Onvr-1 t | | | \ MEANING: OF STATISTICS | | ae Strotistics Tefers to Duretical facts > Meted of dealing with numerical facts DB Statistics 1G a Science of collecting, Surmerizing , analysing ond YWivepreting numerical £=+45 we & Specific > it boys os to Uentty he jmiensity condifon | Neep and _Infoxtarice + | = In Edsestion Cy Psychsleay — Coliection of evidence oF + bac Cleceification, Organization ects ed Summerisarion of _ poermerical facts. ali andes gene semeresisre ccd mferences oF 5 gia: basis SF’ fact= Se meking Predichons eon evidences. - Evacuntion G ME “pln Edvcation ond Payehelegy, we use carny ouk exaluction om rressuremens - be constructed, od ghandordized - orioss tests to + ols teve © A +esis, + \orious tests ele achievernent tests, A} Rrode feats ard Personeli ond Apkinde fests, Interest of srekstics ce rests- yelps ™ consttuctie® /rowlesge Sordardisahie® | ry tests- | |DAY To DAY TASKS: + Teachers use statistics to /for di =k about individud gafferences, a Yo Shident. helps ‘in providing qobonce tre. Sultotilly OF SME sy, — Comparing ae = ee with onotrer “PPT, < ° a of one System ~ Comparing Whe MSUNE BT Orel Mist @valuction vith another. — Comparing the Function and Worfsing of one institution with onother. Sot Clors Srtength,Gatarg By We | = Making Predictions regerding the fuletg | Progress OF Students. hoot Poole whe | ~ Maintairing Votious types Of Tecords AtSendance, Marks... - Making Selection classfteation and premnotio, 08 __ shudants, RESEARCH: — ATS describe date PD Surmmesise TRE Tesults in a meaningful raanner,, Tb beh the researcher te draw conclogions | . B To help the TeSearcher to Make predicHons . + To draw general conclusions. + To onclyze cara! factors onderlying complex ond otherwise Strange events. GSE oF starisrics: aa aS * th also becom : eS Sasy te inte these Studies, SHEL andl use thee ye ¢| i i i ' VARIABLES OSED IN STATISTICAL MEASUREMENT Individuals ditfer in Tegan to certain qualities ot behauier, height, weight, appeorance, Wed Voriobles - Properties Such oS col gener and interests These ofe . . . Variables tefers 1 orrcibsres: OF qualities oe < wikiclh V eer Aitterences '™ sirude. ond thiely Very alony Sore ienensions | — Grorrett C1471) Tyees:- > Continvous: Age No teal geps yuxe , Fre, Height, Weight, terror wn, No- oF ei\dven im SDigcontinvous ©D Disctere: a ced Con a TINVOUS VARIABLES! Lepenry Nook enn ™ convmueus SEMIES Ri of tod 2 eof Subdivision 1S Possible hows Be Feat ars: “AS ie possible to fe neagure trent? DB It forms a > Any degre > In practice, ie ueshons 0 -p it onawere the 1! Spraliest degree © measore ib in the. > Every Score within andange- Lintgtal@) fractional] Oxigts and has eanng Can be represented aS pots on a lin. RCP emote DISCRETE VARIABLES + BIE falls gate a discorkinvoes Series - +The series chows real Yrs: > Fe variabie: is diserte when yee are veal qors petwieen One value ond the Test. pb Tre det8 of Such sew Variables cay be expressed only in Whole unbers of UNITS - La Sic RMS STRMeet CAI Fe Measunet is wet ay = 4 bytes of Beales elfed tm sereomrere Nowinal Seale S! Ondimal Seale “P] Intewal Seale Py Ratio Scale, ?| NOMINAL Seace: > Ditterert vundoers ate ured to identity clitferent bec or tndividods. ~dThese. numbers Yepesents a rerimal Scale . > Roli-no oF Students iv a Class. Tersey no. of die. phyers in a team. | Nebicle no. Br by Stale Hongport Head Ctfice | Tre rule te be Followed ie He came, the: game unber 6 not assigned to diffetenh Objects GA people’. > Ditferent bumlbers Are. not caraigned to the Bare Object Co persons . The orly oretaion that ig Peasible in a Tomine! Scale 1s making Grotements, on the ksi of equality ox ditterences, ~ Te potpose of a nominal Sale is to chesify ‘entity people or objects. => ir merely Serves 0S o label,\ >| ORDINAL Scare: => 1 In an ordinal Seale, the Numbers reflect | r i ; camk or merit position within a gYoup er | class with respech bo Some Qquedlity, Property or perfor mance oe ; £9: Ranking Student in a clon Lantd. on (fie WARS Solel (a AT Sa en. DRAWBACKS : —p Tan clits cedvanlge of thes 3 S hale nil clong Oe EE ase aig. ee, Oe exam scores berwern etuden ho got vyonk £ oma 2A wy noe necerssily Ure Same, Re je bkevence petuleen Ue scoves OF tudenls whe get rank q and 3. Ths scale HIPS us lhe order or a position oF an ondividual ee. JVOUP gn regard © 2 Specific uk i doe rot plovide > seria la from ordinal. Scales P be used & caleula Ke median, perentiles and lation coefficient. yank order corei | pndicald 2 tot spermomelars C al igen sl ~D Zero pont bake of convirdeh Ce and & is oflen avbitarily defined Fg: 401g Monday is rob twit. Ae Grpetatue of toe on Tesly Peron with an Iq et 140. gs not Ewe a8 | mauignk as % Petsen with re 18 oF 7b. Teves ro Possibility oF having 0 mmlilligence, oom inbelli we lo, Be, ychology Weianie that 5 2 acer ac vegies ie use. of vena ae data ale . Din | A om unlwal Seale ean C : On bt allen yok sae Used m Ue median Dili wb mainly sed lot of : PEychole Droximation i, 3 PY wheres MolvedRatio ScALE: > The ratio Seae & Me if ruasucement highest Eye of Scale in letmso bh Measuus oe expressed oquak uni \ ace alo Gaken trom g Bue gel | absene se ee, of quality Or artribule aor —> Examples: Length, Lapecitd | owe Os —p tn Ge giivibules , Ge Kure ete Weight, Disnee, Az. ements vegareling rative Ya to me existing emong rdividuchs yeclaud @ ota “> Ratio Scales HE ot EO Se SLignces nee ches bot of precision neSit group of = te seri 5 fac ee numerical Tecer Dats tefers & * its - un culd veler © details ve) dak & Caer fe reper. [7 Si @ s ef ter nesmeriaal © en igen “ Kea, weight a { | ATETHEDS OF ORGANIZING DATA i 2 774 fi 5 Yo vi [des eaperenh. 077 susted § i p maerical Seores- us with dal with B Te urdersGrd ¥. arignal mM pave were | theis etal eoncllbian, | meaning ard Atrving 1B be otgeniggh er atranged bn Some SpE | Mattes TV Setistical tabies | p> Rark order > Frequency dishibution. | Stensv ox Tapes: | 1 | >i | sSRAWiGl tles the data a hulled | tome Sd coluers of ditferent headings. a oe ot high » \s * y ‘Sh Secheals tn Ny : awe ottpas eer 5 ROLES FoR CONSTAUCTIAG A TAQLE > A table Should hove a title whieh should be Simple, brief clean ple , Drv < >The tobles Should be divided. im’ divided imte Tous ord ’ narere ah perpose of the ae See order ofronged im oleic >The Yous and columns Should be mace Canty & Trak covporchie - 2S Each vow acd column ‘eading chould be bret AS Sup tetalg for cocks classification ond general shat 6F aN combined clones ghoul be giver Je Tre unre Crs) percantege ete oF te dats Mint be frantic in tre beading ~ ot farts ot 4 abla > Foot, votes, which pra, 87 explanation of pits of VE jabulali ye bokrOTS ok the Yavle ye mertionedk ar daa ment nm collected eratt > The, ceurce fre yireve. The data hoo ‘vee! 8 giver ar tre era of te yable apace should. be Subic tapateting Jeng, Colerend ot nutes; OF e should & or B Yous ber of BY every te ve as simple 3S Possible so far AF CaF be athe He grow gtedied vith edolinun poreble gran. Wy ghould provide cleat plerare ard Untvepvetation of efolistical chats im the gui chest Possible Hwne===-——( Rani cnneR® on can be Sucesstoly arranged 0 hand, AP ovday WH TEXpe ype Wetivideals We Boren Arranging he The original want Sete’ . MMeeactiny SeNIeS foritien ot righesh SPF Ate rains, or te the yank or actopt A dosearting Yop Ark fhe Jawer? at exit gartes BY yre bottom + clon 2 stud peg: tabulate the folowing Seats ot are fore ot a Tarde orkut Reren Tytd FRequency DIST RIGITION: > Wher ‘ N numbers ave ATVanged according + Tanks, We don't get & Summary of Tau scores, Ve on im Ngement. tt alo e > Ny Peles in tearva ent, | nae : Neo dees tat fel wy > Fe quency Tefers te the nom . Keyeatal In the given ia Fes the Score is > A Frequane: Rati y distribuljen Toble helps { » es data for convinient, h ws «Ss Pretentation and értvepvetotion ing, OT ganization Range ot the Serie: 8s Highest Goons ~ Lowest S core CLASS INTERVAL /GiROUPING, INTERVAL: >Re 3 Prenenrad by i is Range /No-of classes tequtedQ-3-21 > Tabutate the folloving Sores of B-Ed Shidentsim the totm ot a trequency distribution 6%, 21,26, 32°56, 96, 37, 34,53, 40,6 Bee ear es IB a7, 52,38, 40 Sy, 42, 13,635 00, oq 6b oe ce aon PSN AG arr, HH, BB, 4S, BS, 49, BBs -49, US. be, 4S i : Range of Series = Highest Score - Lowest Sasre = 68-2) =u Class |nterval i = Range No-of classes. venulved When the no-of items is Rss than oF equal to Go, we have lo classes. | When we have more than 51 items, we have about 15 classes | Clace Interval i with always be a whole nuraber Classes, Tallies Frequencies 20-24 \ a 25-29 | a 2 Bo- 3h ie 4 35 - 3q jt 3 you [Ny 0 YB~ UA AHL MN q Bo- 54 wa 7 S5- 59 [it 4 Go-ey |" 3 65-69 i J Bia Frequencies =| BetS US ee Be Gy, es Bo Bo a uy a me 8 Ht gs on 3q St ye ye sT SG ex ow 29 KL ug Ut A yo Ce Re ET Stee Le ee | Class Interval ie | Range = 58-30 -23 Classes, Tallies Frequancy, 29-3) 1 i. | 32-34 " 2 35-31 aL c ae WE I = jie wt 4 UL Ys Ty a plas WW : 50-52 Ww | cE 53-55 mA 6 56 — $8 i. Q er Frequencies = csCUMULATIVE Frequency | A Frequency distribution tates tells ua the vay in wich ied over varioun class intervals but tt fb fet us the total no-ct cases lying below or above o qmteral. This task is Performed vith the help of curnulative Frequencies are distrib: | dees ro class frequency. 9: 4S -u9 4 = 5o~5y | 4 a6 55-59 | be 46 oe eu | 2 4a Range= 5 O| ae AS aT oT 32 ai ee S&S ET Bt FE facran 3=*=° iriervat = a6 4 €3 aT 63 WL G1 GT FH 67 6HPq:02 9 [sm ae 27 6s 98 ga 6s -S2 Ranges F8~a5 Bo Fo we ce Se My 63 5A . W erp eT bq ye WW 6B yo 85 39 Ae ST UT AB ao SYST 62 eT Bt Ie ie gg oe Classes Tallies Frequaned Cumulative Cumulative > eter) oe frequency Percentaye 26-20 1 ae Teo Oe i BI- 35 " 2 3 hs \ \ 4y 4-4 ny é, a YS ~Bo u 6 sala WW : iE 3 3 aes nt y 60-64 'T MM 4 2 65-64 iY 5 S Yo -1y pe 8 3 = ti i [80 ~ey | 4 36 a5 i ia ae a * fueChagher- 3 GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF DATA A Graphical Revesentation 1S a geometrical image of a stat data. heks ud thin akouk a statistical Problem in Viguat terms, Sraphical teptesentations help in etfective and interpretation ot collected PpresentaHon, urderstanding gratiscal date \ ADVANTAGES: —> Data can be pesented in an atttackve ard appeating manner, Dik wakes it easy be Gragp lATIE amounts ot nformakon —p Comparative analysis and Wrerpretation can be easly dow. Bit helps in forecasting ox making gredictions as it deccrtmes data From the Pash: —b It Makes Wt easy to calculalE Statistics Such as the mean ,tedian , Made ond quartiles NODES oF GaarnichL REPRESENTATION OF DATA? ONGRoUrED DATA: BUF refers to dala that IS Pat arouped Into a equency distribution. Ir can be represented through the following WAYS* Rar Groph /Bar Diagrams DCiccle Grogh/ Pie Diagrams “it) Pickograss AD Le Grophs.BAR Dingpnr: “Py Usually draunon 3 grarh paper shence a-K.a bar graph: vailable un two forms: > These diagtams ote * Ver ical Hori zentals - —> Tre length of the bats are in proportion to the amount of variables or HaltsChetght, intelligencd) —bThe width of bars Is rot governed by any set tuk, —> There ig A space between EWo BATS bout one halt of the width of a bar. —> The data Terresented though bar diagrams srosee in the form of Taw Scores , total Scores, fre quencks, fereentages and Averages, Years — Novot Students 2000 ~ 3.501 4oo 2001~2002 Lbs. | 2002-2100 3 550 22°93 ~ 2004 Too 2094 ~ 2005 Foo 2205 ~ goog 950\ooo co-ay oom wotlk Acea of Wonts Expos Proto gtaphy, Clay Modeling Kitchen Gatdering, Dan- Make Book Binding 120 Students of 3S School experiences. The detals at gen belo fre. data though 2 hers zonra\ bay grarh- = Wo of Students 6 20 us 2 were agred 4 choose different a, Represent Yercenh ! 5 2 ue \o 20Bak Binary Dolls Making Keven |Z erg Clay | 7 Mitra! theta Be ap eo a “Sx T 'S a0 28 30 35 4o US so PIE Diagn /cinete GRAPH: >The data is vYeprteserited, through Abe sections or Portions of a circle. “bie Sorface area ot a drck is Known 4o cover 2M or Seo", fo 260° and then angles cortespondin: parts are calculated . Ey. REFER Ps. wtee ee ITB. Rerogram: os . Numerical Data of Statelics Maybe vepresented by a Pickogram. Eg: mren Gog Linke GRACIA? “p Trey ate Single Mathemalteal graphs Aawn by glotting YT data ok one variable on the 4728S om 2 of orcther variable on y-axis . tn Studying the effect of one =p Trese gvaphs rele experiment, yariable upon arether yariable “un an Eg: Reree Ro 28 Grapticat Rejeeichéattn pata [Frequaney tresentation of Qreof2? Distributien| Tere Se! methods of Tepreserting Prequansy ciatribution graphically: > Horeyam > Frequarcy Riggon + Cureulative Frequency Srarh > Cumulative Frequency Percentage Curve (Oave]H\STogiRaM: DA Welter is alc called = colunn, dagram \t ig essentially a bar graph of a Frequency duoltvoukton - The actual class linits ave plotted on the x-axig and they Tepresent the width of various bars. Die vespective frequoncies of these class intewals Bre plotted on the Y-axis and they vepresert the height of the bars. Classes, - gee Frequencies, Actual Class Linits 4 x | 6B:5 ~ 69-5 1 TSE WS °Er quency_polygon. 7 oe ress distribution. We can get a frequency polygon dpoints of the upper bases of the re traight lines. But it is not essential to plot a histogram first to draw Graphical Representation of Data_® 31 A frequency polygon_(Figure 3.7) is essentially a resentation of the. frequency histogram, if the re connected by graph for the —graphical_1 angles straight lines lygon. We can construct it directly from a given Frequency _P' frequency ‘ibution, The following points. are helpful in constructing a frequency polygon: Frequencies yo e won eo 2. The mid-points 0 3, The mid-points are ma eee 7 22 27 32 37 42 47 52 57 62 67 72 Scores in the form of mid-points Figure 3.7 Frequency polygon of the frequency distribution given in Table 2.1. As in the histogram, two extra intervals or classes, one above and the other below the given intervals are taken. f all the classes or intervals (including two extra intervals) are calculated. rked along the x-axis and the corresponding frequencies are plotted along the y-axis by choosing suitable scales on both axes, The various points obtained by plotting the mid-points and frequencies are joined by straight lines to give the frequency polygon. 5. For approximate height of the figure and selection of x and units, the rule emphasized earlier i ii + in the case of histogram should be followed. 8glee ee eee ee ga ‘equency curve, Difference between a frequency polyenes 7 ‘ A tone uni. i is essentia sate polygon is a many-sided ce Ina frequency curve we do noy frequen 2 nota 7 : cy polygon, we take take two extra intervals or classes. But in a frequency Polyg' ke te a als y e the figure. cl order to close the these two extra classes in 0 ae 0 ison between the histogram and a Bote i y. f eet hia histogram and frequency po yon i allke inter ae hie resentation of frequency distribution an a _ fe y respects, they possess points of difference. Some of these d ences respects, are cited below: 1. Where histogram is essentially the bar graph a ithe ven frequency distribution, the frequency polygon is a line graph of this distribution, . 2. In frequency polygon, we assume the frequencies to be concentrated at the mid-points of the class intervals, It points out merely the graphical relationship between mi -points and frequencies and thus is unable to show the distribution of frequencies within each class interval, But the histogram gives a very clear as well as accurate picture of the relative Proportions of frequency from interval to interval. A mere glimpse of the figure answers such questions as: (@) Which group of class frequency? (b) Which pair of intervals has the largest or smallest another? Y Plotting two or ; : Me axis, frequency Polygon is more than the histo, ram, histogra, ; Practicable * 10 comparison to the much better Conception of the cone Polygon ee ith a part of the + tours of the distribution. of the distribution ese" Curve/it is ©asy to know the trend thing, Ma histogram ig Unable to tell such a uch a The cumulatiy, frequen 4 cumulative fre Feat The d, i Braphically 6 resem (stibutio ( seus q pinized in the form of (Figure 3.8), Tis eg 4 throy th the cuy i tive piPter 2) may be Plotting actiial y er inlially a line graph itive frequency graph Tespective Cumutatiy, ma Of the class i a 7 on graph Paper by co conser the da ences Ff these a On the x-axis and the ie 2: . ‘e1 M i 2 to explain ON in qh i trees On the y-axis, 88 Of ney distributi of. construct Pa distr ibution oF a cumulativefrequency graph. M manner: y, 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 ‘Cumulative frequencies Figure o 196 245 205 345 995 445 495 Graphical Representation of Data * 33 marized in ‘the following ain points may be sume B45 595 645 695 745 Scores in the form of actual upper limits of the class intervals 3.8 Cumulative frequency curve of the frequency distribution given in Table 2.1. First of all, we will calculate the actual upper limits of the class intervals as 24.5, 29.5, 34.5, 39.5, 44.5, 49.5, 54.5, 59.5, 64.5, 69.5 and 74.5. Then we will use the cumulative frequencies given next to the class intervals. In the case of a simple frequency distribution table like 2.1, the cumulative frequencies are first determined and written at the proper place against the respective class intervals. Now, for plottin; on the x-axis an y-axis of the graph paper. we reference to the range of data to graph paper to be used. All the plotted points representing uppeT limits of the class interval with their respective cumulative frequencies will then be joined through a successive chain of straight lines resulting in a line graph. To plot the origin of the curve on the x-axis, to take one extra class interval with zero cumu! and thus calculate the actual upper limit of this In the present case the upper limit will be 19.5. point of the curve. g the actual upper limits of the class intervals lative frequencies on the id respective cum| must select a suitable scale with be plotted and the size of it is customary Jative frequency class interval. Tt will be the starting a ae =eychology a 38 + Y ; 2 attractive SUMMAR gay De presented in a si ie aarp The statistical ae hh the help of some graphic aids, 1c. pictures he eye WIN TT rries a Jot of communication power, ee ay enable the viewer to appealing to Pt graphs. Such PIESeM Tog and graphs may enab! ful grasp of the large amount of data, limps of these P! ane Oi immediate ey be represented through a bar graph, circle Tare gram pictograph and line graph. i oe ph represent the data on the graph paper in the form of vertical or horizontal bars. In a pie diagram, data i into parts, each representing the amou he total frequency value is equate Amcre §) is represented by a circle of 360° divided nt of data converted into .d to 360 degrees and then angles. Th the angles corresponding to component parts are calculated. In pictograms, the data is represented by means of picture figures appropriately designed in proportion to the numerical data. Line graphs represent the data concerning one variable on the horizontal and other variable on the vertical axis of the graph paper. Grouped data (frequency distribution) may be represented graph- ically by histogram, frequency polygon, cumulative frequency graph and cumulative frequency percentage curve or ogive. A histogram is essentially a bar graph of a frequency distribution. The actual class limits plotted on the x-axis represent the width of various bars (rectangles) and respective frequencies of these class intervals represent the height of these bars. A frequency polygon is essentiall i i y ly a line graph f ears of frequency distribution. T ee ee lygon, tl id-poi 7 . gon, the mid-points of all classes (including two extra intervals) are plotted on the x-axis i ee and the corresponding frequencies are The cumulati a ive frec distributi srequency graph repre: ou eh Plotting actual ce lima cumulative frequency on the janie ‘spective cumul ' the class intervals on the gmt ncies of these class intervals mulative perc cumulative percentage fee & Sequence re fi uency curve i Of the class intervals qa MOY distribution by peanen ebresents the percentage frequencies of (eo 2X5 and the pe eins UPPEF limits proves quite useful in an these class intervals, Tespective cumulative © computation of mere the y-axis. An ogive ian, quartiles, deciles, lative frequeGraphical Representation of Data_® 39 percentiles, percentile ranks and percenti Cee ipaticon ol wa er ntile norms as well as for the overall eae ae ae or frequency distributions. curves show many kinks and irreguleriies hth ma rt fa Fea by the process of smoothing, The formula of the Pracing ave — smoothed frequency of a class interval = 1/3 (Freq tency of the 7 Glass interval + Frequencies of the two adjacent clase iatesay a eaed fo compute the smoothed frequencies for the corres ea : a intervals. In drawing smoothed curves (polygon or See | Hot these caleulated smoothed frequencies on the y-axis Ge piece one ven frequencies (in case of polygon) and cumulative percentige frequencies (in case of ogive). The task of understanding and interpretation of data becomes simple, accurate and practicable with the help of such smoothing of the frequency curves. EXERCISES 1. What do you understand by the term ‘graphical represen tation of data’? Enumerate its advantages. 2. What are the various modes utilized for the graphical representation of ungrouped data? Discuss in brief. 3. What are bar graphs or diagrams? How are they constructed? Illustrate with some hypothetical examples. 4. What are circle graphs or pie diagrams? Illustrate their construction through an example. 5. What are pictograms? How can statistical data be represented through such diagrams? Tllustrate with an example. 6. What are line graphs? Discuss their utility in the presentation of statistical data. Illustrate their construction with the help of some hypothetical data. 7. Point out the various met representation of grouped Discuss them in brief. What is a histogram? How does it polygon and frequency curve? 9. What do you understand by the lerm cumulative frequency? Discuss the process of construction of a cumulative frequency . curve. 10. What is a cumula Illustrate, how it i 11. What do you understand ods utilized for the graphic data (frequency distribution). differ from a frequency uurve or ogive? tive percentage frequency c different uses. 5 constructed. Enumerate its by the term smoothing of a curve?