chapter 4.
Output calculation
The above data has covered the estimation of cycle time and now
the probable amount which will be in the bucket for each of these
cycles must be estimated.
The relevant output modifying factors are:
(a) soil swell, which has already been covered in Chapter 2;

(b) operating conditions, e.g. type of dig, material to be dug or
weather;
(c) terrain, e.g. whether level or with a gradient;
(d) operator efficiency: with this type of equipment the effects of
operator inefficiency are not so disastrous on output as with,
say, the excavator, and the maximum output modification factor
for a poor operator may be assessed at 10%;
(e) job efficiency, assumed in most cases at 50 working minutes
per elapsed hour.
Example Estimate the probable hourly output in BCM of a 955K
Track loader digging from a bank and loading into tippers 20 metres
away, operating in second gear, fixed cycle time 0.33 minutes,
given that the material swell factor is 25%, the operating conditions
are dry and the material loamy soil, an easy dig and the ground is
level. Assume operator efficiency factor 5% and job efficiency
50 minutes work per hour. Bucket capacity = 1.37 cubic metres.
Cycle Time fixed and travel time

= 0.33 -l-(0.22 X 2) from chart
+
= 0.33 0.44 = 0.77 minutes
Cycles per hour = 60 min

0.77 min
Cycles per hour corrected for job efficiency factor
= 64 cycles per hour.
Output per cycle:
Capacity of bucket 1.37 cubic metres

l
Swell factor 0.25, therefore BCM/dug = 1.37 X + 0.25
= 1.1 cubic metres

Output per cycle lost through operator inefficiency
= 1.1 X 0.05
= 0.055 cubic metres.
Therefore BCM per cycle = 1.1- 0.055 = 1.045 cubic metres.
Output per hour = Output per cycle X number of cycles (corrected)

= 1.045 cubic metres X 64
= 66.88 BCM per hour.
Bucket fill factor
One more factor needs to be understood and noted when estimating

outputs; this factor is commonly called the bucket fill factor. Consider
the action of a loading shovel digging from a stockpile: the bucket
cutting edgekeeth enters the material horizontally and as the bucket
is "crowded" it is rotated through the material and lifted. Some of the
disturbed material falls outside the bucket instead of inside and thus
the bucket is not filled. This tendency not to fill is worse with bulky
irregular materials than with smaller grain materials such as sands,
soil and aggregates. Hence, when loading bulky, irregularly shaped
materials from stockpiles, the output estimated as previously
described should be further reduced by a factor of 10%-15%,
depending on the nature of the material loaded. The larger and more
irregular materials, e.g. rocks, tree roots, etc., justify the larger factor.
This fill factor is less applicable to bank or basement digs except
when numerous roots and large boulders are present; then a factor of
10% should be used.
WHEELED LOADER OUTPUT

The operation of the wheeled loader, like its crawler counterpart,
is usually considered in two parts, the fixed part of the cycle and the
variable part of the cycle.
(a) The fixed cycle time covers the time for the loader to move for-
ward into the bank or stockpile, to fill the loading shovel, to
reverse turning to face the haul unit or dump location, to dump
and to return to the start position for another cycle.
(b) The travel cycle time applies when the dump site or haul vehicle
is more than, say, l 5 metres from the digging/stockpile area.
Consider first the fixed cycle time, usually given as 0.4 minutes for
a four-wheel drive loader with a bucket capacity of l to 2 cubic metres.
This time is very easy to measure for company plant, with company
operators on company earthmoving tasks. A number of times can be
taken, averaged (ignoring the obviously wild or exceptional figures)
and recorded for the soil, weather and machine conditions and
particular operators. In this way accurate information will be obtained,
allowing accurate forecasts of probable outputs in future to be made.
These comments about the value of studying and timing "on-going"
plant operations apply to all plant operated, particularly to all the
mobile plant mentioned in this book although reference to this has not
been made for each item considered, to avoid repetition.
Consider now the travel cycle time: first the probable speed over the
prevailing ground conditions, i.e, rolling and gradient resistance
(or assistance), must be determined (see Chapter 4). Having establish-
ed the speed then the cycle time may be calculated as for the track
loader; if, however, the information available has only allowed the
travel gear to be determined, then further reference to the manufact-
urer's travel/time graphs of the following type will be necessary to
establish the probable variable cycle time (see Fig. 27). Thus in one
way or another the probable average total cycle time is determined.
Fig. 27. Travel time estimating chart [wheeled loader]
I I I I I I I
0 S0 100 150 200 250 300 Metres
Haul or Return Detance
Probable output calculation

The factors which affect output have been described in Chapter 2
and an example given in the section on crawler loader output. A
reminder must be given here of the need to check the weight in the
bucket to ensure the bucket size is not too large for the material to be
moved. The manufacturer's operating specification for the machine in
question invariably gives information to allow the maximum load that
may be safely carried to be assessed. In some cases the loading may be
increased by adding weights to the machines or in the case of the
wheeled machines by ballasting the tyres but this should be done only
if recommended by the manufacturer.
The bucket fill factor has been mentioned (see page 39) and the
following figures, taken from an actual test, illustrate the need to allow
for the reduction in volume in bucket that occurs as the size of indiv-
idual particles of the material to be moved increases. The material
was loaded from a stockpile on level concrete into tippers using
a standard SAE-rated 3 cubic yard bucket.
Table l . EfSect of different materials on loader output
Material Output tons Number of Average load Percentage

per hour Cycles per hour per cycle (tons) fill by weight
4.2 tons =loo%
3/16 in. Grit Sand 578 139 4.2 100%

1 in. Limestone 56.5 138 4.1 98Tn
4 in. Limestone 462 134 3 .S 83%
12 in. Greywack 408 132 3.1 74%
24 in. Blockstone 367 133 2.8 67%
These figures confirm the need to anticipate a reduction in bucket

load when moving "large lumps". The figure of 15% as a maximum
given previously referred to volume and not to weight but it still would
appear to be low when pieces larger than 4 inches are common in the
material to be moved from a stockpile.
It will be noted that the cycle time has increased as the material
size increases; this is as expected, due to the greater difficulty in
"pick up". Hence the only safe conclusion to draw from the foregoing
is the relative impracticability of trying to estimate outputs when
handling material with large particle inclusions, without first carrying
out a few trial runs.
Example It is required to load haul units from a stockpile at a rate of

275 tons per hour. The material is % in. gravel with a density of
2800 1b per cubic yard. The loading surface is smooth hard concrete
and the loading cycle time established from previous observations
is 0.4 minutes. What sort of machine will be suitable? (Assume a
50 minute working hour .)
Number of cycles per hour:
Cycle time 0.4 minutes therefore cycles per hour
= 60
0.4
= 150 cycles per hour
Correction for 50 minute working hour
125 cycles per hour
Bucket selection:
Density in tons 2800 Ib per cubic yard

2240 Ib per ton
1.25 tons per cubic yard
Production rate required 275 tons per hour

1.25 tons per cubic yard
220 cubic yards per hour
Volume required per cycle
l .76 cubic yards.

Fill Factor:
In this instance the operating conditions are good, the material is of
small size and uniform, no fill factor will be used. Therefore, rated
bucket capacity required (heaped) is 1.76, i.e. a 1 % yard bucket
heaped would suffice. A Caterpillar 920 Wheeled Loader with a
general purpose 1% yard bucket would be suitable if there was no
risk of tipping due to the weight of the material carried in the bucket.
From the machine specification the static tipping load for the
920 with rear wheels ballasted is 5350 kg.; 50% of this load is 2675
kg or 5885 lb (manufacturer's recommended figure). The maximum
load to be carried is 1.75 (bucket capacity) X 1.25 X 2240 (Ib per
cubic yard) = 4900 Ib - which is well within the rated capacity of
the machine.
Conclusion:
A Caterpillar 920 with 1% cubic yard bucket could complete the task
at the required rate.
Table 2. Estimated hourly production of draglines
Dragline bucket sizes in cu. yds. (metres)
Material % 1 1% l 1% 2 2% 3 3 l/4 4 4 1/2 5 6

(S7) (.76) (.96) (1.15) (1.34) (1.53) (1.91) (2.3) (2.49) (3.06) (3.44) (3.82) (4.59)
Moistloamor 130 160 195 220 245 265 305 350 390 465 505 540 610
Sandy clay (99.5) (122.4) (149) (168) (187) (203) (233) (268) (298) (356) (386) (413) (467)
Sandandgravel 125 155 185 210 235 255 295 340 380 455 495 530 600
(96) (119) (142) (161) (180) (195) (226) (260) (291) (348) (379) (405) (459)
Good,common 105 135 165 190 210 230 265 305 340 375 410 445 510
earth (80) (103) (126) (145) (161) (176) (203) (233) (260) (287) (314) (340) (390)
Clay,hardand 90 110 135 160 180 195 230 270 305 340 375 410 475
tough (69) (84) (103) (122) (134) (149) (176) (207) (233) (260) (237) (314) (363)
Clay, wet and 55 75 95 110 130 145 175 210 240 270 300 330 385
sticky (42) (57) (73) (85) (99) (111) (134) (161) (184) (207) (230) (262) (295)
DRAGLINE OUTPUT
Table 2 gives the optimum output for draglines in bank yards (metres)
assuming an effective depth of cut, no delays, 90" angle swing, all
material loaded into haul units and bucket fill factor included. The
figures in this table require modifying according to the nature of the
material dug, the angle through which the boom swings from dig to
dump, the optimum depth of cut and the overall efficiency of the job.
The depth at which the excavator bucket digs is critical to the bucket
loading time and the angle through which the boom swings to the cycle
time. Tables 3 and 4 give the optimum depth of cut for maximum
output and the correction factors that must be applied to the hourly
production, according to the relationship of the actual digging depth
with the optimum, and the actual swing with the 90" angle on which
the production figures are based.
Table 3. Dragline optimum depth of cut infeet (metres)
Bucket size in cu. yds. (metres)
Material 3/4 f 1% 1% 1% 2 2%
(S7) (.76) (.96) (1.15) (1.34) (1.53) (1.91)
Light moist clay or 6.0 6.6 7.0 7.4 7.7 8.0 8.5
loam (1.83) (2.0) (2.14) (2.26) (2.34) (2.44) (2.59)
Sand or gravel 6.0 6.6 7.0 7.4 7.7 8.0 8.5

(1.83) (2.0) (2.14) (2.26) (2.34) (2.44) (2.59)
Good common 7.4 8.0 8.5 9.0 9.5 9.9 10.5

earth (2.26) (2.44) (2.59) (2.75) (2.9) (3.0) (3.2)
Hard, sticky clay 8.7 9.3 10.0 10.7 11.3 11.8 12.3
(2.65) (2.84) (3.0) (3.26) (3.45) (3.6) (3.75)
Wet, sticky clay 8.7 9.3 10.0 10.7 11.3 11.8 12.3
(2.65) (2.84) (3.0) (3.26) (3.45) (3.6) (3.75)
Two further aspects of production must be considered. The first is

that when calculating output to determine the number of haul trucks
required, a 60-minute working hour is used. This ensures that the
maximum possible output may be carted without delaying the digging
operation. Secondly, if the dragline bucket is digging under water,
part of the load will be water, thus reducing the effective output.
Example Estimate the probable output of a dragline with a

2% cubic yard (1.9 cubic metre) bucket, the depth of face being cut
14 feet (4.3 metres), the angle of swing from cut to the tippers
60°, material common earth, swell factor 25%, job efficiency
factor assumed at 67% (40 minute work hour).
Dragline output:
Optimum output from table = 265 cubic yards (203 cubic metres)
14 ft (4.3 metres) as a percentage of optimum = 14 x 100 = 133%
10.5
From table (by interpolation) 133% at 60' swing correction factor
is 1.07.
Therefore output at 100% job efficiency = 265 X 1.07 = 284 cubic

yards (217 cubic metres).
Output using job efficiency factor of 67%, i.e. a 40 minute work hour
to allow for job difficulty, delays, etc. = 284 X 67% = 190 cubic
yards (146 cubic metres).
HYDRAULIC EXCAVATOR OUTPUT

Tables of outputs for differing machines, buckets and conditions
are available for hydraulic excavators; their principal use being in
the determination of the probable machine size and bucket capacity
required to achieve a desired output. The desired output will probably
need to match the associated workforce drain laying, timbering, etc.,
activity time.
The slew angle, the method of employing the excavator, the choice
of bucket and operator fatigue have a very marked effect on the
manufacturer's forecast or the theoretically calculated output, as the
following paragraphs show. These are additional to the output modify-
ing factors previously described.
Slew angle
The angle through which the bucket slews from dig to dump should,
for maximum output, be kept as low as possible. A study of the
operation of a 0.7 cubic yard hydraulic excavator showed an average
cycle time of 0.34 minutes yielding an output (excluding stoppages) of
126 cubic yards per hour. When the slew angle was increased from
55" to 130' the cycle time increased by 4.8 seconds (0.08 minutes).
The possible loss in output due to the increase in slew angle is,
0.08-0.34 X 126 = 30 cubic yards per hour, i.e. approximately a
25% loss.
Method of employment
No excuse is made for the frequent references to the need to train

operators. Properly trained operators know how to position their
machine and the best method of tackling any particular task; this
knowledge is important because, for example, an operator who digs
a trench, say, twice or more times the bucket width, positioning his
machine with the tracks (or wheels) in line with the line of the trench,
could lose 12% or more digging time compared with the operator who
aligns his tracks at right angles to the line of the trench. The time is
lost in the increased manoeuvring required to reposition the machine
for further excavation.
Bucket choice
Studies have shown the bucket capacities quoted by some

manufacturers to be optimistic (on occasions as much as by 20%);
additionally, the relationship between cycle time and laden bucket
weight allows, by careful bucket selection, the achievement of better
than standard outputs, i.e. the increased output per cycle more than
offsetting the loss in output due to the increase in cycle time for the
larger bucket. Finally, the fitting of side cutters to buckets can increase
output.
Operator fatigue
Operator efficiency has been covered in earlier sections but with

excavators the high degree of concentration the operation demands
produces a high fatigue factor. For a continuous dig operation output
has been shown to fall to 75% of maximum after 2 hours. The same
study indicated that output levelled out at this figure for further
prolonged continuous digging. Hence, as is stated elsewhere in these
pages, treat manufacturers' output figures with caution: they may
have been measured over 30 minutes' continuous digging.
Measured outputs
Table 5 gives the results of a study of an hydraulic excavator digging a

6Y2 foot wide trench 5% feet deep in predominantly chalky ground
interspersed with sand.
Table 5. Hydraulic excavator outputs
Standard 4 Foot Bucket

Bucket Capacity Capacity
~ 0 . cu.
6 yds. ~ 0 . 7 - c uyds.
.
(0.46 cu. m.) (0.53 cu. m.)
Outputs Cycle Output Cycle Output
time yds/hr time yds/hr
(mins) (mins)
(a) Maximum theoretical output, 0.226 155.84 0.255 167.76

based on minimum cycle times (118.4) (127.5)
(AV:slew angle 55').
(b) Maximum ouput over ?A hour 0.322 109.38 0.298 143.56

-
study period continual (83.1) (109.1)
-
digging no delays.
(C) Maximum output over ?A hour 0.395 89.16 0.357 119.83

study period including delay (67.8) (91.1)
times (travel, etc.).
(d) Maximum output over 1hour 0.369 95.45 0.338 126.56

period, excluding all delays (72.5) (96.2)
due to travelling.
(e) Maximum output in l hour 0.428 82.29 0.403 106.15

period including delays due (62.5) (80.7)
to travelling.
Concluding observations
The starting point to determine outputs must be the results and
analyses of previous tasks or manufacturers' theoretical or quoted
site production figures. Hourly output of the machine, allowing for
job and operator efficiency factors, is unlikely to exceed half of the
theoretical - in fact it may well be less.
SCRAPER OUTPUT
In Chapter 1 the basic considerations involved when determining
scraper outputs were detailed. In practice, the calculation is far more
complex: different machine manufacturers use differing approaches to
this problem and invariably data and tables are available for the
particular make and type of machine considered. Essentially there are
two approaches to the task of output estimation. The first, the easier
to understand and use, is a table of outputs for different haul
distances for specific machines : such information gives a rapid
indication of the size of machine required for any particular task. Its
shortcomings as a guide to the probable output for any other cir-
cumstances and conditions (gradients, etc.) are obvious.
The second approach is lengthy and rather tedious; it involves the
following activities.
Variable cycle time estimate
(a) Identify haul and return routes from dig to dump sites.
(b) Draw profiles of these routes marking level stretches, favourable
and adverse gradients.
(C) Identify going conditions and calculate rolling resistance, laden
and unladen.
(d) Calculate gradient resistances.
(e) From manufacturers' graphs, determine overground speed
for the haul and return journey using calculated resistance
figures.
(0 Calculate variable cycle time.
Fixed cycle time estimate
(a) Determine from manufacturers' data optimum load time, i.e.
the best relationship between cycle time and percentage of bowl to
be filled in the loading operation (see page 23).
(b) Assess advantage or need for pusher to assist loading.
(C) Assess dump/spread time.
(d) Assess time waiting for pusher, if any.
(e) Arrive at fixed cycle time.
Output estimation
Having calculated the average cycle time, i.e. fixed plus variable,
one may estimate the probable output by applying the output factors,
i.e. swell, operator and job efficiency making allowance for the
percentage of the bowl that will be filled in the loading time selected.
As before, the output is simply: Load per cycle X number of cycles.
Operational efficiency
The calculation of the variable cycle times may be made for altern-
ative haul routes and the route offering the shortest cycle time may be
thus selected.
The importance of haul route maintenance cannot be over-
emphasised: the reader may care to calculate the probable output loss
arising from a 10% increase in the variable cycle time because of poor
haul route maintenance. Such calculations will quickly show the
economic advantage of retaining a grader on site for haul route main-
tenance.
The use of a ripper tooth on the rear of a crawler tractor may permit
the use of scrapers for excavations normally thought of as too hard for
scraper loading.
4 TRACKS Q WHEELS - SOME
PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIQNS
SOIL CLASSIFICATION
The simplest method of classifying soils is into frictional or cohesive
groups. The frictional are the small-particle, stony, sandy soils and
the cohesive are the thin plate-like particles such as clays. Identifying
soils by their primary classifications is important when considering
the use of wheeled or tracked plant. Traction over ground is dependent
on the shear strength of the ground in contact with the tracks or
wheels. In the case of frictional materials, pressure on the ground
increases the shear strength, thus reducing the risk of wheel or track
slippage through shear failure. Cohesive soils, particularly when water
is p r e s x t , have low shear strength; the small flakes or plate-like
particles readily slide over one another and increasing the pressure on
cohesive soils only marginally improves the shear value. Hence
caution should be exercised before deciding to use wheeled machines
on soils which are essentially clays when there is a possibility of heavy
rainfall. The maxim is: when in doubt, use tracks.
WHEELED PLANT
Rolling resistance
This is the property of wheeled plant which impedes its overground
motion. This resistance is compounded of tyre flexion, internal friction
of wheel and drive shaft bearings and the effort needed to climb out of
the depression in the ground which it has itself created due to the load
on it.
On a hard concrete road where there is no visible depression under
the wheel, the rolling resistance (RR) measured as a pull or push is
2% of the vehicle weight, i.e. 40 lb (20 kg) per metric tonne (2200 lb)
weight. For other purposes where there is some penetration by the
tyre this value increases and a table of rolling resistance values for
wheeled planthehicles on different soils is given below (Table 6).
Table 6. Typical rolling resistance factors
Note All lb/kg conversions are made at 2 lb = 1 kg for simplicity and

because the figures quoted are in any event approximations or estimates.
A hard, smooth, stabilised, surfaced roadway without

penetration under load, watered and maintained.
A firm, smooth, rolling roadway with dirt or light

surfacing, flexing slightly under load or undulating,
maintained fairly regularly and watered.
Snow, packed
Snow, loose
A dirt roadway, rutted, flexing under load, little

if any maintenance, no water, 1 in. (25 mm) or
2 in. (50 mm) tyre penetration.
Rutted dirt roadway, soft under travel, no maintenance,

no stabilisation, 4 in. (100 mm) to 6 in. (150 mm)
tyre penetration
Loose sand or gravel
Soft, muddy, rutted roadway, no maintenance. 200 to 400 100to 200
Various tyre sizes and inflation pressures will greatly reduce or

increase t h e above figures. The quantities given are sufficiently
accurate for estimating purposes when specific information on
performance of particular equipment on given soil conditions is
not available. Thus, given t h e RR factor and the weight on the wheels
the force that must b e overcome to keep t h e equipment moving may be
calculated.
Example A wheeled loader weighs l1000 kg. What will be its

rolling resistance over a hard, smooth clay road?
RR = weight on wheels X RR factor

= l1000 kg X 35 kg/tonne
= 385 kg
The same type of calculation would be required for a wheeled
motorised scraper; the total weight on the wheels including, of
course, that of the tractor would be used.
Grade resistance
In addition to rolling resistance there is another resistance to be over-

come when driving or towing plant over undulating ground. This is the
grade resistance, the effort needed to overcome the force of gravity
preventing the equipment going uphill. The simplest way of consider-
ing the gradient is as a percentage gradient, 1 metre rise in 100 metres
horizontal distance would be a 1 % gradient, a 5 metre rise a 5%
gradient and so on. Gradients can, of course, assist instead of opposing
motion and a downhill slope will help the engine to carry out its task.
Whether the plant is operating on favourable or adverse gradients,
the rolling resistance still has to be overcome.
A generally applicable rule for the value of grade resistance (GR)
is that each 1% gradient produces a resistance of 20 lb (10 kg) per
metric tonne of vehicle weight, and this figure applies to both wheeled
and tracked equipment. It is important to recognise the following
conditions:
Plant climbing gradient Total resistance to be overcome is RR4-GR

Plant on level ground Total resistance to be overcome is RR only
Plant descending gradient Total resistance to be overcome is RR - GR
Example: A wheeled motorised scraper, laden with the following

weights-tractor 30000 kg, laden scraper 14000 kg-is climbing a
5% gradient on a hard, smooth clay road. Determine rolling
resistance and total resistance.
Weight on wheels = 30000 + 14000 = 44000 kg

Rolling resistance = 44 metric tonnes X 35 kg/tonne
= 1540 kg
Gradient resistance = 44metric tonnes X 5% X 10 kg/tonne
= 2200 kg
Total resistance = 3740 kg
Plant power output

There is a clear relationship between the power output of the machine
measured at the wheel rim and the speed it travels overground. It
53
is best understood by looking at a manufacturer's table of gears,
speeds and power at the wheel rim (rimpull) both rated and maximum
for a particular equipment.
Table 7 gives these relationships for a wheeled motorised scraper.
Table 7. Rimpull for wheeled motorised scraper
Pounds rimpull
Gear Speed Rated Maximum
Having determined the resistance (i.e. RRi-GR) of the plant under

consideration, then one may determine from an examination of the
table the gear in which the equipment will operate (over the section of
haul road for which the estimates were made). Say, for example,
the resistance had been calculated at 10000 lb for the above scraper,
then from the table third gear would be selected, giving an overground
speed for that section of 8.1 mph.
The.rimpul1 available is greater than that estimated to be required,
as it must always be; the extra power is needed to cope with unexpect-
ed soft patches and to allow for the fact that if the equipment is old the
engine is unlikely to produce its designed rated power.
Note also that the rated power figure should be used, and not the
maximum: the maximum will be obtainable only at lower speeds with
the engine labouring.
Hence, the overground speed of an item of plant laden or unladen
may be determined and the time required to travel a particular section
of the haul route thus calculated. The summation of the part circuit
times is required to allow the cycle time for a single load, haul, dump
and return cycle to be estimated. Without an accurate assessment of
cycle times, alternative haul routes cannot be objectively compared
and in the final analysis outputs could not be assessed.
When graphs of gear ratios and power output are published in lieu of
tables, the gear may be found by identifying the speed appropriate to
the pull required.
TRACKED PLANT
Tracked plant differs from the wheeled versions in that it lays its own
road wherever it goes and its available power is defined as the pull
exerted at the drawbar (drawbar pull). The figure for drawbar pull
takes care of the internal friction and the rolling resistance which are
reasonably consistent whatever surface the machine traverses. Grade
resistance, as has been stated, applies to tracked plant exactly as for
wheeled.
When considering the RR of a crawler tractor-towed scraper, for
example, the tractor may be ignored and only the weight on the
scraper wheels considered as before. The tractor must be taken into
account when calculating the GR.
TRACTION
All of the foregoing statements about rimpull, drawbar pull speeds in

specified gears, etc. presumed that no slip occurred between tyre/
track and the ground. This slip, or the shearing of the soil in contact
with the driving surface, is quantified as the coeffkient of traction
between the contacting surfaces. Its value, as would be expected,
varies for different soils. Table 8 gives average figures.
Table 8. Approximate coef$cient of tractionfactors
Traction Factors
Rubber
tyres Tracks
Concrete
Clay loam, dry
Clay loam, wet
Rutted clay loam
Wet sand
Quarry pit
Gravel road (loose, not hard)
Packed snow
Ice
Firm earth
Loose earth
Coal, stockpiled
If there was no slip at all between the trackkyre and contacting

ground, the maximum tractive force, drawbar or rimpull possible
could only equal the weight of the item of plant concerned. Because a
coefficient of one cannot be achieved practically, the power available
will always be less than the equipment weight, the limit being cttlcula-
ted by multiplying the weight on the tractor tracks or the weight on
the driving wheels by the coefficient.
Example Calculate the maximum drawbar pull of a tractor weigh-

ing 20 000 kg operating over loose earth.
Usable pull = Total weight of tractor X coefficient of traction
= 20000 kg X 0.60
= 12000 kg
Calculate the rimpull available for a wheeled loader weight 10000 kg

operating on smooth concrete surface area.
= Weight on driving wheels X coefficient of traction
Rimpull = 9000 kg
POWER LOSS [ALTITUDE]
When relating drawbar or rimpull to the rolling or grade resistance to
be overcome, it is necessary to make one further adjustment if the
equipment is operating at more than 3000 feet above sea level. The
air at greater heights is less dense and thus the weight of air that
enters the engine on each aspiration stroke is less. The oxygen
available for combustion is proportionately reduced, resulting in a
lower output per power cycle. For any given speed the effect of this
power reduction is to reduce the drawbar pull or rimpull.
An approximation, adequate for purposes of simple earthmoving
calculations, is: reduce pull available from plant by 3% for each IQ99
feet of altitude above 3000 feet.
Note Further reading on this subject of altitude power reduction and
its effect on plant output is recommended for a complete understand-
ing of all the implications.
T COSTING
PUNDANdENTAL CONSIDERATIONS
The cost of owning and operating construction plant may be calculated
in many ways; because of the several variable costs involved there is
no single simple common method, although all methods involve the
same basic elements. Variables include, for example, the method of
depreciating the plant, the maintenance costs which vary with machine
age and usage and machine administrative costs, which may be
apportioned over the plant fleet in different ways. It is the inter-
dependence of such variables which causes the engineer most
difficulty when he is trying to establish the costs to his company or
purchasing and operating one or more items of plant compared with,
say, the cost of hiring similar plant.
Perhaps the simplest approach is to appreciate that the cost per
hour, for example, of owning and operating plant is made up of a
number of cost elements. These elements may be identified and
considered separately, then quantified and Walled to give the hourly
cost.
The elements may be grouped under two headings, fixed costs and
variable costs. The elements grouped under the heading fixed costs
are not fixed absolutely, but they may sensibly be considered as fixed
for any particular period (usually one year) over which costs are being
assessed, without affecting to any significant degree the final figures
calculated. By doing this the calculations are very much simplified.
The variable costs cover, as might be expected, those costs which
vary with age or usage, etc.
Fixed cost elements are:
Depreciation Insurance
Interest on capital employed Administrative overheads.
Variable costs are:
Fuels and lubricants

Maintenance (including repairs and spares)
Operator
FIXED COSTS
Depreciation
If an item of plant is purchased new on 1 January, stored under cover
for a year and then sold, the price realised would normally be less than
the purchase price. The difference in price, the loss to the purchaser is
the depreciation cost; this would of course have been greater if the
plant had been used during the year considered. Depreciation of plant,
industrial equipment and buildings, etc., is a subject about which
complete books have been written, but in the plant world it is
necessary to consider only two methods of depreciation to obtain cost
analysis results comparable in accuracy with the data available.
The two methods of depreciation are straight line and reappraisal.
STRAIGHT LINE METHOD
The plant item is given a life, say 5 years. The capital expended over
these years is catculated by taking the salvage value of the machine at
the end of this period from the original cost of the machine and
dividing this sum by the "life" in years chosen, e.g.:
Cost of machine say f l0000
Depreciation period 5 years
Salvage value after 5 years say f 2000
Agraph of depreciation, i.e. loss in value plotted against years of

ownership, calculated by this method, is shown in Fig. 28, hence the
description straight line method.
REAPPRAISAL METHOD
In this method the actual value of the machine at the end of each year
is assessed. This assessment is made on past experience or on an
appreciation of market trends, or possibly is known fairly accurately by
the use of a manufacturer's buy-back scheme. Taking our plant item
at £10000 again over a 5 year period we might arrive at the figures
given in Table 9.
Table 9. Depreciation [reappraisal method]
Year 1 Year2 Year3 Year 4 Year5
Reappraised value:
% of original cost 65 % 50 % 35 70 25 % 20 %
Residual or
reappraised value E6500 E5000 E3500 E2500 E2000
Plotting these values in a graph we get the result shown in Fig. 29.
Fig. 28. Depreciation Fig. 29. Depreciation
[straight line method] graph [reappraisal method] graph
Years of Ownersh~p Yrars of Ownersh~p
DIFFERENCES IN THE TWO METHODS

Table 10 shows the difference in value at the end of each year.
Table 10. DzHerences between straight line and reappraisalmethods
Depreciation method Year l Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 Year 5
Straight line E8400 E6800 E5200 E3600 E2000
Reappraisal E6500 E5000 E3500 E2500 E2000
Difference in
estimated value £1900 E1800 E1700 Ell00
Superimposing the two graphs of depreciation on to one diagram,
the tabulated differences are shown diagramatically in Fig. 30.
Fig. 30. Graphic compankon of straight
line and reappraisal methods of depreciation
I 2 3 4 5
Yeersot Ownersh~p
IMPLICATIONS
The difference in depreciated value at the early period of ownership is
considerable, as much as f1900 after one year, and it is still f 1700 after
three years.
If a company uses the straight line method of depreciation when
calculating hire rate, fixing the period for the calculation at say six
years, then sells the machine at market value after say three years of
operation, then it could easily incur a sizeable loss. The true deprecia-
tion for the three-year period will not have been used for calculating
the hourly/weekly rate which should have been recovered.
PROVISION COST RATE
The effect of these different methods on the depreciation elements of
Table 11. Effect of different depreciation methods on hourly depreciation

rates
Depreciation method Year1 Year2 Year3 Year4 Year5
Straight line (cumulative) E1600 E3200 E4800 E6400 E8000
Depreciation per hour £0.80 20.80 E0.80 £0.80 E0.80
Reappraisal (cumulative) E3500 E5000 E6500 £7500 £8000
Depreciation per hour 51.75 21.25 21.08 E0.94 E0.80

our hourly provision cost per annum of t h e machine is shown in Table
11, taking in this case a 2000-hour utilisation.
HOURLY PROVISION COST RATE FOR TWO METHODS OF
DEPRECIATION
The figures in Table 11 illustrate the importance of using the more
accurate method of depreciation, i.e. reappraisal, when calculating the
cost of ownership, particularly over a short term.
EFFECTS OF UTILISATION
It is obvious that the more hours the machine is used each year the
lower t h e amount per hour which needs to b e charged to cover the
depreciation. Tables 12 and 13 show this quite clearly and illustrate
the great importance of correctly assessing utilisation, particularly,
as seen later, when considering whether to hire or buy.
Table 12. Depreciation costs for 1000 hours peryear operation
Note The calculation of the element to be charged each hour is made by

dividing the total depreciation cost for one, two or more years of ownership by
the total hours of utilisation for the same period, e . g . for four years the total
depreciation is £7500, the total hours utilisation at 1000 hours per year is 4000,
therefore the element to be charged per hour is £ 7500 + 4000 = f1.87.
Purchase price = E10000 Year l Year2 Year3 Year 4 Year5
Total hours at 1000 hrs/yr 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
Trade-in value as % of cost new 60% 50% 40% 25% 20%
Trade-in value at year end £6000 £5000 £4000 £2500 £2000
Depreciation cost in year £4000 £1000 £1000 £1500 £500
Total depreciation cost (cumulative) £4000 £5000 £6000 £7500 £8000
Depreciation element to be
recovered for each
operating hour £4.00 £2.50 E2.00 £1.87 £1.60
Table 13. Depreciation costs for 3000 hours peryear operation.
Purchase price = £ 10000 Year l Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 Year5
Total hours at 3000 hrs/yr 3000 6000 9000 12000 15000
Trade in value as % of cost new 50% 40% 30% 20% 15%
Trade in value at year end £5000 £4000 E3000 £2000 £1500
Depreciation cost in year £5000 £1000 £1000 £1000 £500
Total depreciation cost £5000 £6000 £7000 E8000 £8500
Depreciation element to be
recovered for each
operating hour £1.66 £1.00 £0.77 £0.66 £0.56
A comparison should be made between Tables 12 and 13: the very

large difference in the hourly cost element to cover or recover
depreciation cost in the two tables is of course primarily due to the
increased number of hours over which the cost may be spread. The
tables clearly demonstrate the importance of probable utilisation
when considering the purchase of plant items. It should, however,
be realised that the figure of 3000 hours' utilisation is a figure which is
unlikely to be achieved; it was chosen to illustrate the point. An
average utilisation is 40 weeks at 40 hours per week, i.e., 1600 hours,
and in general higher figures are attainable only by plant hire
companies, who are specialists in the field of plant operation.
In the tables a very small element of the cost differential arises
from the difference in the trade-in value, depending on the hours of
usage the machine has had.
Cost of capital employed
The large sums of money needed to purchase plant could, if invested

in alternative projects, yield a return of 8% to 12% or more, depending
on the investment chosen. If company funds are employed to purchase
plant then an element of the hourly cost must cover the return that the
cash could earn if invested elsewhere. Exactly what interest figure
should be chosen must depend on many factors and its determination
is rather outside the scope of this book; for the purposes of illustration
a figure of 20% has been chosen.
The one difficulty in calculating the element to be charged per hour
is the fact th,at the capital employed reduces through the year as the
machine is used, the cost of its use being recovered from the payment
for the construction task or from hire revenue.
Example If a plant item is valued at, say, £8000 on 1 January,

the capital employed is £8000 and the return to cover the cost of the
capital employed would for the figure quoted above be 20% X
£8000, i.e. £1600 for the ensuing year; but as the machine is used
during the year its value will fall (depreciation) and the capital em-
ployed becomes less than £ 8000; thus the return to be charged as the
hourly cost element also reduces. To calculate in a practicable way
the capital invested in an item of plant for one year, the average
value over the year should be used, which in the case of the plant
item above, assuming its value on 31 December is £5500, is:
The element to be charged per hour for the use of capital in the
above example assuming a 1500-hour utilisation would be:
Table 14 (overleaf) shows the calculation of the hourly element to cover

interest on capital employed for one plant item.
It will be appreciated that the interest rate could be set at a level
sufficient to give a profit margin in addition to the recovery of the
market rate for the use of the capital. If other forms of financing the
purchase of plant are used, such as bank loans or hire purchase, then
the cost to the purchasing company of the capital employed can readily
be identified.
Insurance
Insurance costs are normally related to the current value of the plant
and are therefore dependent on natural age and working life. Normally
insurance costs are of the order of 1 % of machine current value and in
the example chosen would be 1%o f £10000, i.e. f l00 for the first year.
Administrative cost
Plant provision operation and maintenance involves administrative

processes and incurs administrative costs - these will vary according
to plant holdings, plant depot if established, location, tasks, etc. The
Table 14. Hourly charge for cost of capital employed on one plant item.
Purchase price = f10000 Year l Year2 Year3 Year 4 Year5
Anticipated annual usage (hours) 1500 1500 1500 1500 1500

Cumulative totals (hours) 1500 3000 4500 6000 7500
Value of item at beginning of year E10000 E6500 S5000 E3500 £2500
Value of item at end of year £6500 £5000 f3500 £2500 £2000
Average investment over year E8250 E5750 f 4250 f 3000 £2250
Cumulative investment £8250 E14000 E18250 £21250 £23500
Return of capital required E1650 £2800 £3650 £4250 E4700

at 20% figure
Hourly element to cover f 1.10 £0.93 40.81 g0.71 f0.63

cost of using capital
more efficient the organisation, the lower it is likely the administrative

costs will be; the greater the utilisation of plant, the lower per plant
operating hour the apportioned costs will be. One way of allocating
administrative costs is to total them for the depot and divide the total
according to the capital value of the plant, e.g. if a depot owned
10 plant items of the same type and its administrative costs were
£5000 per year, each machine would have to carry £500 per year as the
administrative elements of the provision cost.
The calculation of the administrative cost element of the hourly
owning and operating cost is, as before, made by dividing the yearly
contribution by the anticipated yearly usage in hours. In the case of the
plant items mentioned above, the hourly element for an anticipated
1500 hours' utilisation in the year would be £500 + 1500 = £0.33 per
hour, or for 2000 hours £0.25.
VARIABLE COSTS
Under this cost heading may also be included filters, gaskets, etc.
-in fact, all consumable stores. These costs in the larger machines are
significant enough to be included as an element of the hourly provision
cost. They are obviously variable costs, because the greater the
machine usage the greater the cost of consumables. It is usual to
apportion these costs over the estimate of budgeted hours' utilisation
at a flat rate. In the case of our example of mobile plant this could
amount to £0.90 per hour. It is possible to cost all consumables against
overheads but the cost control system is that much cruder and there-
fore less accurate.
Maintenance
The costs of maintenance are directly dependent upon the working life
of the plant. These costs will vary in relation to:
(a) the type of work on which the plant is used;
(b) the designed reliability of the plant;
(c) the output achieved by the user;
(d) the operator's ability, attitude and knowledge;
(e) the quality of the maintenance effected.
There is, however, an inevitable tendency for plant maintenance to
increase with working life. Within organisations normal maintenance
costs for particular items of plant can be averaged and these are often
expressed for convenience as a percentage of the original purchase
price. For certain types of plant the cost of maintenance can exceed
100% of the original purchase price over 10000 hours. A typical break-
down of maintenance costs is shown in Table 15.
Table 15. Typicalmaintenance costs for a smallitem of mobile plant
Purchase price = £10000 Hours

0- 2000- 4000- 6000- 8000-
2000 4000 6000 8000 10000
Maintenance costs as a percentage 6% 14% 27% 19% 25%

of initial purchase price
Total costs as a percentage 6% 20% 47% 66% 91%
Total costs £600 £2000 £4700 £6600 £9100
Overall maintenance rate 30p 50p 78p 82p 91p

On large machines and in severe conditions, e.g. razor-edged shale
or extremes of dust and sand, tyre/track wear may be excessive;
in such a situation the tyredtracks would be given a wear life in terms
of hours of operation and the appropriate proportion of hours run
charged directly to a machine/construction project. The high cost of
tyredtracks requires this approach.
Operator costs
Any figures given here would be out of date before the book was
published; readers are therefore cornmended the Contractors' Plant
Association's analyses of operator costs published as a supplement to
its periodic studies into machine operating costs. Operator costs are
an "on" or additional cost which are simply included in the provision
cost. The fact that operators employed by a company continue to be
paid when not actively operating plant is an obvious disadvantage of
ownership compared with hire.
FORECASTING PROBABLE COSTS
Once plant has been purchased it is too late to consider the probable
cost of owning and operating it; better that the probable cost be
calculated for the likely variables of hours' utilisation per year and
period of ownership before any purchase is made. At worst, such an
exercise allows an immediate examination of the economic implica-
tions of hiring rather than buying.
The simplest method is to construct a table in the form illustrated in
Table 16 using the methods described in the preceding pages. By
constructing tables for different probable annual hours' utilisation the
complete picture is presented and such decisions as minimum viable
period of ownership and minimum annual hours' usage, which would
justify purchase, established.
Table 16. Sample provision cost table [small mobile machine, original cost
£lOOOO]
Note Operator, fuels/lubricants and transport and where applicable

tgrehraclt costs to be added to these figures to obtain total cost per hour for
2000 hours' utilisation for one, two and/or three years of ownership.
Annual period Year 1 Year2 Year3
Cumulative hours at 2000 per annum 2000 4000 6000

(Table 16 cont'd)
Annual period Year 1 Year 2 Year 3
Depreciation:
Reappraised value
Depreciation each year
Cumulative depreciation cost
Depreciation cost element per hour
Capital investment cost:
Value of item. beginning of year f l0000 L6500 L5000

Value of itcm, end of year 56500 £5000 £3500
Average investment over year B250 a750 £4250
Cumulative investment B250 f14000 218250
Rcturn on capital required at 20% interest f1650 E2800 U650
Hourly element to cover cost of capital employed 82p 70p 61p
Incurancc cost:
Insurance cost at 1 % of capital value

Cumr~lativecost of insurance
Insurance cost element per hour
Adniinistrative costs:
Calculated by apportioning budget depot administrative

costs over plant pro-rata (cumulative) f500 51000 51500
Administrative cost element per hour 25p 25p 25p
Maintenance costs:
Calculated bv using past expenditure expressed as a

percentage of machine original cost (cumulative) 6ri 20% 476
Maintenance cost element per hour 30p 50p 78p
Provision cost per hour:
To cover:
Depreciation
Capital Investment
Insurance
Administrati~e
Maintenance
Total (per hour) £3.17 Q.74 U.75

Graphical presentation
As this book is written for engineers, the case for graphical present-
ation of the facts is unarguable - diagrams and drawings are the
everyday tool of the engineer. Fig. 31 depicts the fixed and variable
costs and also, by the addition of a graph of the hire rate, shows the
period at which the cost of hire just equals the cost of owning and
operating. For less than this period, hire is economically advan-
tageous, for more, in this instance, it may be economically advan-
tageous for the company to purchase and operate its own plant.
(See, however, the subsequent section "Hire or Buy Considerations" on
company funds.) Fuel and lubricant costs have not been included in
this graph.
The hire rate graph could be replaced by a line indicating the hourly
rate to be charged to the construction work just to recover the cost of
owning and operating the plant; a cost element would need to be added
to ensure the plant operation did not cost the company money because
of changed circumstances or unforeseen contingencies.
Fig.31. Graphicalpresentation offixed and variable costs and hire rate.
Accommodating inflation
In all the calculations made to determine the various cost elements
that make the hourly rate it has been assumed that when cost forecasts
are made for future years account will have been taken of the inevit-
able increases that will occur, for example, wages, rent or rates,
heating costs, fuel, etc. The normal projections allow for a rate of
increase proportionally more than the rate for the preceding year.
In the case of a construction company that hires out its plant as a
source of income it will need to adjust its hire rate to include an
element to cover the inevitable increased cost of replacing the item of
plant producing the hire income.
Low cost plant
Certain items of plant are invariably owned by the construction
company, e.g. small dumpers, compaction equipment, etc. Such items
have negligible resale value and are usually written off over a period of
three or four years. The method of calculating the cost to be charged to
site or a contract for this type of plant is as follows:
Purchase price (say) £2000
Working life 3 years
Anticipated utilisation 40 weeks per year
Cost calculation for three-year period:
Depreciation cost E2000
Maintenance cost (estimated at 50% purchase price) El 000
Administrative costs E400
Insurance 3% of f l000 (half of new cost), site only E30
Finance cost 20% of f l000 for three years f 600
Total cost for three years E4030
Total weeks anticipated utilisation 120

Therefore, provision cost rate per week - £33.58
Hie or buy considerations

Some consideration has been given to the straight economic com-
parison between a company buying, operating and maintaining its
own plant and to hiring plant as required. There are other consider-
ations which can affect this decision and these include the following:
COMPANY FINANCIAL STATE AND POLICY
Plant purchase requires considerable funds and a company's financial
resources or poor creditworthiness may make access to large sums
difficult. Alternatively, the management may have other uses for
available funds and as a direct consequence of this policy cause
reliance to be placed on hire as a policy for plant provision.
MACHINE QUALITY AND RELIABILITY
A company can exercise control over the age and mechanical state of
plant it owns; this is all-important when so many construction tasks
depend for progress on the continuous operation of the mechanical/
electrical plant. Hired-in plant, unless the hiring company has a
proven record for first-class service, is an unknown quantity in terms
of condition and probable reliability.
AVAILABILITY
A problem of relying entirely on hiring plant as required, may be
shortage of certain items of plant of specific capacity when required.
This is particularly true in areas where considerable construction
activity obtains. The enforced use of plant of too small a capacity can
result in an increased job cost.
MANAGERIAL EXPERTISE
The decision of a company to own and operate its own plant has many
important consequences, not the least of which is the need to recruit
and employ managers capable of effectively managing what will
represent a substantial proportion of the company assets. Supporting
staff to administer and maintain plant are also in short supply and their
employment adds appreciably to the wages bill. By hiring-in plant the
management function is left with the hire company.
HIRE RATES
A dearth of construction activity and a surplus of a particular type of
machine in an area can depress the hire rate until it is substantially
below the company's own plant cost. Advantage may be taken of such
a situation but it should be remembered, before squeezing it too hard,
that a thriving hire industry can be of immense value to the contractor.
OPERATOR CONTROL AND PRODUCTIVITY
In this aspect lies the greatest divergence of interest between hire
companies and construction companies. The hire company has no
concern with the problems of production on site, it is only interested in
its plant being out on hire. The hire company operator may be on
occasions tempted to prolong the task to extend the hire period. On
the other hand, the construction company's own operators are a known
quantity and are usually interested enough in prolonging their employ-
ment with the company to meet output deadlines and aim for
maximum production. They identify with the company and with the
successful job.
Attempts to overcome this conflict have taken several forms,
including the payment by the construction company of a prodyction
bonus to the hire company operator. Another method finding favour is
to hire-in the machine without an operator, the operator being
provided by the contracting company. This latter solution would work
particularly well if the operator concerned was competent on more than
one type of machine.
DIFFICULT TASKS
Certain types of ground, e.g. hard rock bound, appreciably increase
the cost of machine and bucket tooth maintenance and shorten the
effective working life of the machine. Under such conditions hiring has
very obvious advantages.
BACK-UP PLANT
If equipment on hire breaks down another (subject to availability)
can be hired-in to replace it and the job continues. Owned/operated
plant breakdown crises can also be overcome by hiring-in until the item
is repaired but the hire charge is an "on-cost" which in the last
analysis ought to be added to the costs of owning and operating as
previously calculated.
OBSOLESCENCE
Each two- or three-year period sees the production of yet more
powerful machines with greater productive capacity. The tendency of
many construction companies to retain machines they purchase for
five or more years means that they may be penalised in terms of
production costs because of the lower productivity of the older, less
powerful machine. Hire companies tend to keep young fleets for
maximum reliability and there is a high probability that the machine
hired will be a recent model and thus capable of a greater designed
output than the models it superseded.
CONCLUDING OBSERVATIONS
Hire companies can keep rates low because of the very high utilisation
of their plant; in Tables 12 and 13 the large cost differential between
plant operated for 1000 hours and that for 3000 hours per year was
shown. In their own interests they try to employ safe, competent
operators who will look after the machine and reduce the possibility
of breakdown. But there is the conflict of interests in terms of time
required for a task between the contractor and the hirer. On the other
hand, there is the problem to the contractor, if he buys and operates
his own plant, of managing and maintaining it and of keeping his
operators fully employed. With hiring, there may be a question of
availability of a particular machine at a particular time, but when
failure occurs the problem is primarily that of the hire company;
and it matters not to the contractor, except insofar as production is
slcw if the machine is being hammered because of ground conditions.
The contractor, if he hires, can obtain the benefit of the latest and more
powerful machines. Hence the decision to hire or to buy is not an
easy one, but the growth of the hire industry over the last few years
indicates the choice which has been made by many.
GENERAL NOTE
Costs in any particular case will depend on the type of plant, the
requirement for that plant, the area and type of operation and the
current financial climate. For example, lack of availability of a partic-
ular plant item, coinciding with a high demand for that item, can result
in machine appreciation, not depreciation as would normally occur.
This emphasises the need to base all cost studies on local facts, situa-
tions and experience, and not on the figures in the examples to this
chapter. The latter are given to illustrate the methods of costing, which
are, of course, universally applicable.
The selection of an item or items of construction plant for a contract
or series of contracts is a fairly lengthy and complex process. The
larger companies retain specialists in this field and these acquire a
mass of useful data culled from previous contracts on which future
plant selection decisions can largely be based. For smaller companies
without access to this information, however, a logical and cost effective
approach to plant selection is still possible, and the results of such a
process are certain to be much better than an inspired guess and at
worst will provide a method of determining the effects on cost and
output of selecting a particular machine. One of the dangers of any
analytical or selective process is that the effort involved in its employ-
ment may not be justified by the end result and a very objective
view must be taken at the outset to ensure that the construction
project warrants detailed consideration of the alternative machines
available.
The selection process conveniently divides into six stages:
Stage 1 Task identification

Stage 2 Preliminary selection
Stage 3 Machine output estimation
Stage 4 Machine matching
Stage 5 Output costing
Stage 6 Final selection
TASK IDENTIFICATION
Before consideration can be given to the selection of plant for a task,

all facts relating to that task must be clearly identified and listed.
The following basic information is required:
(a) the volume of material to be excavated;
(b) the earliest start date and the latest finishing date;
the type and location of the tip area and possible haul routes,
state, gradients, curves, etc.;
the distance from the excavation area to the tip;
the type of material to be excavated and the swell factor;
the weight per cubic metre;
accessibility of excavation site and tip, obstructions, weak
bridges, cables above and underground, culverts and ditches.
This information should be tabulated and analysed for any special
conditions, for example the presence of large rocks or shale, a bad
meteorological record in terms of heavy rainfall, a high water table,
presence of streams, railways, telegraph poles, electric pylons, low
bridges, the need to join or cross major roads, etc.
At this stage an examination of the data may suggest that the task
is not large or complex enough to merit further detailed consideration.
One fact that must be taken into account when making such a decision
is the effect on subsequent or concurrent site activities of an un-
necessarily prolonged operation.
PRELIMINARY SELECTION
Following the tabulation of the earthmoving requirement, the next

stage is the consideration of the task and of the limitations of particular
types of plant to carry out that task efficiently. The following selection
criteria, if studied, will eliminate from further consideration obviously
unsuitable machines and reduce the number and type which need to be
studied in greater detail to ensure optimum selection.
Stripping topsoil
DOZER D4 OR LARGER
Haul distance up to 100 metres.
SCRAPER TOWED
Haul distance up to 400 metres, preferable to dozer when contamin-
ation of the topsoil by the sub-soil is to be avoided.
SCRAPER MOTORISED (INCLUDING SELF-LOADING)
Haul distance up to about 3000 metres. (Note No scraper can travel
laden on public road.)
LOADING SHOVEL
Normally in Britain the tracked version is used, the topsoil be in^
loaded into haul units for transporting to tip. Wheeled loading shovels
may be used on primarily frictional soils, and in dry conditions may
achieve up to 25% better output with the same capacity bucket. May
strip and transport over short distances. Some operational advantage
may be gained by using a 4-in-l bucket but this benefit may be offset
by a reduction in the weight capacity of the bucket, since the 4-in-1
version is heavier than the standard pattern.
Mass excavation
DOZER
The bull/angle dozer yields the lowest cost method of digging and
moving materials over short distances. The angle dozer has a lower
output than the equivalent bulldozer but it is more suited to sidelong
cuts into hillsides.
Dozers may be used in conjunction with belt conveyors. They are
suitable for spreading loose fill. Both machines handle most materials,
including blasted rock.
SCRAPER
Crawler tractor towed Haul distance up to about 400 metres.
Motorised wheeled Haul distance up to about 2% km.

Disadvantages of the above two types of scraper include the following:
(a) They cannot travel laden on public roads.

(b) They need large digging areas - a scraper travels 50 to 100
metres to fill its bowl.
(C) A crawler tractor pusher is invariably needed when excavation
takes place, to ensure bowl is filled.
(d) Access ramps to excavation need a 1-in-8 gradient, extending
length of operating area.
Wheeled tractor elevating Truly self-loading in action but outputs

lower than the towed version because loading time is longer.
Note Wheeled scrapers need good, smooth haul roads or tracks.
Usually a grader for road maintenance is included in the plant team.
A 10% increase in speed of rubber-tyred scrapers in a 1000-metre
haul will cover the cost of providing a grader. Hard materials may need
ripping using a heavy D8 or larger crawler tractor and ripper tooth.
A 10-second reduction in loading time could result in an hourly gain
of 30 metres; this would more than cover the cost of the tractor and
ripper.
LOADING SHOVEL, TRACKED OR WHEELED
For mass excavation these machines have the following disadvantages:
(a) Shovel crowd force depends on tractive effort overground, i.e.
limited traction, low digging force.
(b) They tend to damage excavated surface.
Advantages include these:
(a) They can dig and transport over short distances.
(b) They can undertake moderate oversite excavating.
(c) They can back up excavator operation by loading into haul units
that which the excavator has dug, particularly when access to the
dig is difficult.
(d) They can dig and load into transport for long hauls. Both wheeled
and track versions are used for shallow basement digging, loading
directly into haul unit. With a 4-in-l bucket particularly versatile,
as it may be used as a loading shovel, a dozer, a clamshell and a
grading machine.
Note Analyses have shown that optimum economy is obtained when
the match between haul truck and loading shovel is between 3 and 4
to 1. Loads from very large buckets may damage the truck body or
suspension.
Maximum output is achieved when the shovel is digging at a face of
which the reasonable maximum height is 3 metres -for higher faces a
series of benches must be used.
On UK sites the most commonly found loading shovel size is 1 to 1%
cubic metres.
EXCAVATOR
Face shovel Primarily used on high (6 metres plus) hard faces as
the geometry of the design allows high pressures to be imparted to the
bucket cutting edge. Very useful for handling difficult materials,
e.g. blasted rock. Haul units move to excavator for loading and the
matching is as important as for the loading shovel. Often used in
conjunction with large wheeled shovels fitted with rock buckets in
quarries.
Dragline Used for large open excavations where the ground is too
wet for dozers or scrapers. It can "stand off" the job because of the
long reach of the boom and dig under water and is particularly suited
to dump adjacent to the excavation but away from the edge. It can dig
below the level of its track effectively to about 55% of the boom length.
As the depth of the dig increases, so does the cycle time and the
output will fall. In any event output will be approximately 10% lower
than the face shovel of equal bucket capacity. Operator control on the
rope-operated dragline is more difficult because of the imprecise
bucket movements.
Grab Most suitable for deep holes below track level for pier found-
ations, etc. or for removing earth dumped by loading shovel digging
say a basement. For hard digs the grab mounted on the hydraulic
excavator is to be preferred, as approximately half the excavator
weight can be transferred to the bucket teeth. Digging depths are of
the order of 7.5 metres with the 0.5 cubic metre machine to about
12 metres with the largest hydraulic machine. Rope operated grabs can
operate at greater depths but control is difficult.
Backacter or backhoe Nowadays these are mostly hydraulically
powered and operated so they may be accurately positioned and
controlled when operating. They are particularly useful on a restricted
site. When used for basement digs there is a real risk of edge collapse
and toppling of the excavator, and this even on good ground usually
limits the depth of dig to 3 metres.
Haul road maintenance
GRADER
The best machine for this task.
DOZER
Angle blade should be used.
SCRAPER
May be used if grader or dozer is not available.
Trenching
MULTI-BUCKET TRENCHER
Continuous in operation, specialised in design and application only
justifiable economically for long continuous trenches for water or
electric mains, etc.
EXCAVATOR BACKHOE
180" or 360' models, wheeled or tracked, these are versatile machines
in that they may be used in other roles, e.g. craneage, when not dig-
ging. Selection will depend on volume to be moved per hour, restrict-
ions improved by timbering method of soil disposal but in view of the
time the machine is likely to stand idle, the smallest machine meeting
the requirements should be selected.
MACHINE OUTPUT ESTIMATION
The task in terms of material volume, swell factor, weight per cubic
metre, the tip area in terms of location, route and route condition,
configuration and accessibility, the start/finish times and time avail-
able having been clearly defined. The machines which could, following
a study of the preliminary selection criteria, carry out the task having
been identified, the next stage is the determination of the output
required of the machine selected to complete the task in the time
available. Bank cubic metres (BCM) should be converted using the
swell factor into loose cubic metres (LCM) and divided by the working
hours planned for the operation allowing in the calculation at some
stage a time reserve for unforeseen contingencies, e.g. breakdown,
abnormal weather conditions, etc. Thus the LCM per hour required to
be excavated and tipped may be established.
The plant items or combinations of items which may carry out the
operation, always with the fact in mind that within limits, the larger
the capacity of the plant which can be used the lower the cost of the
operation is likely to be, may then be considered for their probable
output in the conditions prevailing. This estimation must take account
of all the factors that may affect the output particularly the operating
conditions, terrain formation, operator efficiency and the job efficiency
(or inefficiency). The machine outputs estimated must then be com-
pared with that required to complete the task in time.
MACHINE MATCHING
Logical selection requires that the machine selected should match

(where applicable) the work rate of the work force that will work
with it. For example, a hydraulic excavator of capacity such that most
of its time on site is idle because of its incompatability with the rate of
drain laying activity will have been wrongly selected. Additionally,
it is equally important that the plant selected should match the other
plant on site with which it will work. The loading height of the tracked/
wheeled loader should cope easily with the body side height of the haul
trucks.
The implications of hiring-in a machine with a high output are shown
in the following example:
Example Suppose a company owns six 5 cubic metre tipper trucks

and hires in a crawler loader with a probable output of 250 loose
cubic metres per hour and does not want to hire in additional
tippers, what is the implication? The crawler loader output 250
cubic metres and tipper truck capacity 5 cubic metres, then 250 + 5,
i.e. 50 truck loads per hour, will be required to cart full probable
output of loader: 60 minutes i 50 loads allows 1.2 minute
maximum cycle time. An examination of the manufacturer's data or
past experience shows that the cycle time to load and haul from a
bank in the site conditions envisaged for the crawler loader selected
is 1.5 minutes. A cycle time of 1.5 minutes permits 60 + 1.5 = 40
cycles, each cycle representing 5 cubic metres carted, therefore the
hourly haul capacity of 200 cubic metres is a mismatch with the out-
put of the loader.
The implication therefore for "machine matching" is that a more

powerful loader is required giving a lower cycle time or, as is probably
to be preferred, a machine of larger capacity.
OUTPUT COSTING
Having determined the machines or machine groups that could
adequately and safely carry out the task, the hourly owning/operating
cost or hire cost for each equipment or equipment group should be
divided by the estimated hourly output, for example given a hire cost
of £10 and an output of l00 cubic metres per hour, then the cost per
metre moved is
£10.00
loo = lop per cubic metre.
A comparison of production costs can be made and the most econom-

ical machine selected.
77
SELECTION IN PRACTICE
As was stated at the beginning of this chapter on the selection activity,

the end result must justify the effort involved. As an example of the
benefit of the application of the logical selection method in the most
elementary fashion consider the following problem.
Example It is required to determine the relative cost per cubic metre

to excavate and spread soil where cut and tip areas are 200, 400,
600 and 800 metres apart respectively using:
(a) a crawler tractor towed scraper 14 metre struck capacity.

or
(b) a crawler loader (1.4 cubic metre bucket) and sufficient 5%
cubic metre tipper trucks.
The method chosen was to use the manufacturer's output graphs.

modified by estimated factors for swell, efficiency, operator, etc.;
to determine the probable hourly output; and to use the current hire
cost as the hourly cost. From these the cost per cubic metre moved
was estimated for the four haul distances specified. The figures were
plotted on a graph. (Fig. 32).
5Or
I
0L l l I
200 400 600 800
Metres -one way haul distance
Fig. 32. Operating cost graph-scraper loader and haul units

From the graph even this elementary exercise demonstrates
in the situation considered appreciable cost savings using the
scraper up to 600 metres and substantial additional costs using
it for a haul distance greater than 600 metres. The selection
exercise took an hour; the results could save a company many
hundreds of pounds.
The system whereby construction plant is regularly serviced and
repaired varies from company to company. The responsibility for the
care of the plant on site can be completely, partially or in no way that of
the site agent or manager. Variations in types of construction activity,
levels of activity and plant also tend to determine the particular system
operated.
The inescapable fact is that, unless there is a recognised system with
controls and designated areas of responsibility, the condition of the
plant will rapidly deteriorate, leading to inefficient operation, un-
planned breakdowns, idle site staff and inevitably increased costs.
THE TECHNICAL REASONS FOR MAINTENANCE
(a) Engine oil in time becomes contaminated with acids, carbon

particles and dirt, filters become choked and both oil and filters
require changing.
(b) Engine air-cleaners have an important role in prolonging engine
life; they filter air entering the cylinders, removing grit and dust
particles. Without the filter, piston ring and bore wear would be
rapid. Again, filters become choked and need replacing. If filters
are not cleaned or replaced when necessary the flow of air into the
engine will be restricted, and the engine output reduced.
(c) Bearings under load squeeze out the grease film between rubbing
surfaces so this must be replaced. Various forms of automatic or
semi-automatic lubrication systems have been tried but none have
yet proved completely reliable for site equipment and it is
essential that grease is replaced manually.
(d) Machine output is very much affected by its lubrication and
physical state. Unlubricated rubbing surfaces offer resistance to
motion and consume power. Pneumatic tools without an oil bottle
in the line or tool run slower and produce less. A mud-packed
crawler tractor is slowed by the extra weight of the mud, cycle
times increase and production is lost. Mixer hoppers, if caked with
hard concrete, produce less mix per cycle, etc.
FORMS OF MAINTENANCE
Two descriptions or titles are commonly given to maintenance
systems: these are preventative maintenance and planned mainten-
ance, but before defining these terms it is necessary to state that a
truly effective maintenance system must combine the features of both.
Preventative maintenance
Preventative maintenance originated in the aircraft industry where, to
reduce the risk of mechanical failure in flight, components or assem-
blies were replaced at predetermined intervals, e.g. an engine with a
declared flight life of 1000 hours would be replaced after 1000 hours
flying time and then overhauled, tested and held in store for future
installation. The life of components or assemblies selected for replace-
ment would be based initially on bench tests or previous performance
and increased as experience in service was gained. It can be seen that
this expensive form of maintenance, i.e. replacing before failure has
occurred, has greatly reduced the risk of failure in flight.
The consequences of component or assembly failure in construction
plant are unlikely to be anywhere near as catastrophic as a failure in an
aircraft, hence a full preventative maintenance system whereby com-
ponents or assemblies are changed after a fixed life is very rarely used
in the construction industry. One known example, however, is that
where the transmission unit of a large batching plant is changed after
18 months' service because experience has shown that after this period
the risks of sudden failure are high.
The term preventative maintenance in the construction industry
is usually applied to those inspection, adjustment or tightening
routines which experience has taught need to be done at prescribed
intervals if a premature failure is to be prevented. Examples could
include clutch adjustments, brake adjustments, wheel-nut tightening,
track tensioning and rope inspection. It is in this form that preventative
routines are normally used in construction plant maintenance. The
classic example of preventative maintenance practised by most
motorists is the changing of spark plugs after 10000 vehicle miles.
By making this change even though the engine is running perfectly
the risk of engine failure is appreciably reduced and the expenditure
therefore justified.
Planned maintenance
The term planned maintenance is usually applied to those activities

which are not strictly preventative by nature but which are necessary
to ensure the continued and efficient running of the plant. Under this
heading will be included operator servicing, site mechanic servicing
and repair and plant depot inspection and repair. Some planned
maintenance activities are preventative in that without them the risk
of failure is increased, but the planned maintenance routines should be
regarded as those which by reducing friction between moving parts
ensure the machine is working at its maximum efficiency.
INSPECTION
An essential component of any maintenance scheme is regular inspect-
ion. Such inspection should be carried out not less than monthly,
preferably by a full-time trained inspector and the results of the
inspection reported back to the depot manager. The report should be
written and follow a prescribed format covering the following:
the mechanical state of the machine;

repairs likely to arise soon;
the lubrication state and cleanliness of the machine;
the location of the plant;
the condition under which the plant is operating, e.g. terrain,
soil conditions, etc. ;
possibly the hours run.
Whether or not a full-time inspector is employed will, of course,

depend on the quantity of plant to be maintained. Large firms may
employ two or more inspectors, small firms will be unable to carry
a full-time inspector and the inspection function must be carried out
by a member of the staff in addition to other duties. It is possible
to combine the functions of major servicings, i.e. oil, filter changes,
etc., preventative maintenance and equipment inspection. All these
activities could be carried out by a mobile van-mounted mechanic.
It is most important that the mechanic carrying out these tasks under-
takes only absolutely essential repairs on site: if this aspect is not
watched and he is allowed to become embroiled in extensive repair
tasks, then his role of inspector and trouble-shooter will not be filled.
I Inspection reports
It is fair to examine what use can be made of the information contained

in the plant inspection report. The following may form a guide:
l
(a) Machine deployment may be decided, e.g. if a machine is work-

ing a hard, rocky site and is, in consequence, rapidly deteriora-
ing, it may be advisable to switch that machine to an easier site,
thus prolonging its life before the next depot repair.
The condition of the depot plant fleet is known, it is on record
readily available to the depot manager, and thus plant replace-
ment policies for new contracts can be more accurately
formulated.
Safety aspects are better covered, operator hazards or machine
defects will have been noted on the report and swift remedial
action can be taken. The availability of such a report and a
record of subsequent action would reflect well on the depot in
cases of accidents involving machines and men.
Spares requirements can be identified before failure occurs
and spares can be ordered in advance. This should result in a
reduction in the quantity of spares held in the depot.
Depot workshop load can be better planned; not completely
planned - that is an impossible achievement - but the
likelihood of having several extensive repair jobs in the depot
workshop at one time can be reduced.
The standard of operator servicing can be checked and if daily
routine services are not being carried out, and machine cleanli-
ness is poor, then action can be taken to improve this
situation.
ROUTINE LUBRICATION SERVICING
All construction plant needs frequent periodic lubrication servicing or

adjustment. In general, most construction plant requires daily, weekly
and monthly specified services and the manner in which these servic-
ings are effected varies according to company policy, organisation
and, sometimes, location. The likely possibilities are:
(a) the operator/driver does all the plant servicing;

(b) the operator/driver does daily and weekly servicings only, the
monthly or major servicings being done by a site-based or mobile
mechanic;
(c) the daily servicing only is done by the driver/operator, all other
servicings being done by a mechanic;
(d) a greaser is employed full-time on site to carry out all servicing
routines.
Operators/drivers are normally paid time for cleaning and servicing

their machines; some companies claim that with proper instruction
their operators/drivers carry out all the servicing routines efficiently
and well. In general, however, companies express dissatisfaction with
the way in which operator servicing is carried out. The reason for this
dissatisfaction is compounded of problems of unsatisfactory operators,
difficulty of access to the machines, care of lubricating equipment on
site and the provision of correct lubricants and containers.
The most satisfactory system would seem to be that the operator/
driver is concerned only with daily and weekly servicings, i.e. minor
servicings, the monthly or major servicings being effected by a site-
based or mobile mechanic.
Servicing records and control
Most depots hold sufficient plant to warrant the establishment of a

servicing record and control system. A procedure needs to be
established whereby machine usage, actual or estimated, is passed
to the person controlling maintenance, to be recorded on a chart or
card control system allowing the identification of the required major
servicing. This systematic approach is to be preferred to placing
reliance on the operatorldriver drawing attention to the need for a
major service; it also allows for flexibility where more than one site is
involved, as variations can be made to the servicing period to reduce
the travel of the mobile mechanics between sites. Wall charts are
available free from some of the leading oil companies, but in any event
their construction, to show machine description and identification
number on the left and the servicing period time scale horizontally
across the chart, is very simple (see Fig. 33).
Fig, 33. Example of inspection/servicing control chart
Notes Symbots
Schedule to be drawn up at least X Indicates major or monthly X2 Figwe by theside of X notes
'monthly in advance and more service due. Detail of service specialservice needed, e.g. new
usually six-monthly when contracts contained in appropriate engine service, compressor oil
or hire period allows. schedule. and filter change.
@ Circle round cross indicates X Blacked out indicates machine
inspecnonlmamrenance carried in depot.
out.
Rationalisation of lubricants
Construction plant often consists of many proprietary items, e.g.

pumps, power units, rams, motors, etc., each accompanied by the
manufacturer's own recommendations as to the type of maintenance
lubricant or fluid to be used. The resulting miscellany of lubricant
and fluid requirements for any one plant item can, in consequence,
be quite expensive.
Leading oil companies will carry out, without charge, a survey of the
lubricant and hydraulic fluid requirements for the plant of any type.
Following this survey the oil company will recommend its own grades
of lubricants or fluids which will satisfactorily replace those recom-
mended by the various manufacturers. The resulting list is always
considerably shorter than the original manufacturer's recommend-
ations, and this exercise considerably reduces stores holdings and
simplifies storage provision and the problems of carrying out on-site
plant servicing.
Provision of filters
When a proper servicing record and control system is used, it is

possible to provide to the workshop section or mobile mechanics
details of the equipment to be serviced, the date the service is due
and possibly, but not invariably, the present location of the plant,
although this latter information may need rechecking with the plant
hire controller just prior to the day for the service. This information
will enable the mechanic's van to be provisioned with the necessary
lubricants, fluids, gaskets, filters, etc. in advance, thus ensuring these
items are available as required. If a limited range of plant is held it
may be possible to keep a small stock of these items in the van,
replenishing this stock weekly from the depot store. Records must be
maintained of the fuel and lubricant usage to enable a complete picture
of the performance of the plant to be finally built up.
INTEGRATED SYSTEM OF SERVICING AND PREVENTATIVE

MAINTENANCE
It is possible to combine a good plant servicing system, i.e. where
trained mechanics do the major servicing, with a planned/preventative
maintenance system. If schedules are made out for each type of
machine listing the major servicing tasks and preventative mainten-
ance tasks, these will form the basis for an integrated maintenance
scheme.
The scheme envisaged would be:
(a) daily and weekly plant servicing on site carried out by a properly
briefed plant operator/driver;
(b) monthly servicings on site carried out by, or under the supervisior
of, a mobile or site-based mechanic, instructions for the servicingf
to be contained on the appropriate plant schedule;
(c) service record and control system to forecast the dates wher
major or monthly servicings fall due, allowing depot stores sectior
to make up maintenance material packs in advance (Fig. 33);
(d) preventative maintenance routines carried out when the month13
servicing is effected in. accordance with the plant schedule
(see Fig. 34);
(e) plant to be inspected by the mechanic whilst carrying out 01
overseeing the servicing or preventative maintenance routines
the plant state to be recorded on the reverse of the schedule oi
on an inspection report (see Fig. 34);
(f) schedules/report to be returned a s soon as possible to the plant 01
maintenance manager to allow the necessary follow-up action
e.g. stores ordering,replacement of the machine, repairs on site
or repairs in the depot.
Fig. 34. Example of servicing and maintenance schedule
SERVICING AND MAINTENANCE SCHEDULE FOR

WR 85,125 AND 250 COMPRESSORS
MACHINE NO. ......... DATE OF MAINTENANCE ............ HOUR METER READING .... ..
MONTHLY SERVICING SCHEDULE REMARKS
1. Top up batteries and clean and grease terminals.
2. Clean air filter and renew element.
3. Clean out engine bath air cleaner, refill with oil XYZ.
4. Inspect radiator and oil cooler matrix, clean if necessarywith
compressed air.
5. Change engine oil using oil XYZ, every three months only.
6. Change engine oil filter.
7. Change compressor oil Every six months only, note
using oil XYZ. as special
8. Change compressor oil filter. Iservice on control sheet.
9 . Change fuel pump cambox oil, use oil XYZ.
10. Change fuel filter every three months. Note as special service.
11. Change reclaimer pads if oily mist is passing through air delivery valve.
12. Check coolant Nfreeze solution (winter only).
MONTHLY PREVENTATIVE MAINTENANCE SCHEDULE

13. Check compressor safety valve operation 110 Ib p.s.i.
14. Check tappets. Inlet: 012. Exhaust: 014.
15. Check engine on-off load speed control 1875 r.p.m.
16. Check and record compression output with orifice tester.
17. Check and adjust if necessary fan belt plus or minus V 2 inch midpoint
longest span.
18. Check and clean out fuel lift pump.
19. Check charging system IS functionmg correctly.
20. Check all gauges and instruments work normal running temp. 175"-185'.
MANUFACTURERS' DATA
In the preceding pages many references have been made and data
quoted from publications of the Caterpillar Tractor and J C Bamford
Organisations. In the main, manufacturers' publications are the most
freely available and most frequently used sources of plant performance
information but caution must always be exercised in applying the
figures quoted. It is not suggested that the figures are in any why
inaccurate but they are usually produced by first-class operatofs,
using machines in first-class condition under selected conditions for
short intensive periods, not the conditions that normally obtain on site;
hence the need for the operator and job efficiency and other factors to
translate the outputs into probable site figures. The best information is
that which a company acquires from its own operations and the larger
construction companies in the United Kingdom are using work study
techniques to acquire accurate information and to improve the
performance on site of plant, which may represent up to 25% of the
cost of a construction contract.
No standard method of drafting machine specifications as yet
obtains and when comparing one machine specification with another,
like may not be compared with like. For example, some manQfact-
urers give the digging depth of a backacter as the lowest point reach-
able with the bucket teeth; a few minutes' thought will serve to show
what little relationship this dimension has with a practicable depth of
dig. Again, checks have shown on occasions that quoted bucket
capacities have been optimistic. All of the foregoing comments serve
to justify the stated need for caution.
Machine performance information is available from other sources.
For example, the periodical Construction Plant and Equipment
publishes reports of supervised tests on machines, and the Federation
of Manufacturers of Construction Equipment publishes reports of
tests on construction plant carried out for them. These reports are
available for a small charge.
COMPUTER FACILITIES
It is difficult today to find people who are content to spend long periods
maintaining and analysing records. In the smaller companies cash
availability usually precludes the full-time employment of a clerk for
this task and the volume of work involved is not really likely t~ justify
it. Recently, greater use has been made of computers to carry out a
good deal of the more routine drudgery associated with record-
keeping. At least one computer bureau is offering a packaged deal
which covers the adaptation of a standard programme to a company's
particular needs and then sells computer time for the production of
detailed analyses of the records. The advantages of such a system are
very obvious. Analyses can be made extremely quickly and the results
presented in a tidy, easily readable, permanent form. Monthly totals
of plant utilisation and costs can be had a week after the month's end.
Clerical effort is still required to transfer the information from various
sources on to the computer input sheets, but the master file of equip-
ment held, which covers all the original information, can be amended
and reprinted extremely quickly and simply.
The following reports may be rapidly provided using a computer:
(a) plant charges to site/contract;

(b) idle plant list;
(c) plant location update;
(d) plant utilisation report;
(e) maintenance cost breakdown;
(f) plant cost analysis;
(g) analysis of purchases and disposals.
Alternatively, if the construction company has its own computer

a standard plant programme may be adapted for it, or a programme
prepared specifically for the company's needs.
PLANT TRAINING
The Industrial Training Act 1964 highlighted the need for a major
improvement in the quantity and quality of training in the major
industries. In spite of a somewhat shaky start, boards have been
established in the major industries and the Construction Industry
Training Board is the one specifically charged with the task of
improving training within the construction industry.
So far as training connected with construction plant is concerned,
the major developments have been:
(a) the formalisation and improvement of mechanic training;
(b) the establishment of courses for plant technicians;
(c) the establishment of a plant operator school;
(d) the development of plant management courses.
The Training Board is an asset, heavily financed by the industry, which

is really too good to be ignored. It has a proven track record of success
and any engineer concerned with the operation or management
of plant would be well advised to take advantage of the courses
offered. Mention must be made also of the operator and mechanic
training courses offered by most of the leading manufacturers, usually
free - if you buy one of their machines.
CONCLUSION
If this book has opened the door to a better understanding of the
selection, use, control and costing of earthmoving plant and encour-
aged the reader to seek further information about specific areas, then
its aim will have been achieved.
APPENDIX: SO E USEFUL TA
AND DATA
PLANT REQUIREMENT CHART
The determination of the plant required for a number of contracts,

some running concurrently and some consecutively, is aided by the
preparation of a simple bar chart of the following pattern.
The machine type is in the left hand column and the plant identifi-
cation number in the adjacent column, a calendar time scale along
the top in weekly divisions. Contract plant requirements are shown as
a horizontal line, the beginning of the line indicating the starting date
of the operation and the end of the line thc estimated completion
date.
Note Figure in brackets (2) indicates number required if more that

one. The plant requirement at any time may be quickly determined b!
noting the number of lines under any particular date or time period
For example, during the third week in February four crawler loader:
will be required. With this knowledge, the decision can be made tc
hire in to meet the shortfall or to replan the particular operation for onc
of the contracts.
SWELL AND LOAD FACTORS
Note The weight and load factor will vary with such factors as grain size,
moisture content, degree of compaction, etc. A test must be made to deter-
mine an exact material characteristic.
-L c E f
b-1b-<
l b per Swell Load l b per
Material cu yd bank (70) factor cu yd loose
Clay, natural bed
Clay and gravel:

dry
wet
Clay, natural bed:

anthracite
bituminous
Earth, loam:
dry
wet
Gravel, ?AI in-2 in:

dry
wet
Iron ore:
magnetite
pyrite
hematite
Limestone
Sand:
dry, loose
wet, packed
Sandstone
Trap rock
CONVERSION OF METRIC AND US WEIGHTS AND MEASURES
Measurements of length
Miles X 1.6093 - Kilometres

Yards X 0.9144 Metres
Feet X 0.3048 Metres
Feet X 30.48 -
- Centimetres
Inches X 2.54 - Centimetres
Inches X 25.4 - Millimetres
Kilometres Miles
Kilometres Yards
Kilometres Feet
Metres Yards,
Metres Feet
Metres Inches
Centimetres Inches
Millimetres Inches
Measurements of area
Sq Mile X 2.59 - Sq Kilometres

Acres X 0.00405 Sq Kilometres
Acres X 0.4047 Hectares
Sq Yards X 0.8361 - Sq Metres
Sq Feet X 0.0920 - Sq Metres
Sq Inches X 6.452 - Sq Centimetres
Sq Inches X 645.2 - Sq Millimetres
Sq Kilometres X 0.3861 -
- Sq Miles
Sq Kilometres X 247.11 - Acres
Hectares X 2.471 Acres
Sq Metres X 1.196 - Sq Yards
Sq Metres X 10.764 - Sq Feet
Sq Centimetres X 0.155 - Sq Inches
Sq Millimetres X 0.00155 - Sq Inches
Measurements of volume
Cu Yards X 0.765 - Cu Metres

Cu Feet X 0.0283 - Cu Metres
Cu Inches X 16.383 - Cu Centimetres
Cu Metres X 1.308 - Cu Yards

Cu Metres X 35.3145 - Cu Feet
Cu Centimetres X 0.06102 - Cu Inches
Liquid measure
US Gals X 0.833 -
- Imp Gals
Imp Gals X 1.2009 - US Gals
3.785 -
- Litres
Gallons X
Qts X 0.946 Litres
-
Litres X 0.2642 - Gals
Litres l .OS7
-
- Qts
X
Measures of weight
-
Pounds X 0.453 - Kilograms
-
Kilograms X 2.2046 - Pounds
TRAVEL TIME IN MINUTES/TRAVEL DISTANCE IN FEET
Speed Time (mins)
(m.p.h.)
100 ft. 200 ft.
1.136 2.275
0.568 1.136
0..779 0.758
0.284 0.568
0.227 0.454
0.189 0.3'8
0.162 0.324
0.142 0.284
0.126 0.252
0.114 0.227
0.103 0.206
0.095 0.189
0.087 0.174
0.081 0.162
0.076 0.152
0.065 0.129
0.057 0.1 l 3
0.050 0.101
0.045 0.090
Example To estimate time required to travel 550 feet at 6.0 m.p.h. first
establish time for 500 ft at 6.0 m.p.h. = 0.95
50 ft = % of time for 100 ft at 6.0 m.p.h. = 0.09
Total = 1.04 minutes
Answer: 1.04 min travel time for 550 ft at 6 m.p.h.

GRADE CONVERSION
Per cent Per cent Degrees

or into into
degrees degrees per cent
VOLUME OF MATERIAL IN PILES

Volume (cu yds) of a free-standing stockpile with circular base, for a given
height and angle of repose. (Volume= % height X base area.)
Angle of repose
Height
(ft) 20' 25' 30' 35' 45'
APPROXIMATE WEIGHTS OF MATERIALS
Note These weights are given in pounds per cubic yard and are only approx-
imate, varying with moisture content, chemical composition and source.
Loose In-place
weight weight
Material (lb/cu yd) (Ib/cu yd)
Aluminium ore (Bauxite)

Ashes (Coal)
Barium ore (Barite)
Borax
Brick
Caliche
Cement (Portland)
Chalk
Charcoal:
Pine
Oak
Coal
Chat (Mine tailings)
Cinders:
Blast furnace
Coal
Coal :
Anthracite
Bituminous
Lignite
Peat
Coke
Concrete:
Cinder
Gravel
Limestone
Sandstone
Dolomite
Earth:
Clay
Diatomaceous
Gravel-clay
Gravel (pit run)
Gravel-sand
Loam
Sand
Material Loose In-place
weight weight
(Ib/cu yd) (lb/cu yd)
Feldspar
Gneiss
Granite
Gypsum
Ice
Iron ore (Hermatite)
Limonite
Magnetite
Pyrites
Taconite
Kaolinite
Limestone
Marble
Mar1
Mud
Phosphate rock
Porphyry
Potash
Pumice
Riprap rock-average
Rock salt
Sandstone
Shale
Slag:
Furnace
Ground (?hin.)
Crushed
Snow
Sulphur
Talc
Trap rock
INDEX
Administrative costs, 63-64 Face shovel, 14-16

Altitude, power loss due to, 56 Filters, maintenance of, 84
Attachments for crawler loader, 8 Fixed costs, 58-64
Backwater: see Loader/backhoe as cost element, 63-64
Backhoe: see Loader/backhoe maintenance, 82-84
Blades for bulldozer, 6
Bucket fill factor (output estimation), 39 Grab: see Clamshell
Buckets Grade resistance, 53
dragline, 13-14 conversion table, 94
excavator, l 8 Grader, 26-27
Bulldozer, 4-6 Gradient, effect on output, 34
Capital employed, cost of, 62-63 Haul road maintenance, 50,76

Clamshell, 15-16 Hire/buy considerations, 68-71
hydraulic, 18 Hydraulic excavator, 17-20
Coefficient of traction, 55
Computer, use in record analysis, 87 Inflation, effect on costing, 68-69
Costing, 57-69 Inspection maintenance, 81-82
Crawler loader, 6-9
Cycle times Loader: see Crawler loader; Wheeled
crawler loader, 35-36 loader
scraper, 49 Loader/backhoe, 11-12
wheeled loader, 39 Low-cost plant, costing of, 69
Depreciation, 58-62 Machine condition, effect on output, 30

Depth of cut (dragline), 44-46 Maintenance, 79-84
Dragline, 12-14, 16 as cost element, 65
Manufacturers' data, use of, 33,86-87
Excavation, plant selection for, 73-75 Materials, table of weights, 95
Excavator
hydraulic, 17-19 Operating conditions, effect on
rope-operated, 12-16 output, 29
Operator Safety: see Stability and safety
costs, 66 Scraper, 20-25
fatigue, 47 Selection, 72-78
training, 47, 88 Servicing, 82-85
Output Slew angle (excavator), 46
bulldozer, 5,33-34 Soil classification, 51
clamshell, 16 Soil swell. 28, 90
costing, 77 Stability and safety
crawler loader, 8, 35-36 bulldozer, 5
dragline, 16, 4 4 4 6 crawler loader, 8
estimation of, 76 grader, 26
face shovel, 16 hydraulic excavator, 19
factors affecting, 28-31 loader/backhoe, l 2
grader, 27 rope-operated excavator, 16
hydraulic excavator, 19,46-48 scraper, 22
loader/backhoe, l 2 wheeled loader, l 0
rope-operated excavator, 16 Straight line method of
scraper, 22-24,48 depreciation, 58-59
wheeled loader, 10,39-41 Stripping topsoil, plant selection
for, 73
Planned maintenance, 80-81 Task identification (plant

Plant requirement chart, 89 selection), 72-73
Plant selection: see Selection Terrain formation, effect on
Preventative maintenance, 80 output, 29-30
Push loading of scraper, 25 Topsoil stripping, plant
selection for, 75
Traction, coefficient of, 55
Reappraisal method of Training, 47, 87-88
depreciation, 58-59 Travel time/dista~lcetable, 93
Reports, maintenance, 81 Trenching, plant selection for, 76
Rimpull, 53-54
Rolling resistance, 51, 54 Wheeled loader, 9-10, 39-41
Rope-operated excavator: see Dragline Wheeled loader/backhoe: see
Routine lubricatjon servicing, 82-84 Loaderlbackhoe

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AN INTRODUCTION TO ITS SELECTION, OPERATION AND COSTING

First published 1980

Typesetting by Cambridgeshire Life Limited, St. Ives,

Note on units of measurement iv

Earthmoving plant -description and characteristics 4

Factors affecting the output of earthmoving plant 28

Estimating the output of earthmoving plant 33

Tracks or wheels -some practical considerations 51

Construction plant costing 57

Appendix: Some useful tables and data 89

~qufppedwith a push plate it may be used-with good effect for push

The Cushion (C) blade is used primarily on the larger commercial

The lighter machines may be lowered by crane into a basement

Crane attachment - within the

Capacity and outputs

Fig. 9. Wheeled louder

THE WHEELED LOADER/BACKHOE

Fin. 10. Wheeled loader/backhoe k

THE ROPE-OPERATED EXCAVATOR [DRAGLINE]

Drag clevis Drag chain Drag rope

Ditch Digging Bucket

r use with very sticky clays, etc

Note: Depending on the type of bucket, side curt er.^ can

Fig. 17. Scraper

Fig. 19. Self-propelled,

Variable cycle time - Distance travelled in metres

If available for the particular machine considered, Time/distance

Number of scrapers assisted - Scraper cycle time

These curves are obtained from field studies under specified

From the graph:

Output under conditions specified for an 80-metre doze = 250

Output lost for hard conditions 250 X 0.08 = 20.0

Output lost for average operator 250 X

Total loss 45.0 LCM

Output per 60-minute hour = 250 - 45 = 205 LCM

Output corrected for job efficiency factor = 50 X 205 = 170 appra

Therefore, probable output = 170 Loose Cubic Metre per hour

The cycle time has two principal elements:

(a) 30 seconds for power-shift transmission crawler loaders;

Fig. 25. Dig and loading optimum position

If the material Leing dug is large rocks, boulders, roots or broken

(a) Arithmetical calculation.

88 feet per minute = 1mile per hour

Example Determine the travel time for a crawler loader travelling at

Travel time (total) = 100 X 2 = 0.76 minutes or 45 seconds

0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 Feet

Example A Caterpillar 955K Track Type Loader travels 30 metres in

(a) soil swell, which has already been covered in Chapter 2;

Cycle Time fixed and travel time

Cycles per hour = 60 min

Cycles per hour corrected for job efficiency factor

= 64 cycles per hour.

Output per cycle:

Capacity of bucket 1.37 cubic metres

= 1.1 cubic metres

Output per hour = Output per cycle X number of cycles (corrected)

Bucket fill factor

One more factor needs to be understood and noted when estimating

WHEELED LOADER OUTPUT

Probable output calculation

Table l . EfSect of different materials on loader output

Material Output tons Number of Average load Percentage

3/16 in. Grit Sand 578 139 4.2 100%

These figures confirm the need to anticipate a reduction in bucket