CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

The Basel Convection defines waste as substances or objects which are disposed of or are

intended to be disposed of or are required to be disposed of by the provisions of national law

(Basel, 2019). Solid waste is any non flowing substance that is relatively undesirable or

unuseful as a result of human and natural activities. Some of these solid waste products

include automobiles, electrical appliances, and other inorganic materials which are not

destroyed but are discarded when they are no longer in use. Cities in general absorb a great

deal of materials which are transformed into useful purposes while a lot will always be left as

waste. As a result of increased urbanization and industrialization, most of these cities have a

higher concentration of waste than their systems can absorb (Grimm et al., 2008; Wang et al.,

2019). The goal of solid waste management is to guarantee that waste is collected and

disposed of in a way that is safe for humans, animals, and ecosystems. Waste management in

industrialized countries has evolved into material flow management, which entails careful

processing of raw materials, reduced greenhouse gas emissions, and environmental

protection.

Waste management, the collection, transportation, processing, recycling, or disposal of waste

materials is central to the environment, human health, and local aesthetics. Waste

management has increasingly become a major concern in most cities in developing countries,

including Ado Ekiti Southwest Nigeria (Sai Krishna et al. 2017 Asefa, and Mindahun,2019,

Alkaradaghi et al. 2020). According to Iorhemen et al. (2016), the current method of

municipal solid waste (MSW) treatment across most Nigerian cities remains open burning at

disposal sites. Ferronato & Torretta (2019) decried open dumping and open burning as the

usually implemented waste treatment and final disposal systems in low-income countries.

1
Solid waste disposal has been identified as one of the most serious environmental problems

facing many cities in Nigeria (Iorhemen et al.2016, Akindutire, and Alebiosu, 2013, Aderoju

et al 2018.)

In developing countries like Nigeria, individuals and businesses dispose of the majority of

municipal solid waste at designated dumping points (Abila & Kantola, 2013; Ogwueleka,

2009). Most of the time, these spots are left unattended. These waste products are collected

once or twice a week by government-appointed workers and deposited in landfills, where

they are burnt or buried (Ogwueleka, 2009). Tinuola & Owolabi (2007) observed an increase

in environmental pollution with urbanization in Ekiti State. The highest percentage of

pollution was reported in Ado-Ekiti, with an alert on possible health hazards to the residents.

Ige & Adetunji (2018) examined the relationship between some socio-economic factors and

household sanitation in Ado-Ekiti. An indifferent status was observed for the general attitude

of the residents towards household sanitation and waste disposal. Increasing population and

the attendant human activities have geometrically led to increasing waste tonnage since the

creation of Ekiti State in October 1996 and the establishment of the state capital at Ado-Ekiti.

The use of controlled sanitary landfills is desirable to mitigate the adverse effects of open

dumping and burning and ultimately safeguard public health and the environment (Owoeye

and Rotowa, 2015, Kofoworola, 2017, ] Ibidunni et al, 2012). Due to low recycling and reuse

options in developing countries, the proportion of municipal solid waste (MSW) that ends up

in landfills is expected to be higher (Aboyade, 2004). This means that, despite the fact that

dumpsites are the least favoured alternative for long-term municipal solid waste (MSW)

management, they will continue to exist for a long time. There is ample evidence that

residential areas in many cities in developing countries face a variety of environmental

difficulties arising from solid waste disposal in landfills (Leton & Omotosho, 2004; Wafi et

al., 2019).

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Prevalently, disposal of solid waste in Ado Ekiti has been by open dumping. This primitive

method is known to attract flies, vermin, and scavengers. The dumpsite is characterized by

offensive odours which often serve as an early indicator of health hazards (Oyedele et al,

2019, Ojo et al, 2012). To overcome this phenomenon and protect the environment, it is

crucial to delineate appropriate landfill sites for the metropolis. Landfills have been

recognized as the classic solution for waste disposal Belghazal, et at,. 2012, Chabuk, et tal

2019, Mallick, 2021). Owoeye & Rotowa (2015) recommended the use of an engineering

landfill device for waste disposal to discourage open dumping. (Kofoworola 2017) reported a

significant reduction of greenhouse gas emissions resulting from the current MSW

management of open dumping and burning with the implementation of disposal strategies

such as sanitary landfill with gas capture.

According to Ferronato & Torretta, (2019), environmental contamination due to solid waste

mismanagement is a global issue. The volume of waste generation in Ado Ekiti metropolis

which stood at about 120 tons per day a decade ago has increased drastically along the trend

of urbanization and the negative consequences of urban sprawl (Ibidun et al, 2012).

Allocating a municipal solid waste landfills location is a tough task that requires the

consideration of proximity to human settlement and other infrastructural factor (Khan &

Samadder, 2014; Yukalang et al., 2018).The use of remote sensing and GIS techniques to

detect proximity-based variables such as distance to roads and settlements impacts the

appropriateness of solid waste landfills is required for the generating spatial models needed

for site design. Geographic Information Systems (GIS) have been used in conjunction with

multi criteria thresholds to produce maps of the most suitable sites for solid waste collection

(Bilgilioglu et al., 2021; Marceta et al., 2021; Wang et al., 2019). One such threshold is

documented in the Environment Protection Agency Landfill Manual (Vallero & Blight,

2019).The EPA guideline establishes a minimal standard for locating municipal solid waste

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sites. The purpose of this research is to assess the optimal location of municipal solid waste

landfills in Ado, Ekiti State, Nigeria. The objectives include: to report on the location of

existing collection points, determine their acceptability, and propose optimal location for

waste landfills in Ado municipal.

1.2 Aim and Objectives of the study

The aim of this study is to assess the optimal location of municipal solid waste landfills in

Ado, Ekiti State.

1.3 Objectives of the study

The specific objectives of this study are to:

i. report on the location of existing collection points of solid waste in the study area.

ii. determine their acceptability of waste dumpsites, and

iii. propose optimal location for waste landfills in Ado municipal.

1.4 Statement of Problems

Waste is an inevitable by-product of socio-economic and institutional activities. As long as

man is in existence, he uses, stores up, and disposes off materials (wastes) thus making him

inseparable from waste). Furthermore, the complexity of solid waste generated in modern

civilization is directly related to the living standard, socioeconomic and cultural attributes of

that particular environment (Fakere, Fadairo,and Oriye,2012). Consequent upon which the

strategies for the management of the waste generated vary in terms of the region and the

available resources. In Nigeria and other developing countries, some of the prominent waste

management problems witnessed include but not limited to: indiscriminate dumping, poor

means of storage, inefficient transportation and insanitary disposal. All these problems are all

a function of certain factors which include: population increase, Attitude of people towards

waste management, location of Open dump sites without consideration to the surrounding

land uses and in most cases these sites are very far from the people. It may seem as though

4
that urban waste management issues are difficult to deal with, however the root cause sterns

from the fact that the rate of collection and evacuation is inversely proportional to the rate of

generation which makes solid waste accumulation a major source of environmental nuisance

in Nigerian cities (Uwadiegwu and Chukwu, 2013).

For instance, it is estimated that the rate of solid waste generated is about 0.43kg/head per

day and 60 to 80 percent of it are organic in nature (Ogwueleka, 2009). The volume of solid

waste generated sometimes over-whelms urban administrator's capacity to plan for their

collection and disposal. Attempts to solve this problem effectively have given rise to myriad

of strategies involving sizeable amount of capital and human resources. These strategies

yielded little or no positive impact on the physical urban environment of Nigeria cities

(Kayode and Omole, 2011). It is in the light of this that this paper assesses the optimal

location of municipal solid waste in Ado-Ekiti.

1.5 Justification of the Study

Solid waste heaps continue to grow in Nigerian cities on a regular basis, and the sites have

become breeding grounds for flies and other vectors, posing health risks, blocking traffic, and

degrading the environment. Ado-Ekiti Urban has unquestionably experienced population

expansion, resulting in increases in residential, commercial, industrial, and other activities.

These operations, together with settlement, will undoubtedly have an impact on solid waste

generation and disposal.

Landfill site selection is acknowledged as a complicated process as it entails consideration of

a large number of variables (Asefa,and Mindahun,2019, Alkaradaghi,, 2020). It is a tasking

enterprise particularly in the basement complex terrain which is known to be hydro

geologically challenging with hydraulic properties characterized by extreme variations over

short distances (Barry et al, 2021). Environmental protection and public health considerations

are the primary concerns in landfill site selection (Mallick, 2021). An appropriate landfill site

5
selection demands an ensemble of spatial and urban planning requirements, hydro geological

conditions, and geological conditions (Asefa,and Mindahun,2019, Alkaradaghi,, 2020).

Integration of geoelectrical and remotely sensed data in a Geographical Information System

(GIS) holds good promises. The application of satellite imagery offers immerses advantages

in the selection of suitable sites for waste disposal. Satellite remote sensing permits repetitive

and synoptic coverage, among other features. GIS has emerged as an indispensable

technology in environmental studies and management. It is readily applied to manipulate and

analyze geographic data. It is a powerful tool for collecting, storing, retrieving, analyzing,

displaying, and transforming spatial data as required (Aderoju, et al, 2018). GIS is reputable

for its ability to manage large volumes of spatial data from different sources. With the

implementation of GIS, a large volume of geospatial data and information are maintained in a

standard format, revised, and updated with additional features. Sustainable development and

management are thus facilitated at real time (Oyedele, 2019).

1.6 Scope of the Study

The scope of the study involves the optimal locations for landfill in Ado municipal area. The

most important aspects is using GIS to discover the best location far from the residential

buildings and communities. From there, suitable map will be generated to know the exact

place for solid waste landfills. These studies and models mainly focus on identifying most

suitable location for Landfill in Ado minicipal.

1.7 Definition of Terms

1. Municipal: The municipality as an entity of the local government and disposes

defined rights and obligations, which are governed by the special regulations

2. Solid waste: Solid waste is any non flowing substance that is relatively undesirable or

unuseful as a result of human and natural activities. Some of these solid waste

6
 products include automobiles, electrical appliances, and other inorganic materials

which are not destroyed but are discarded when they are no longer in use.

3. GIS: Geographical Information System (GIS) is an effective tool for processing

massive amount of spatial data as a preliminary screening step in landfill site

selection.

4. Landfill: A landfill is defined as a well-engineered depression in the ground used for

the disposal of solid waste. Landfills contain a variety of wastes, mainly consisting of

municipal solid waste (MSW) or everyday single-use items such as packaging, grass

clippings, furniture, clothing, bottles, food scraps, newspapers, appliances, paint, and

batteries.

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

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2.1 Concept of Solid Waste

Solid waste may be defined as all discarded solid materials resulting from households,

industrial, healthcare, constructional, agricultural, commercial, and institutional sources.

Solid waste generated in a city is often referred to as municipal solid waste. In other literature

and jurisdictions this category may exclude sewage, dissolved solids in water, and industrial

waste Hoornweg, et al, 2008. For this paper, no exclusions were made for the reason that in

most developing countries, most of the solid waste is not sorted at source, collection,

transportation and disposal points. Thus, municipal waste in the context of developing

countries may include waste that would not ordinarily be considered municipal waste. Solid

or municipal solid waste management refers to the planning, financing and implementation of

programs for solid waste collection, transportation, treatment and final disposal in an

environmentally and socially acceptable manner. Failure to adhere to set standards at any of

the various stages constitutes “poor solid waste management”.

2.2 Waste Classification

Municipal solid waste is often categorized into two major groups: organic and inorganic. The

organic municipal solid waste can further be divided into three categories: putrescible,

fermentable, and non-fermentable. Putrescible wastes include products such as foodstuff that

decompose fast. Fermentable wastes decompose rapidly, but without the unpleasant

accompaniments of putrefaction while non-fermentable wastes tend to resist decomposition

and, therefore, break down very slowly. Inorganic solid waste includes articles like metals,

plastics, and other non biodegradable materials. In terms of toxicity, some solid wastes are

classified as hazardous including pesticides, medical waste, electrical waste, herbicides,

fertilizers and paints and are recommended to be disposed of in special ways and not to be

mixed with general municipal waste Solid waste in developing countries characteristically

has a high content of organic matter compared to that in developed countries. For example,

8
studies conducted in the region estimated that in Juba South Sudan, organic waste constituted

about 31% of all waste by weight, 61% in Ghana and 54% by weight in an Ethiopian town

Getahun T, et al, 2012. The high organic content has implications for waste management

including recycling, but also a potential source of ill-health if mismanaged.

2.3 Urbanization and Solid Waste Generation

Solid waste generation and urbanization are intimately related and therefore it is important to

briefly reflect on the urbanization phenomenon in the region. In 1950, about 30% of the

world’s population lived in urban areas. It is currently estimated that by 2050, about 66% of

the world’s population will be living in urban areas. Sub- Saharan Africa is urbanizing at a

faster rate than any other part of the world. While Africa is still the least urbanized (40%), it

is estimated that by 2050, about 56% of the population in Africa will be living in urban areas

Going by the current trends, urbanization is a phenomenon that is rapidly growing and urban

centers will remain the engines for economic growth and associated waste generation. Urban

centers will also bear a substantial burden of ill-health in the coming decades attributable to

poor waste management. While the per capita waste generation is highest in the developed

world, these countries have better waste management practices that mitigate against potential

adverse health impacts. In countries that are rapidly urbanizing and developing economically

such as China and India, the ever increasing volumes of waste generated and weaker waste

management practices pose serious health risks

Human activities and their products are now recognized as the main cause of current global

environmental and climatic changes that have direct effects on health and wellbeing

Similarly, at a local municipal level, many human activities generate waste and these are

major causes of environmental and health challenges including infectious diseases such

malaria, cholera, dysentery, respiratory complications and injuries among others. The

growing urban population means more solid waste, and higher impact on environment and

9
health. Increased solid waste results into increased demand on existing solid waste

management services, which are in many African countries, the single largest budgetary item

for local governments. The urban growth in most of Africa has not been in synchrony with

expansion of social amenities and economic opportunities, with many cities struggling to

provide basic services such as shelter, water and maintaining a clean environment amidst an

ever growing but largely poor urban population. Urban centers have been considered places

of opportunity, wealth, better education and health. Indeed, from the health perspective,

urban populations have historically had overall better health indicators compared to rural

populations and this became to be known as the urban health advantage. In the face of new

urban challenges, the urban health advantage is waning.

2.4 Health impacts of exposure to solid waste

The impact of solid waste on health is varied and may depend on numerous factors including

the nature of the waste, duration of exposure, the population exposed, and availability of

prevention and mitigation interventions.. The impacts may range from mild psychological

effects to severe morbidity, disability or death. The literature on health impacts of solid waste

exposure remains weak and inconclusive in many cases due the difficulties encountered in

accurately ascertaining exposure, controlling for confounders, accounting for duration of

exposure and inability to follow up those exposed to ascertain outcomes that do not manifest

in the short term. This makes establishing the burden of disease attributable to solid waste

and full epidemiologic spectrum of diseases emanating from the exposure a difficult

undertaking often requiring large sample sizes and prolonged periods

of follow-up. Surveillance data are lacking due to the complexity involved in measuring

exposure and outcomes but also the limeted programmatic focus and funding to this area.

While estimating the exposure and the outcomes are difficult, available research allows us to

conceptualize and draw linkages on how current solid waste exposures might be contributing

10
to the observed ill health at individual and population level. This may not bacteria such one

that causes tuberculosis, anthrax, pneumonia, meningitis, and infections of the

gastrointestinal system. Evidence shows that workers who handle medical waste are at a

higher risk of nosocomial infections.

Decomposing organic waste is a rich medium or culture for growth of numerous micro-

organisms many of which are diseases causing if passed on to humans. Also there is always a

risk of transmission through vectors such as houseflies but also through human contacts as is

the case with waste handlers who do not use protective wear and waste pickers who most of

the time use bare hands. Additionally, articles retrieved from waste may be sold to

unsuspecting public without undergoing thorough cleaning hence posing a risk of infection

transmission. Gastro-intestinal infections such as typhoid fever, polio virus infection,

hepatitis E infection, and cholera are often transmitted through contaminated food or water.

Toilet ownership in Kenya, for example, is very low with 12% of all households not having

any form of toilet. Even those households with a toilet, many are not connected to the main

sewer line. These result into fecal matter being disposed of in open spaces while other

households do not have any form of toilet and thus dispose of fecal matter as general waste,

popularly referred to as flying toilets or discharged into rivers. Human fecal matter is a

known source for pathogenic enteric parasites, typhoid fever infection, polio virus infection,

hepatitis E infection, cholera and common gastroenteritis transmitted human contact, vectors

or contaminated water. Studies have revealed high levels of pathogenic parasites in dump site

waste confirming the risk waste handlers and pickers are exposed to this challenge of proper

feacal matter management is not limited to households but also institutions such as hospitals

and schools. There are reports of cholera outbreaks emanating from fecal waste coming from

a hospital.

2.5 Waste Management Strategies in Nigeria

11
The handling of SWM in Nigeria calls for immediate attention and the adoption of the best

practicable environmental approach towards preserving the environment. In achieving a

sustainable SWM strategy, all steps of the management process must be fully functional and

effective. They include; solid waste generation and characterization, solid waste collection

and transportation, and solid waste disposal/treatment (Federal Ministry of Environment,

2000). Researchers (Sha’Ato et al., 2007; Olanrewaju & Ilemobade, 2009; Uwadiegwu, 2013;

Onuigbo & Bello, 2014) have reported a similar pattern of management at the different steps

of solid waste management. This section will briefly examine the management strategies

employed by various Solid Waste Authorities in Nigeria. They are; TSWMS, WMS, TcS.

Nigeria. Most often, the process of waste management starts with waste generation, waste

characterisation seldom takes place, followed by the collection of this waste either in bags or

receptacles and then to waste transportation

2.6 Design and Regulations of Landfills

All municipal solid waste landfills, industrial landfills, and hazardous landfills are expected

to meet minimum national criteria to ensure the protection of human health and the

environment (USEPA, 2017). An industrial waste landfill for disposal of nonhazardous

industrial waste or commercial solid waste is regulated by Ministry of Environment. Each

landfill design has varying degrees of sustainability; landfills include open dump landfills,

controlled landfills, engineered landfills, and sustainable landfills.

2.6.1 Open Dump Landfills.

Open dumping is a common practice in many developing countries around the world and is

defined as a method of disposal of solid wastes indiscriminately without planning or control

mechanisms. About 70% of countries around the world use “open dumping” as a method of

disposal of municipal solid waste. Since these open dumpsites are not regulated, they are

susceptible to open burning, scavengers, disease vectors, and elements (Rushbrook, 2001 ).

12
The characteristics of these open dumpsites include lack of planning and control of

dumpsites, inadequate or lack of regulation of types of wastes entering the site, water logging

and leaching resulting in water pollution, open defecation by the public, lack of confinement

of waste body, and uncontrolled burning of waste materials leading to air pollution. Open

dump landfills are prohibited in most developing countries. Open dumpsites have no proper

engineering design and therefore have no groundwater protection or drainage controls.

Environmental risks posed by these open dump landfills need to be investigated to determine

remedial actions on whether to close or upgrade the open dump to a controlled landfill.

Environmental impact assessments (EIAs) should include flaws in site location (floodplains

or groundwater), depth of existing open dumpsite and degree of compaction, variability of

wastes within the site, and potential for mining decomposed organic materials (HSN, 2017.)

2.6.2 Controlled Landfills.

Controlled landfills are one level above open dump landfills, as controlled landfills are

subject to basic control mechanisms such as the presence of an authority figure on site,

control of vehicular movement and access to landfill, and basic waste handling techniques to

ensure control and consolidation of the total body of wastes. At these sites, there is an

installation of preliminary drainage control measures and a lack of uncontrolled burning of

waste, and scavenging and foraging animals are minimized. Although controlled landfills are

more regulated than open dump landfills, they are still not viable since they do not conform

with the fundamental principles of waste compaction and covering. Typical operational

procedures include limiting the working face area, installation of litter barrier, and provision

of daily cover. Waste volume is subject to control, as well as drainage systems and water

quality.

2.6.3 Engineered Landfills.

13
Engineered landfills are disposal sites that are constructed through planning and adoption of

engineering techniques that ensure control of waste and avoidance of surface water through

the installation of well designed and well-constructed surface drainage. Other characteristics

include excavation and spreading of soil materials to cover the body of wastes, compacting of

wastes into smaller layers, removal of leachate from wastes into lagoons or similar structures,

venting of landfill gas out of wastes, and most importantly planned isolation of landfills from

surrounding geology. Modern landfills are based on the concept of isolating landfills from the

environment for proper stabilization of wastes and rendering them innocuous through

biological, chemical, and physical treatments. Engineered landfills are often referred to as

sanitary landfills due to the high standard of waste disposal. Sanitary landfills require a

protected bottom where trash is buried in layers and compressed as a compact solid to ensure

the safety of accumulated waste and ease of decomposition. &e design, construction, and

development of these landfills require sufficient planning from inception to its after-use

stage. Location siting, construction, and operational requirements are much more stringent

than other types of landfills. &us, sanitary or engineered landfills are considered to have the

least impact on public health and the environment (Joseph et al, 2013.)

2.6. 4. Sustainable Landfills.

The major driver of engineered or sanitary landfills has been the prevention of waste

saturation to minimize the likelihood of leachate leaking into the surrounding ground. &is

approach has led to a very slow rate of waste degradation, with a projected stabilization

period in the order of hundred years. However, degradation can be accelerated in principle by

the controlled circulation of fluids through the waste and thus operating such engineered

landfill as a bioreactor. &is approach is more sustainable with regard to airspace, processes,

control, and product utilization with minimal negative impacts on the environment and

human health. Sustainable landfills often have two different approaches with regard to

14
parameters that control chemical and biological processes such as water content, temperature,

microflora, and compaction rates. &ese led to anaerobic bioreactors and aerobic biocells

(Reinhart and Townsend 1998, Zurbrugg, 1999). Anaerobic bioreactors are similar in design

to an engineered landfill with the following basic difference in their operational practice: a

built-in leachate collection and recirculation system to enhance waste stabilization,

geomembrane liners, a gas collection system, and final cover. Using this system, the methane

gas that is predominantly produced can be collected, purified, and sold. Aerobic biocell

systems utilize air circulation to maximize the rate of decomposition of waste. &is latter

system generates carbon dioxide as a preferred gas. A sustainable landfill utilizing an aerobic

biocell design built by the Environmental Control System, Inc. (2001), Stabilized waste in

this system has limited methane gas and odor production, generates less harmful leachate

capable of impacting groundwater, and ensures that the landfill recovers valuable airspace

paving the way for a recycle (reusable) and sustainable landfill system.

Various research papers have been published on Land filling Site Selection incorporating GIS

and MCDA methods. (Chang, et al, 2008) used Fuzzy method to identify suitable site for

landfill in the Lower Rio Grande Valley region of Texas. The initial screening process for

eliminating unsuitable land was carried out using ArcGIS® software. Fuzzy multi-criteria

decision analysis was selected to identify most suitable landfill site. The operators used in

fuzzy membership function were ‘Addition’ and ‘Multiplication’ operators. The significance

of the study is fuzzy membership functions take into account the linguistic uncertainties

associated with some of the criteria which cannot be quantified such as possible impacts on

historical site in terms of aesthetics,

odor, etc. due to landfill in the vicinity. Sensitivity analysis is required to check the

probability of changes in final decision.

Delgado et al. 2013 compared three spatial decision-support models – Boolean logic, Binary

15
evidence and Overlapping index of multiple class maps. The constraints introduced in the

study were selected in order to comply governmental regulations with respect to landfill

site selection procedure. The study shows that Boolean logic is less complex and more

restrictive method than the other two methods. Binary evidence and overlapping index

method requires assignment of weights to the factors considered in the study. The suitability

score is close to 0 when the attribute is poorly suitable in Boolean logic model. Suitability

analysis is required for Binary evidence and overlapping index method.

Tamara et al. 2015 carried out Analytical Hierarchy Process evaluation using ArcGIS and

ArcGIS extension for finding suitable landfill site for waste disposal in Srem region of

Republic of Serbia. Expert’s ranking were used and pair-wise comparison of seventeen

factors were done using AHP. The final suitability map was derived by performing overlay

analysis in ArcGIS. The significance of this study is that two step exclusion process was

performed. At initial stage, restriction maps were prepared applying buffer as per

environmental legislation and at the end, once again the exclusion step was carried out to

check any possible error in defining restricted zone.

Effat et al. 2019 used Weighted Linear Combination method to map potential landfill sites for

waste disposal for Sinai Peninsula region. Factor weights were calculated by two different

methods - for Environmental criteria, AHP was used and for socio economic criteria, straight

rank-sum method was used. Boolean Overlay available in ArcGIS software was used to

prepare constraint maps. Weighted Overlay method available under spatial analyst tool in

ArcGIS was used to map potential sites for landfill in the study area. WLC methods provide

results that are halfway between ‘and’ and ‘or’ operators. Three different results were

obtained by each method of weighting.

16
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