HOW TO IMPROVE CHANGE-OF-DIRECTION SPEED IN
JUNIOR TEAM SPORT ATHLETES—HORIZONTAL,
VERTICAL, MAXIMAL, OR EXPLOSIVE STRENGTH
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TRAINING?
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SEBASTIAN KELLER, ANDRÉ KOOB, DINO CORAK, VALERIAN
DENNIS-PETER BORN
Integrative and Experimental Exercise Science, Institute for Sport Sciences, University of Wuerzburg, Wuerzburg, Germany
ABSTRACT
Keller, S, Koob, A, Corak, D, von Schöning, V, and Born, DP.
How to improve change-of-direction speed in junior team sport
athletes—Horizontal, vertical, maximal, or explosive strength
training? J Strength Cond Res 34(2): 473–482, 2020—The
purpose of the study was to compare the effects of 4 different
training methods on change-of-direction (COD) speed in junior
team sport athletes. Specifically, we investigated whether hor-
izontal load training incorporating lateral acceleration and
deceleration would induce superior performance adaptations
with respect to COD speed, compared with common vertically
oriented maximal strength (squats and deadlifts), explosive
strength (power clean and high pull), and vertical jumping ex-
ercises. Male U15 team sport athletes (n = 45) were assigned
to 1 of 4 groups and performed 2 intervention training sessions
per week for 4 weeks, in addition to their usual sport-specific
training. Before and after the training period, COD speed,
countermovement and drop jump heights, 1-legged lateral
jump, and standing long jump performance were assessed.
All 4 training groups improved COD speed (p # 0.01, effect
size [ES] $1.35). Countermovement and 1-legged lateral jump
performance improved with the horizontal load (p , 0.01, ES =
0.81 and p , 0.01, ES = 1.36), maximal (p = 0.01, ES = 0.56
and p , 0.01, ES = 1.14), and explosive strength training (p ,
0.01, ES = 0.95 and p , 0.01, ES = 1.60, respectively). The
standing long jump improved with the maximal (p , 0.01, ES =
1.14) and explosive strength training (p , 0.01, ES = 0.60). In
conclusion, all 4 training methods improved the COD speed in
junior U15 team sport athletes. These findings emphasize the
importance of well-developed lower-body strength and power,
which contribute to fast COD speed. From a practical perspec-
tive, conditioning programs for junior athletes can incorporate
Address correspondence to Sebastian Keller, sebo.keller@gmail.com.
34(2)/473–482
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research
Ó 2018 National Strength and Conditioning Association
Copyright © 2018 National Strength and Conditioning Association. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
VON SCHÖNING, AND
horizontally and vertically oriented exercises with similar effec-
tiveness on COD speed.
KEY WORDS deadlift, heavy strength training, high pull, lateral
jump, power clean, squat
INTRODUCTION
M
any team sports are characterized by short
sprints and frequent change-of-direction
(COD) movements (2,8,21,36). In soccer, for
instance, 95% of the sprints cover less than
10 m, and 76% cover less than 5 m (8). Moreover, players
perform on average 726 COD movements per game (2).
Elite handball players perform about 1 COD movement
per minute as well as other frequent accelerations and decel-
erations (21). In basketball, lateral movements predominate,
with 450 per game on average (36). Although these studies
show characteristic differences between sports, they also
underscore the general importance of multidirectional and
COD movements in team sports.
Despite the well-investigated complexity of COD move-
ments in team sports, there is some debate among condi-
tioning coaches and scientists on how best to improve COD
speed. An early review concluded that only minor improve-
ments of COD speed can be achieved with traditional
weight lifting programs incorporating bilateral squats, verti-
cal jumps, and Olympic lifts (3). Instead, unilateral strength
and power exercises and explosive lateral movements, such
as horizontal jumps, were recommended (3). In one recent
study, back squats and plyometric jumping exercise im-
proved linear sprint performance, but not COD speed in elite
soccer players (9). In another study, horizontal but not ver-
tical drop jumps substantially improved the COD speed of
elite handball players after 10 weeks of training (11).
Although elite and professional athletes tend not to
benefit from traditional weight lifting programs, strength
and power seem to be positively related to COD speed in
VOLUME 34 | NUMBER 2 | FEBRUARY 2020 | 473
 Change-of-Direction Speed
recreational team sport players (24,30). For example, vertical
countermovement jump height is closely related to COD
speed (4). Furthermore, comparison between players’ dom-
inant and nondominant legs revealed a positive effect of leg
strength on COD speed (31). Mechanistically speaking,
greater strength and lean body mass are related to larger
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hip abduction and knee flexion angles during the COD
movements, which result in a lowered center of mass and
a more effective deceleration (34), shorter contact time (35),
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and greater horizontal and vertical propulsive power in the
subsequent acceleration phase (34,35).
In summary, the outcome of specific strength training
methods aiming to improve COD speed seems to depend on
the performance level and lower-body strength. Elite ath-
letes usually have a well-developed lower-body strength, and
thus, unspecific bilateral strength training and vertical
acceleration exercises do not further improve the COD
speed (9,11). Therefore, drills including horizontal accelera-
tion and deceleration are warranted (3). It remains nonethe-
less unclear, which training methods most effectively
improve the COD speed in well-trained junior team sport
athletes.
Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate 4
training programs with different loading characteristics
(horizontal load training vs. vertical jumping vs. maximal
strength vs. explosive strength training) on COD speed in
junior U15 team sport athletes. In particular, we addressed
the question whether horizontal load training including
lateral acceleration and deceleration would induce superior
performance adaptations with respect to COD speed
compared with common vertically oriented maximal
Figure 1. Study design with time plan and description of the 4 training groups.
the
474 Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research
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strength (squat and deadlift), explosive strength (power
clean and high pull), and vertical jumping exercises.
METHODS
Experimental Approach to the Problem
With a between-group repeated-measures design, we inves-
tigated the effects of 4 different training programs, incorpo-
rating either horizontal load training, vertical jumping,
maximal, or explosive strength training, on COD speed
during a 4-week training period. Two training sessions per
week were performed in addition to the usual team sport–
specific training. The horizontal load and vertical jump
training comprised exercises with body weight only, while the
maximal strength training included back squats and deadlifts
with free weights and heavy additional loads. For the explo-
sive strength training, barbell exercises, in particular, the
power clean and high pull were used to incorporate a full hip
extension. The intervention training sessions lasted 45 mi-
nutes and were separated by at least 48 hours (Figure 1).
Performance outcomes were determined before (pre-) and
after (post-) the 4-week training period with a 2-way analysis
of variance (type of training 3 time). The dependent variable
COD speed was assessed with 3 different tests comprising 4,
6, and 13 COD movements over total distances of 18, 24,
and 48 m, respectively. Leg power was assessed using both
vertically oriented (countermovement jump and drop jump)
and horizontally oriented exercise tests (standing long jump
and 1-legged lateral jump).
Subjects
Young U15 team sport athletes (mean 6 SD: n=45, age: 14
6 0.8 years [range 12–15 years], body mass: 63 6 14 kg,
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body height: 175 6 11 cm) competing in either soccer, hand-
ball, or basketball participated in this study. While we re-
cruited well-trained athletes only, competing for the best
teams in their sport at a regional level for at least 3 years,
our participants were distributed about the towns of the
region and located with some distance to each other. There-
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fore, the athletes were randomly assigned to the training
groups with respect to their hometown to reduce the trav-
eling effort and test our approach from a practical perspec-
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tive. Our strength and conditioning coach attended the local
training venues to supervise the training rather than the
athletes traveling to our gym twice a week. After being
informed about the benefits and potential risks of the study,
all athletes and their legal guardians gave written consent for
the athlete’s participation in the study. The study design was
preapproved by the ethical review board of the University of
Wuerzburg and complied with the Declaration of Helsinki.
Procedures
The training load for the 4 groups increased progressively
throughout the 4-week intervention period. The horizontal
load training group (n = 12 soccer players) performed exer-
cises characterized by horizontal acceleration and decelera-
tion, to mimic the specific neuromuscular demand of COD
movements. Throughout the training period, the load
increased progressively from 4 to 7 sets of 5 repetitions for
the 1- and 2-legged lateral and forward jumps, as well as the
specific COD drills. These incorporated slalom and zig-zag
running around cones and sidestep drills using a speed latter.
Athletes were encouraged to perform each exercise as fast
and explosive as possible with 2-minute rest in between.
The vertical jumping group (n = 12 soccer players) per-
formed unloaded box jumps. Depending on the individual
training progress, the box height increased progressively
throughout the training period to ensure maximal neuro-
muscular activation while maintaining high-quality jumping
and safe landing. The average box height increased from 70
cm in the first session up to 100 cm in the last week of
training. Throughout the training period, the number of sets
increased from 3 to 6 with 2-minute rest in between. The
number of repetitions per set decreased from 8 to 5 from the
first to the last week of training. In addition, for the sake of
variety, each training session included any 2 of the following
reactive jumping exercises performed for 3 sets of 8–10 rep-
etitions: drop jumps, drop landings, split-squat jumps, or
multiple bounding.
The maximal strength training group (n = 9 handball play-
ers) performed deep back squats and deadlifts. The number
of sets increased from 4 to 6 with 3- to 5-minute rest in
between. The number of repetitions per set decreased from
10 to 4 between the first and last week of training. The
weight was chosen to assure muscular failure in the last 2
repetitions of the targeted repetition range while maintaining
a proper lifting technique as recommended previously (18).
The weight was increased by 2.5 kg for the next set when the
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athletes reached the upper limit of the targeted repetition
range. Each training session was supervised by an experi-
enced strength and conditioning coach assuring that the
athletes used a challenging weight while maintaining
a high-quality lifting technique.
The explosive strength training group (n = 12 basketball
players) performed the high pull and power clean exer-
cises with free weights and followed the same progression
in terms of load and repetition number as the maximal
strength training group. To maximize training effects,
a strength and conditioning coach supervised all training
sessions to ensure that exercises were performed with
a proper lifting technique, characterized by triple exten-
sion (of the ankle, knee, and hip joints) and maximal
power production.
All tests were performed indoors under the same ambient
air conditions. Athletes performed the pre-test and post-test
wearing the same shoes and standard training clothing, and
at the same time of the day (between 16:00 and 20:00).
Athletes were familiarized with the test procedures in the
week before pre-testing to minimize the learning effect
between pre-test and post-test. Also, the order of the tests
was standardized for the pre-test and post-test. The post-test
was performed 3–4 days after the last training session.
Before testing, the warm-up routine involved 10 minutes
of moderate-intensity running including three 5-, 10-, and
20-m sprints for all players. Afterward, the players performed
their individual light stretching routine for 5 minutes, which
was supervised by the test leader to assure the same
procedure for both the pre-test and post-test. Body height
and weight (BF511; Omron Healthcare, Mannheim, Ger-
many) were measured after the warm-up with the athletes
wearing no shoes.
Jumping Performance. To evaluate players’ dynamic leg
power, countermovement and drop jump heights were mea-
sured (OptoJump; MicroGate, Bolzano, Italy). For each
jump, athletes performed 3 trials separated by a 2-minute
recovery period. In case the third jump showed the greatest
height, a fourth trial was performed, and the best attempt
was used for the statistical analysis. Athletes were instructed
to keep their hands on their hips to isolate the leg movement
and minimize the involvement of the arms. Also, they were
instructed to land with straight legs (22).
Horizontal jump performance was assessed as described
previously with 2-legged (forward) long jumps and 1-legged
lateral jumps (5,27). For both jumps, athletes were instructed
to keep their hands on their hips and jump as far as possible
from a marked starting line. Long jump performance was
defined as the distance from the heel to the starting line
measured to the nearest of 0.01 m with a measuring tape
fixed to the floor. A jump was considered valid when the
athletes kept their balance after landing and could stand still
for at least 3 seconds with no readjustment of the foot
position.
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 Change-of-Direction Speed
Lateral jumps were performed in the direction of the
active leg. Athletes landed on the same leg and had to keep
their balance, with no floor contact of the other foot, for 3
seconds. Jumping distance was measured as the difference in
position of the medial edge of the foot at landing to the
starting line, to the nearest of 0.01 m. The best attempt for
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the right and the left legs were averaged and used to assess
the lateral jump performance.
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Change-of-Direction Speed. The COD speed was assessed with
3 different tests on the Speedcourt (Q12 PRO; Globalspeed
GmbH, Hemsbach, Germany). The Speedcourt is a 5 3 5-m
platform with 12 contact plates arranged in a symmetrical
pattern (Figure 2). When connected with a software (Spee-
dlab PRO; Globalspeed, Hemsbach, Germany), predefined
multidirectional COD movements can be assessed. The first
protocol (6 COD test) required the players to complete
a total distance of 24 m interspersed with 6 COD move-
ments with angles between 64 and 1808. This has been
described as a valid and reliable procedure to assess COD
speed with a coefficient of variation (CV) of 2.6% and an
intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) of 0.86 (14). With the
second protocol (13 COD test), players repeated the running
pattern of the 6 COD test twice, resulting in a total distance
of 48 m and 13 COD movements. The reliability of the 13
COD test has been described by a CV of 2.44% and an ICC
of 0.86 (14).
Finally, a T-shaped run was performed on the Speedcourt
to assess team sport–specific COD movements while mov-
ing forward, backward, and sideways. The reliability of the
T-shaped run has previously been described by a CV of 2.7%
and an ICC of .0.9 (32). The T-shaped run was initiated
with a straight 4.5-m sprint forward, followed by quick side-
Figure 2. The running pattern for the (A) 6 COD test and (B) T-shaped run on the 5 3 5-m Speedcourt. With the 13 COD test, athletes repeated the running
pattern of the 6 COD test twice. COD = change-of-direction.
the
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steps aiming for the contact plates 2.25 m to the left and
right, and finishing with a 4.5-m sprint backward to the
starting point. The T-shaped run had a total distance of
18 m and included two 908 and two 1808 COD movements.
With the Speedcourt registering the foot touchdown at each
contact plate, running pattern was controlled, and the total
time to complete the test was recorded. The athletes were
familiarized with the running pattern the week before pre-
testing and reminded of the running pattern with a diagram
just before each test. The best of 3 attempts, which were
separated by at least 2 minutes of recovery, was used for
the statistical analysis.
Statistical Analyses
All data are indicated as mean 6 SD. After the confirma-
tion of normal distribution, a 2-way analysis of variance
with pre-test values as covariate to account for baseline
differences (analysis of covariance)—training program (hor-
izontal load training vs. vertical jumping vs. maximal
strength training vs. explosive strength training) 3 time
(pre-testing vs. post-testing)—was performed with partial
eta2 and statistical power calculation. Bonferroni post
hoc test and Cohen d effect sizes (ES) (15) were used for
all pairwise comparisons. An ES of ,0.2, ,0.6, and ,1.2
was regarded as small, medium, and large, respectively
(19). A 1-way analysis of variance was performed to com-
pare the change values from pre- to post- among the 4
training groups and an alpha level of ,0.05 confirmed
a statistically significant effect. All data were collected
and prepared using Microsoft Excel 2016 (Microsoft
Corp., Redmond, WA, USA) and analyzed subsequently
with SPSS Statistics for Windows Version 24.0 (IBM
Corp., Armonk, NY, USA).
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TABLE 1. Effects of the 4 training programs on COD speed assessed with 3 different performance tests.*†

Training intervention Statistical analysis

Horizontal Vertical Maximal Explosive

load jump strength strength Partial Test
training training training training F Value p eta2 power

6 COD test [s]

Pre- 8.2 6 1.1 7.6 6 0.5 7.3 6 0.5 7.3 6 0.7 a) F(3,41) = 4 p = 0.02 0.21 0.75
Post- 7.4 6 0.4z 7.1 6 0.6z 6.6 6 0.2z 6.6 6 0.5z b) F(3,41) = 41 p , 0.01 0.50 1.0
c) F(3,41) = 0 p = 0.91 0.01 0.08
13 COD test [s]
Pre- 15.3 6 1.1 14.8 6 0.7 13.5 6 0.5 14 6 0.9 a) F(3,41) = 1 p = 0.45 0.06 0.23
Post- 14.1 6 1z 14 6 0.8z 12.7 6 0.4z 13.2 6 0.8z b) F(3,41) = 71 p , 0.01 0.64 1.0
c) F(3,41) = 1 p = 0.49 0.06 0.21

Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research

T-shaped run [s]

the
Pre- 6.5 6 0.3 5.8 6 0.4 5.5 6 0.3 5.5 6 0.6 a) F(3,41) = 5 p = 0.01 0.27 0.89
Post- 6 6 0.5z 5.6 6 0.4 4.8 6 0.6z§ 5 6 0.3z b) F(3,41) = 32 p , 0.01 0.44 1.0
c) F(3,41) = 1 p = 0.34 0.08 0.29

*COD = change-of-direction; n.s. = not significant.

†Data are presented as mean 6 SD. The significant differences were identified with a 2-way analysis of covariance: training program 3 time. a) Main effect: training program
VOLUME 34 | NUMBER 2 | FEBRUARY 2020 |

(horizontal load vs. vertical jump vs. maximal strength vs. explosive strength training). b) Main effect: time (pre- vs. post-). c) Interaction effect: training program 3 time.
zSignificant difference compared with pre-.
§Significant difference compared with horizontal load training.

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478

Change-of-Direction Speed
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research
the

TABLE 2. Effects of the 4 training program on leg power.*

Training intervention Statistical analysis

Horizontal Vertical Maximal Explosive

load jump strength strength Partial Test
training training training training F Value p eta2 power

Countermovement jump height [cm]

Pre- 30.1 6 4 30.6 6 3.5 36 6 3.5 30 6 2.7 a) F(3,41) = 3 p = 0.05 0.17 0.63
TM

Post- 32.1 6 3† 30.9 6 2.8 37.6 6 4.6† 31.9 6 3.1† b) F(3,41) = 29 p , 0.01 0.42 1.0
c) F(3,41) = 2 p = 0.1 0.14 0.52
Drop jump height [cm]
Pre- 29.8 6 3.9 27.3 6 4.1 31.7 6 6.6 24.4 6 6 a) F(3,41) = 4 p = 0.01 0.24 0.82
Post- 30.5 6 3.7 25.8 6 5.4 34 6 6.2† 26 6 6.1 b) F(3,41) = 4 p = 0.07 0.08 0.46
c) F(3,41) = 4 p = 0.02 0.21 0.77
Standing long jump [cm]
Pre- 171 6 14 161 6 26 191 6 11 172 6 18 a) F(3,41) = 2 p = 0.14 0.13 0.46
Post- 176 6 12 165 6 22 200 6 13† 181 6 21† b) F(3,41) = 22 p , 0.01 0.35 1.0
c) F(3,41) = 1 p = 0.44 0.06 0.23
One-legged lateral jump [cm]
Pre- 131 6 12 125 6 18 143 6 23 123 6 12 a) F(3,41) = 24 p , 0.01 0.65 1.0
Post- 142 6 9† 119 6 16†z 160 6 18†z 137 6 13† b) F(3,41) = 48 p , 0.01 0.54 1.0
c) F(3,41) = 16 p , 0.01 0.54 1.0

*Data are presented as mean 6 SD. The significant differences were identified with a 2-way analysis of covariance: training program 3 time. a) Main effect: training program
(horizontal load vs. vertical jump vs. maximal strength vs. explosive strength training). b) Main effect: time (pre- vs. post-). c) Interaction effect: training program 3 time.
†Significant difference compared with pre-.
zSignificant difference compared with horizontal load training.

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Figure 3. Change values of the change-of-direction (COD) speed
assessed by the (A) 6 COD test, (B) 13 COD test, and (C) T-shaped run
including movements forward, backward, and sideways in response to 8
sessions of either horizontal load training, vertical jumping, maximal, or
explosive strength training. For the clarity’s sake, the standard error is
illustrated for the corresponding mean values. No statistically significant
difference was evident between the training groups.
RESULTS
The pre-test and post-test data of the 4 training groups are
presented in Tables 1 and 2. Change-of-direction speed
improved with the 6 COD test and 13 COD test in all train-
ing groups executing either horizontal load training (p ,
0.01, ES = 1.35 and p , 0.01, ES = 1.48), vertical jumping
(p = 0.01, ES = 1.43 and p , 0.01, ES = 1.47), maximal
strength training (p = 0.01, ES = 2.58 and p , 0.01, ES =
2.20), or explosive strength training (p , 0.01, ES = 1.42 and
p , 0.01, ES = 1.30, respectively). Performance in the T-
shaped run including movements forward, backward, and
sideways also improved with the horizontal load training
(p , 0.01, ES = 1.95), maximal strength training (p , 0.01,
ES = 1.94), and explosive strength training (p = 0.02, ES =
1.18). Comparing the change values of the COD speed from
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pre-test to the post-test, there were no significant differences
between the 4 training groups (Figure 3).
After 4 weeks of training, the countermovement and 1-
legged lateral jump performance improved with the hori-
zontal load (p , 0.01, ES = 0.81 and p , 0.01, ES = 1.36),
maximal strength (p = 0.01, ES = 0.56 and p , 0.01, ES =
1.14), and explosive strength training (p , 0.01, ES = 0.95
and p , 0.01, ES = 1.60, respectively). The standing long
jump improved with the maximal strength (p , 0.01, ES =
1.14) and explosive strength training (p , 0.01, ES = 0.60).
DISCUSSION
This study investigated whether horizontal load training
including lateral acceleration and deceleration would induce
superior performance adaptations with respect to COD
speed compared with common vertically oriented jumping,
maximal, and explosive strength training. The main findings
are that all 4 training methods, when performed for 4 weeks
twice per week, improved the COD speed and leg power to
a similar degree in junior U15 team sport athletes.
Previous research recommended that horizontal jumping
as well as specific COD drills incorporating horizontal and
lateral acceleration and deceleration are required to improve
COD speed, whereas the benefits of vertically oriented
jumping and traditional weight lifting exercises
(i.e., Olympic lifts, squats, and deadlifts) would be limited
(3). However, this was not the case for our U15 team sport
athletes participating in this study. Rather, horizontal load
training did not elicit greater benefits for COD speed com-
pared with the 3 vertically oriented training programs.
The discrepancy between the conclusion of the above
mentioned review article (3), and our findings may be due to
the different performance levels of the athletes participating
in the research studies. It is likely that for elite athletes who
already possess well-developed lower-body strength and
power (16), a ceiling effect may exist, such that further gains
in strength or nonspecific power do not benefit COD speed.
For instance, elite handball players improved COD speed
after 10 weeks of horizontal, but not vertical drop jumps
(11), whereas elite soccer players did not improve COD
speed after 8 weeks of deep back squat or resisted sprint
training (9). In recreational team sports, on the other hand,
COD speed was clearly related to leg strength. Stronger
athletes produced higher deceleration and acceleration
forces, resulting in quicker directional changes (34). More-
over, the difference between faster and slower athletes
became more pronounced as the COD angle, and with it,
the difficulty of the directional change increased (35).
In junior team sport athletes, the importance of lower-
body strength and power is clear. Young soccer players (13.2
6 1.8 years) improved the COD speed with a 7-week verti-
cal jump training program more than the control group per-
forming the usual soccer training only (29). Elsewhere, there
was no difference between drop or countermovement jump
training, both of which improved the COD speed after 6
VOLUME 34 | NUMBER 2 | FEBRUARY 2020 | 479
 Change-of-Direction Speed
weeks in junior (17.3 6 0.4 years) soccer players (37). Fur-
thermore, adding maximal strength training exercises such
as back and front squats to the sport-specific training
improved the COD speed in U15, U17, and U19 soccer play-
ers (20). These results are also found with our junior U15
team sport athletes. While all 4 training programs signifi-
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cantly improved the COD speed, the ES calculation revealed
largest effects (1.94–2.58) and highest effectiveness with the
maximal strength rather than the horizontal load training.
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Technically, the COD movement can be divided into 3
phases. The actual directional change is preceded from the
deceleration phase and followed by the acceleration in the
new direction. To investigate our athletes’ deceleration skills,
we applied the 1-legged lateral jump that required the ath-
letes to decelerate the movement and maintain balance for at
least 3 seconds after the landing. Significant improvements
were obviously found with the horizontal load but not the
vertical jump training. Interestingly, the free weight training
(maximal and explosive strength training) improved 1-
legged lateral jumping, although both training programs
comprised vertically oriented exercises. However, during
the COD movement, the deceleration phase and subsequent
transition into the directional change require the athletes to
maintain an optimal body position by applying horizontally
as well as vertically oriented forces (34). During such a uni-
lateral force production, the core strength becomes a key
element to maintain balance and stability (28,33). Free
weight training using heavy loaded barbell exercises is
well-known for its effects on the core strength and stability
(23) explaining why the maximal and explosive strength
training groups improved the 1-legged lateral jump while
the vertical jump group using unloaded body weight exercise
did not.
In addition, faster athletes demonstrated an altered COD
technique (34). Increased knee flexion and hip abduction
angle during the plant phase (34) allowed a lower-body cen-
ter of mass and more stable body position, which in turn
facilitated a more efficient force production during the accel-
eration phase (35) and a greater exit velocity (34). We did
not investigate alterations in COD technique. The horizontal
load training, however, showed a large improvement with
the 1-legged lateral jump that requires both strength and
technical abilities to maintain balance after landing.
Improved technical skills on the on hand, and task-specific
training for the hip abduction and lateral abdominal muscles
on the other, might explain the improved COD speed with
the horizontal load training in the absence of any heavy
additional load.
Dos’Santos et al. (13) demonstrated that the quality of the
deceleration phase crucially contributes to high COD speed.
Also, a current review article identifies the eccentric muscle
strength as key performance indicator for the deceleration
phase of COD movements (6). Namely, stronger athletes
produce greater horizontal and vertical eccentric forces
and impulses to decelerate and maintain an optimal body
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480 Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research
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position in preparation for the directional change and sub-
sequent acceleration phase (34). The increased eccentric
force production shortens the braking phase and ground
contact times on the one hand (13,24) and increases the
storage of elastic energy that is used during the concentric
acceleration phase on the other hand (1,38). Thus, the stor-
age of elastic energy is closely connected to the strength
capacity and tendon stiffness (7,38). Trained jumpers, for
instance, with greater lower-body power showed a better
mechanical efficiency during the stretch-shortening cycle
than untrained jumpers (25). The larger leg power improved
the storage of elastic energy during the eccentric phase thus
increasing the force output during the concentric phase (25).
When we tested the countermovement jump in our junior
U15 team sport athletes, we measured an improved jumping
height after the maximal and explosive strength training.
The increased muscle strength might have enhanced the
storage of elastic energy thereby improving the COD speed
even if no specific horizontally oriented training was
performed.
During the third phase of the COD movement, the
athletes accelerate in the new direction alike a sprint start.
Therefore, the third phase is characterized by an explosive
whole-body extension forward similar to the standing long
jump. Since the linear acceleration primarily relies on the
power production of the leg extensors (10,26), the maximal
and explosive strength training showed largest improve-
ments on the standing long jump performance. Especially,
the power clean and high pull, emphasizing the so-called
triple extension in the ankle, knee, and hip joints (12), pre-
pared for the specific neuromuscular demand of the whole-
body extension forward during the acceleration phase of the
COD movement, thus facilitating a high COD exit velocity
and overall COD speed.
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
The performance level of athletes seems to substantially
impact the effect of various strength and conditioning
programs aiming to improve COD speed. For elite athletes
who already possess well-developed lower-body strength
and power (16), a ceiling effect may exist, such that further
gains in strength or power do not benefit COD speed. For
these athletes, specific horizontally oriented exercises may
indeed be warranted to further improve the COD speed. In
our junior U15 team sport athletes, however, all 4 training
programs, ranging from task-specific horizontally oriented
exercises to nonspecific vertically oriented maximal strength
exercises, improved COD speed. Thus, in these subjects,
horizontal load training incorporating lateral acceleration
and deceleration was not superior to vertical jumping, max-
imal, or explosive strength training to improve COD speed.
From a practical perspective, strength and conditioning
programs should incorporate any or all of the investigated
training methods to best improve the COD speed in junior
team sport athletes. Importantly, with attention to safety, the

maximal strength training should be performed with vertical
loading characteristics. Future studies should develop a best
practice for improving COD speed by mixing explosive and
maximal strength training with horizontally oriented as well
as vertically oriented exercises. Also, unilateral weight
training (i.e., 1-legged or split squats) should be incorporated
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to prepare for the specific neuromuscular demands of COD
movements and compensate potential between-leg strength
and power asymmetries (17).
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors thank the athletes and coaches for their
enthusiastic contribution to the study. The authors have
no conflict of interest to declare. No funding was received for
this work from the National Institutes of Health (NIH),
Wellcome Trust, Howard Hughes Medical Institute (HHMI)
or others. The results of this study do not constitute
endorsement of any products by the authors or the NSCA.
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