Professional Documents
Culture Documents
محاضرات طرق انشاء2023-2024
محاضرات طرق انشاء2023-2024
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃(𝐵𝐵)
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝐵𝐵 − 𝐶𝐶 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 =
𝐼𝐼 + 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃(𝑂𝑂&𝑀𝑀)
or
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴(𝐵𝐵)
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝐵𝐵 − 𝐶𝐶 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 =
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 + 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴(𝑂𝑂&𝑀𝑀)
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 (𝐵𝐵) − 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃(𝑂𝑂&𝑀𝑀)
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 − 𝐶𝐶 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 =
𝐼𝐼
or
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 (𝐵𝐵) − 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴(𝑂𝑂&𝑀𝑀)
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 − 𝐶𝐶 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 =
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
Example:
A city engineer is considering installing an irrigation system. He is trying
to decide which one of two alternatives to select. The two alternatives
have the following cash flow:
Example:
With interest at 10 %, what is the benefit-cost ratio for this government
project?
Example:
A van is bought for $15,000 in Year 0. It generates revenues of $25,000
per year and expenses of $20,000 per year in each of the Years 1 thru 5. Its
salvage value is zero after 5 years. Ignoring income taxes, compute the
benefit/cost ratio if i = 10%.
Solution
Example:
A tax-exempt municipality is considering the construction of an
impoundment for city water supplies. Two different sites have been
selected as technically, politically, socially, and financially feasible.
The city council has asked you to do a benefit-cost analysis of the
alternatives and recommend the best site. The city uses a 6% interest
rate in all analysis of this type.
Which should you recommend?
Solution
Example:
A city engineer is deciding which of two bids for a new computer to
accept. Using benefit-cost analysis, which alternative should be selected
if the interest rate is 10% per year?
Solution
Example:
Given four mutually exclusive alternatives, each with a useful life of 20
years and no salvage value have been presented to the city council of any
town in Iraq. Which alternative should be selected?
Solution
Example:
The local city recorder is deciding between two different phone
answering systems for her office.
The information concerning the two machines is presented below.
Example:
The city council of arson, Michigan is debating whether to buy a new fire
truck to increase protection for the city. The financial analyst has
prepared the following data:
Using the modified B/C ratio method determine whether the city should
buy a new truck, and which one to buy if it will be paid for with money
borrowed at an interest rate 7%.
Solution
Example:
The expansion of the hotel and conference center at Wicker Valley State
Park is under study. The initial investment and annual operating benefits
and cost are very different due to the differing magnitudes of the project
under consideration. These can be summarized as follows:
Swell
• Excavated rock used in embankment occupies more space
• May amount to 30% or more
Example
Computing Volume ;Shrinkage = 10%, L = 100 ft
Station 1:
Cut Area = 6 ft2
Fill Area = 29 ft2
Cut Ground line
Fill
Shrinkage = 10%
Station 2:
Cut Area = 29 ft2
Fill Area = 5 ft2
Example
Calculate Mass Diagram Assuming Shrinkage = 25%
Solution
2 2 3
Volumecut 1 = 100 ft (40 ft + 140 ft ) = 333.3 yd
cut
54
2 2 3
Volume fill 1 = 100 ft (20 ft + 0 ft ) = 37.0 yd
fill
54
3 3 3
Total cut 1 = 333.3 yd - 46.3 yd = 287.0 yd
2 2
Volume cut 2 = 100 ft (140 ft + 160 ft ) = 555.6
3
yd cut
54
2 2 3
Volume fill 2 = 100 ft (20 ft + 25 ft ) = 83.3 yd
fill
54
3 3
Total cut 1 to 2 = 555.6 yd – 104.2 yd = 451.4
3
yd
3 3
Total cut 2 = 451.4 yd + 287 = 738.4 yd
Cost of Owning and Operating Construction Equipment
2.1 INTRODUCTION
2.2.2 DEPRECIATION
Example
Example
On April 1, 2011, Company A purchased an equipment at the cost
of $140,000. This equipment is estimated to have 5 year useful life. At
the end of the 5th year, the salvage value (residual value) will be
$20,000. Company A recognizes depreciation to the nearest whole
month. Calculate the depreciation expenses for 2011, 2012 and 2013
using double declining balance depreciation method.
Useful life = 5 years --> Straight line depreciation rate = 1/5 = 20%
per year
Example
On April 1, 2011, Company A purchased an equipment at the cost of
$140,000. This equipment is estimated to have 5 year useful life. At the
end of the 5th year, the salvage value (residual value) will be
$20,000. Company A recognizes depreciation to the nearest whole
month. Calculate the depreciation expenses for 2011, 2012 and 2013
using 150% declining balance depreciation method.
Useful life = 5 years --> Straight line depreciation rate = 1/5 = 20%
per year
Depreciation Example 1
Cost $ 110,000
Salvage value $ 20,000
Useful life 5
Purchase date January 1, 2011
Year Depreciation
2011 $ 18,000 =($110,000 - $20,000) x 1/5
2012 $ 18,000 =($110,000 - $20,000) x 1/5
2013 $ 18,000 =($110,000 - $20,000) x 1/5
2014 $ 18,000 =($110,000 - $20,000) x 1/5
2015 $ 18,000 =($110,000 - $20,000) x 1/5
Total $ 90,000
Double declining balance depreciation
Depreciation rate = 1/5 x 200% = 40%
Book value at
Depreciation Depreciation Accumulated Book value
Year the beginning
rate expense depreciation at year-end
of year
2011 $ 110,000 40% $ 44,000 $ 44,000 $ 66,000
2012 $ 66,000 40% $ 26,400 $ 70,400 $ 39,600
2013 $ 39,600 40% $ 15,840 $ 86,240 $ 23,760
2014 $ 23,760 40% $ 3,760 (*1) $ 90,000 $ 20,000
2015 $ 20,000 40% $ - $ 90,000 $ 20,000
Total $ 90,000
Book value
at the Depreciation Depreciation Accumulated Book value
Year
beginning rate expense depreciation at year-end
of year
2011 $ 110,000 30% $ 33,000 $ 33,000 $ 77,000
2012 $ 77,000 30% $ 23,100 $ 56,100 $ 53,900
2013 $ 53,900 30% $ 16,170 $ 72,270 $ 37,730
2014 $ 37,730 30% $ 11,319 $ 83,589 $ 26,411
2015 $ 26,411 30% $ 6,411 (*2) $ 90,000 $ 20,000
Total $ 90,000
Sum-of-the-years'-digits depreciation
Sum of the years'
digits 15 =1+2+3+4+5
Years'
Year
digits Depreciation
2011 5 $ 30,000 =($110,000 - $20,000) x 5/15
2012 4 $ 24,000 =($110,000 - $20,000) x 4/15
2013 3 $ 18,000 =($110,000 - $20,000) x 3/15
2014 2 $ 12,000 =($110,000 - $20,000) x 2/15
2015 1 $ 6,000 =($110,000 - $20,000) x 1/15
Total 15 $ 90,000
2.2.3 INVESTMENT (OR INTEREST) COST
Investment (or interest) cost represents the annual cost (converted into
an hourly cost) of capital invested in a machine. If borrowed funds are
utilized for purchasing a piece of equipment, the equipment cost is simply
the interest charged on these funds. However, if the equipment is
purchased with company assets, an interest rate that is equal to the rate of
return on company investment should be charged. Therefore, investment
cost is computed as the product of interest rate multiplied by the value of
the equipment, which is then converted into cost per hour of operation.
The average annual cost of interest should be based on the average value
of the equipment during its useful life. The average value of equipment
may be determined from the following equation:
IC(n+1)
P= 2n
where IC is the total initial cost, P the average value, and n the useful life
(years).
This equation assumes that a unit of equipment will have no salvage
value at the end of its useful life. If a unit of equipment has salvage value
when it is disposed of, the average value during its life can be obtained
from the following equation:
where IC is the total initial cost, P the average value, S the salvage value,
and n the useful life (years).
Example
Consider a unit of equipment costing $50,000 with an estimated salvage
value of $15,000 after 5 years.
Type of utilization
Horsepower
Low (gal/hr) Medium (gal/hr) High (gal/hr)
(fwhp)
90 1.5 2.4 3.3
The cost of replacing those items that have very short service lives with
respect to machine service life can be a substantial operating cost. These
items will differ depending on the type of machine, but typical items
include cutting edges, ripper tips, bucket teeth, body liners, and cables.
By using either past experience or manufacturer life estimates the cost
can be calculated and converted to an past experience or manufacturer life
estimates the cost can be calculated and converted to an hourly basis.
All machine-operating costs should be calculated per working hour so that it is easy
to sum the applicable costs for a particular class of machines and obtain a total
operating hour cost.
COST FOR BIDDING
The process of selecting a particular type of machine for use in
constructing a project requires knowledge of the cost associated with
operating the machine in the field. In selecting the proper machine, a
contractor seeks to achieve unit production at a least cost. This cost for
bidding is the O&O we have discussed. It is usually expressed in dollars per
equipment operating hour.
OWNERSHIP EXPENSES
Depreciation is simply the prorating of a machine's consumption over its
useful life. Do not confuse the depreciation discussed here with tax
depreciation. Tax depreciation has nothing to do with consumption of the
asset; it is simply an artificial calculation for tax code purposes
EXAMPLE 3-4
A company having a cost of capital rate of 8% purchases a $300,000 tractor. This
machine has an expected service life of 4 yr.s and will be utilized 2,500 hr per year.
The tires on this machine cost $45,000. The estimated salvage value at the end of 4
yrth is $50,000. Calculate the depreciation portion of the ownership cost for this
machine using the time value method.
Initial cost $300,000
Cost of tires -45,000
Purchase price less tires $255,000
Now it is necessary to calculate the uniform series required to replace a present value
of $255,000.
A = P X (A/P ,i % ,n)
A = $255,000 X 0.3019208 = $76,990 per year
Next calculate the uniform series sinking fund factor to use with the salvage value.
A = f X (A/f ,i %, n)
A = $50,000 x 0.02219208 = $11,096 per year
Therefore using the time value method the depreciation portion of the
ownership cost is
where
P = purchase price less the cost of the tires
S= the estimated salvage value
n =expected service life in years
The AAI is multiplied by the corporate cost of capital rate to determine
the ownership cost of money portion. The straight-line depreciation of the
cost of the machine less the salvage and less the cost of tires, if a wheeled
machine, is then added to the cost of money part to arrive at the
depreciation portion of ownership cost.
EXAMPLE 3-5
Using the same machine and company information as in Example 3.4,
calculate the depreciation portion of the ownership cost using the AAI
method.
$255,000(4+ 1) + $50.000(4 − 1)
AAI=
2𝑋𝑋4
=$178,125
$178,125/yr x8%
Interest cost part =
2,500 hr/yr
= $5.700/hr
$205,000
= $20.500/hr
4𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 𝑥𝑥 2,500 hr/yr
Total depreciation portion of the ownership cost using the AAI method
$5.700/hr + $20.500 = $26.200/hr
For Examples 3.4 and 3.5, the difference in the calculated depreciation
portion of the ownership cost is $0.l58/hr ($26.358/hr - $26.200/hr). The
choice of which method to use is strictly a company preference.
Basically, either method is satisfactory, especially considering the impact
of the unknowns concerning service life, operating hours per year, and
expected future salvage. There is no single solution to calculating
ownership cost. The best approach is to perform several analyses using
different assumptions and to be guided by the range of solutions.
EXAMPLE 3-6
Using the same machine and company information as in Examples 3.4
and 3.5, calculate the hourly owning expense associated with taxes,
insurance, and storage. Annually, the company pays as an average 1% in
property taxes on equipment, 2% for insurance, and allocates 0.75% for
storage expenses.
OPERATING EXPENSES
Figures based on actual company experience should be used to
develop operating expenses. Many companies, however, do not keep
good equipment operating and maintenance records; therefore, many
operating costs are estimated as a percentage of a machine's book value.
Even companies that keep records often accumulate expenses in an
overhead account and then prorate the total back to individual machines
using book value.
Fuel
The amount expended on fuel is a product of how a machine is used in
the field and the local cost of fuel. In past years, fuel could be purchased
on long-term contracts at a fixed price. Today fuel is usually offered with
a time of delivery price. A supplier will agree to supply the fuel needs of a
project, but the price will not be guaranteed for the duration of the work.
Therefore, when bidding a long-duration project, the contractor must
make an assessment of future fuel prices.
To calculate hourly fuel expense, a consumption rate is multiplied by the
unit price of fuel. Service records are important for estimating fuel
consumption.
EXAMPLE 3-7
A 220-fwhp wheel loader will be used at an asphalt plant to move
aggregate from a stock pile to the cold feed hoppers. This loader is diesel
powered. It is estimated that the work will be steady at an efficiency
equal to a 50-min hour. The engine will work at full throttle while loading
the bucket (30% of the time) and at three-quarter throttle to travel and
dump. Calculate the fuel consumption using the engine consumption
averages and compare the result to a medium rating in Table 3.2. If diesel
costs $1.07/gal, what is the expected fuel expense?
Fuel consumption diesel engine 0.04 gal per flywheel horsepower hour
(fwhp-hr).
Load factor: Loading bucket 1.00 x 0.30 = 0.30
Travel and dump 0.75 x 0.70 = 0.53
0.83
Time factor: 50-min hr = 0.83
Combined factor: 0.83 x 0.83 = 0.69
Fuel consumption = 0.69 x 0.04 gal/fwhp-hr x 220 fwhp = 6.1 gal/hr
Table 3.2: medium rating 200 fwhp loader = 6.8 gal/hr
There is considerable difference in the calculated results and those found
in Table 3.2, which is why it is recommended that a company establish
historical data.
Cost:
Using the formula 6.1 gal/hr x $1.07/gal = $6.527/hr
Table 3.2 6.8 gal/hr x $1.07/gal = $7.276/hr
Lubricants
The quantity of lubricants used by an engine will vary with the size of
the engine, the capacity of the crankcase, the condition of the piston
rings, and the number of hours between oil changes. For extremely dusty
conditions, it may be desirable to change oil every 50 hr, but this is an
unusual condition. It is common practice to change oil every 100 to 200
hr. The quantity of the oil consumed by an engine per change will include
the amount added during the change plus the makeup oil between
changes.
A formula that can be used to estimate the quantity of oil required is
This formula contains the assumption that the quantity of oil consumed
per rated horsepower hour between changes will be 0.006 lb.
EXAMPLE 3-8
Calculate the oil required, on a per hour basis, for the 220-fwhp wheel
loader in Example 3-7. The operating factor will be 0.69 as calculated in
that example. The crankcase capacity is 8 gal and the company has a
policy to change oil every 150 hr.
220 fwhp x 0.69 x 0.006 Ib /hp−150 8 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔
+ =0.18gal/hr
7.4 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙/𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 150 h𝑟𝑟
The cost of hydraulic oil filters, and grease will be added to the expense
of engine oil. The hourly cost of filters is simply the actual expense to
purchase the filters divided by the hours between changes, if a company
does not keep good machine-servicing data, it is difficult to accurately
estimate the cost of hydraulic oil and grease. The usual solution is to refer
to the manufacturers' published tables of average usage or expense.
Repairs
The cost of repairs is normally the largest single component of machine
cost (see Table 3.3). Some general guidelines published by the Power
Crane and Shovel Association (PCSA) in the past estimated repair and
maintenance expenses at 80 to 95% of depreciation for crawler-mounted
excavators, 80 to 85% for wheel-mounted excavators, 55% for crawler
cranes, and 50% for wheel-mounted cranes. The lower figures for cranes
reflect the work they perform and the intermittent nature of their use. The
data assumed that half of the cost was materials and parts and half was
labor, in the case of mechanical machines. For hydraulic machines, two-
thirds of the cost is for materials and parts, and one-third for labor.
Tires
Tire expenses include both tire repair and tire replacement. Tire
maintenance is commonly handled as a percentage of straight-line tire
depreciation. Tire hourly cost can be derived simply by dividing the cost
of a set of tires by their expected life, and this is how many companies
prorate this expense. A more sophisticated approach is to use a time-value
calculation, recognizing that tire replacement expenses are single-point-
in-time outlays that take place over the life of a wheel-type machine.
EXAMPLE 3-9
Calculate the hourly tire cost that should be part of machine operating
cost if a set of tires can be expected to last 5,000 hr. Tires cost $38,580
per set of four. Tire repair cost is estimated to average 16% of the
straight-line tire depreciation. The machine has a service life of 4 yr and
operates 2,500 hr per yr. The company's cost of capital rate is 8%.
Not considering the time value of money:
$38,580
Tire repair cost = * 16% = $1.235/hr
5,000 hr
$38,580
Tire use cost = = $7.716/hr
5,000 hr
Therefore, tire operating cost is $8.951/hr ($1.235/hr + $7.716/hr).
4 yr x 2.500 hr/yr
= 2 sets
5,000 hr per set of tires
First set: Calculate the uniform series required to replace a present
value of ,$38,580.
0.08(1 + 0.08)4
A = $38,580[ ]
0.08(1 + 0.08)4−1
$38,580 X 0.301921
= $4.659/hr
2,500 hr/yr
Second set: The second set will be purchased 2 yr in the future.
Therefore what amount at time zero is equivalent to $38,580 2 yr in the
future? Using the present worth compound amount factor, the equivalent
time zero amount is calculated.
$38,580
P= = $33,076
(1 + 0.08)2
0.08(1 + 0.08)4
A = $33,076 [ 0.08(1 + 0.08)4−1
]
$33,076 X 0.301921
= $3.995/hr
2,500 hr/yr
Therefore, considering the time value of money, tire operating cost is
$9.889/hr ($1.235/hr + $4.659/hr + $3.995/hr).
High-Wear Items
Because the cost of high-wear items is dependent on job conditions and
machine application, the cost of these items is usually accounted for
separate from general repairs.
EXAMPLE 3-10
A dozer equipped with a three-shank ripper will be used in a loading
and ripping application. Actual ripping will take place only about 20% of
total dozer operating time. A ripper shank consists of the shank itself, a
ripper tip, and a shank protector. The estimated life for the ripper tip is 30
hr. The estimated life of the ripper shank protector is three times tip life.
The local price for a tip is $40 and $60 for shank protectors. What hourly
high-wear item charge should be added to the operating cost of a dozer in
this application?
30 hr
Tips = =150 hr of dozer operating time
0.2
3 X $40
= $0.800/hr for tips
150 hr
Shank protectors: Three times tip life x 150 hr = 450 hours of
dozer operating time
3 X $60
= $0.400/hr shank protectors
450 hr
Therefore, the cost of high-wear items is $1.200/hr ($0.800/hr tips +
$0.400/hr shank protectors).
EX/1
A company purchases an equipment by 67,000$ it is estimated
that equipment useful life = 7 years
Salvage value will be 7000 $
Interest rate =12% , storage rate = 4%
Risk rate = 2% , insurance rate = 2% .
It is required:-
1. Annual owner ship cost
2. Depreciation amount
3. The book value of this equipment
Solution
1-
P=67000$ i=20%
F=7000$ n=7 years
EX/2
Find equipment cost per hr. if P=127010 $ , no salvage value,
Useful life = 5 years , operating hrs. = 1400 hrs. /year.
Interest rate =9%, taxes & insurance = 6%, storage =5%,
Grease consumption = 0.25 kg/hr, grease cost = 2.5 $/kg,
Fuel consumption =14 liter/hr , fuel cost = 0.5 $/ liter ,
Lubrication consumption=0.5 liter/hr, lubrication cost=10$/liter,
Maintenance and repair =100% of straight line depreciation.
Solution
1- Owner ship cost :
A=A1-A2
A1= P(A/P,i,n)= 127010 ×(A/P,0.2,5)= 42469.57 $/year
42469.57
= = 30.335 $/ℎ𝑟𝑟
1400
EX/3
Contractor bought an equipment , after 2 years of purchasing he
ask about its value , he found that :
• Salvage value if sell now (after 2 years of purchasing)=45000 $
• Salvage value if sell after 1 year(after 3 years of purchasing)=20000 $
• Salvage value if sell after 2years (after 4 years of purchasing)=7000 $
• Salvage value if sell after 3years (after 5 years of purchasing)=2000 $
Useful life =5 years , i = 20%
Operating cost in 1st year = 24.06 $/hr
Operating cost in 2nd year = 32.12 $/hr
Required: Find when will the owner sell the equipment?
Solution
1- If sold in 1st year
• Owner ship cost = P(A/P,i,n) -F(A/F,i,n)
=45000×(A/P,0.2,1)-20000×(A/F,0.2,1)=34006$/year
34006
Owner ship cost =
1400
= 24.29$/ℎ𝑟𝑟
• Operating cost =32.12+(32.12-24.06)=40.18$/hr
Average operating cost =40.18$/hr
Equipment cost = 24.29+40.18= 64.47$/hr
2- If sold in 2nd year
• Owner ship cost = P(A/P,i,n) -F(A/F,i,n)
=45000×(A/P,0.2,2)-7000×(A/F,0.2,2)=26278$/year
26278
Owner ship cost =
1400
= 18.77$/ℎ𝑟𝑟
• Operating cost =40.18+(32.12-24.06)=48.24$/hr
48.24+40.18
Average operating cost = 2
= 44.71$/ℎ𝑟𝑟
Equipment cost = 18.77+44.71= 63.48$/hr
3- If sold in 3rd year
• Owner ship cost = P(A/P,i,n) -F(A/F,i,n)
=45000×(A/P,0.2,3)-2000×(A/F,0.2,3)=20818$/year
20818
Owner ship cost =
1400
= 14.87$/ℎ𝑟𝑟
• Operating cost =48.24+(32.12-24.06)=56.3$/hr
Average operating cost= 56.2+48.24+40.18
3
= 48.57$/ℎ𝑟𝑟
Equipment cost = 14.87 + 48.57= 63.44$/hr
2- Operating cost :
b-
Total operating cost per hr/year =
Maintenance +fuel consumption×0.5+oil consumption ×10
+ grease consumption ×4
∑ 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 275.585
Average operating cost = = =
𝑛𝑛 6
= 45.93$/ℎ𝑟𝑟
Total cost per hr. =139.42 $/hr
Owner ship cost = Total cost - Operating cost
= 139.42 − 45.93 = 93.49$/ℎ𝑟𝑟
Owner ship cost = 93.49 × 1200 = 112188$/𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦
A= P(A/P,0.16,6)-F(A/F,0.16,6)
112188 = 450000(A/P, 0.16,6) − F(A/F, 0.16,6)
F = 89213$
EX/5
a- An equipment has the data below
• P = 80000$
• F = 8000 $
• n = 7 years, working 1000 hrs./year
• i = 20 %
• Repair = 100% annual straight line depreciation
• Grease, oil, and fuel cost = 9.75$/hr
Find total cost per hour for this equipment
Solution
Total cost = owner ship cost + operating cost
owner ship cost A= P(A/P,0.2,7)-F(A/F, 0.2,7)
= 80000(A/P,0.2,7)-8000(A/F, 0.2,7) =21574.5$/year
21574.5
= = 21.57$/ℎ𝑟𝑟
1000
operating cost =repair + (oil, grease, fuel) cost
80000−8000
repair = = 10285.7$/𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦
7
10285.7
= = 10.29$/ℎ𝑟𝑟
1000
operating cost =10.29 + 9.75 = 20.04$/ℎ𝑟𝑟
Total cost = 21.57 + 20.04 = 41.61$/ℎ𝑟𝑟
The constructor must select the proper equipment to relocate and/or process materials
economically. The decision process for matching the best possible machine to the project
task requires consideration of the mechanical capabilities of the machine. The power
required is the power needed to propel the machine, and this power requirement is
establish by two factors:
( 1 ) Rolling resistance and
(2) Grade resistance.
Equipment manufacturers publish performance charts for individual machine models.
These charts enable the equipment planner to analyze a machine's ability to perform under
a given set of job and load conditions.
GENERAL INFORMATION
On heavy construction projects, the majority of the work consists of handling and
processing large quantities of hulk materials. The constructor must select the proper
equipment to relocate and/or process these materials economically. The decision process
for matching the best possible machine to the project task requires that the estimator take
into account both the properties of the material to be handled and the mechanical
capabilities of the machine.
When the estimator considers a construction material-handling problem, there are two
primary material considerations:
(1) Total quantity of material and
(2) Size of the individual pieces.
The quantity of material to be handled and the time constraints resulting from the
project contract or weather influence the selection of equipment as to type, size, and
number of machines. Larger units generally have lower unit-production cost, but there is a
trade-off in higher mobilization and fixed costs. The size of the individual material
pieces will affect the choice of machine" size. A loader used in a quarry to move shot rock
must be capable of handling the largest rock sizes produced.
Payload
The payload of hauling equipment may be expressed either volumetrically or
gravimetrically. Volumetric capacity can be stated as struck or heaped, and volume can be
expressed in terms of loose cubic yard (lcy), bank cubic yard (bcy), or compacted cubic yard
(ccy). The pay load capacity of a hauling unit is often stated by the manufacturer in terms of the
volume of loose material that the unit can hold, assuming that the material is heaped in some specified
angle of repose. A gravimetric capacity would represent the safe operational weight that the axles or
structural frame of the machine are designed to handle.
From an economic standpoint, overloading haul trucks to improve production looks attractive and
overloading by 20% might increase the haulage rate 15%, allowing for slight increases in time to
load and haul. The cost per ton hauled should show a corresponding decrease, since direct labor costs
will not change and fuel costs will increase only slightly. This apparently favorable situation is only
temporary, however, for the advantage is being bought at the cost of premature aging of the truck and a
corresponding increased replacement capital expense.
Machine Performance
"Why does the machine travel at only 12 mph when its top speed is 33 mph?" Cycle time and payload
determine a machine's production rate, and machine travel speed directly affects cycle time. To answer
the travel speed question, it is necessary to analyze machine power. There are three power questions that
must be analyzed:
• Required power.
• Available power.
• Usable power.
REQUIRED POWER
Power required is the power needed to propel the machine, and two factors establish this power
requirement:
(1) Roiling resistance and
(2) Grade resistance.
Therefore, power required is the power necessary to overcome the total resistance to machine
movement, which is the sum of rolling and grade resistance.
Rolling Resistance
Rolling resistance is the resistance of a level surface to constant-velocity motion across it. This is
sometimes referred to as wheel resistance or track resistance, which results from friction or the
flexing of the driving mechanism plus the force required to shear through or ride over the supporting
surface.
This resistance varies considerably with the type and condition of the surface over which a machine
moves. Soft earth offers a higher resistance than hard-surfaced roads such as concrete pavement. For
machines that move on rubber tires, the rolling resistance varies with the size of, pressure on, and the
tread design of the tires. For equipment that moves on crawler tracks. Such as tractors, the
resistance varies primarily with the type and condition of the road surface.
A narrow-tread, high-pressure tire gives lower rolling resistance than a broad-tread, low-
pressure tire on a hard-surfaced road. This is the result of the small area of contact between
the tire and the road surface. If the road surface is soft and the tire tends to sink into the
earth, however, a broad-tread, low-pressure tire will offer a lower rolling resistance than a
narrow-tread, high-pressure tire. The reason for this condition is that the narrow tire sinks
into the earth more deeply than the broad tire and thus is always having to climb out of a
deeper hole that is equivalent to climbing a steeper grade.
The rolling resistance of an earth-haul road probably will not remain constant under varying
climatic conditions or for varying types of soil that exist along the road. If the earth is
stable, highly compacted, and well maintained by a grader, and if the moisture content is
kept near optimum, it is possible to provide a surface with a rolling resistance about as low
as that of concrete or asphalt. Moisture can be added, but following an extended period of
rain, it may be difficult to remove the excess moisture and the haul road will become
muddy. With an increase in rolling resistance. Providing good surface drainage will speed
the removal of the water and should enable the road to be reconditioned quickly. For a
major earthwork project, it is good economy to provide graders, water trucks, and even
rollers to keep the haul road in good condition. The maintenance of low-rolling-resistance
haul roads is one of the best financial investments an earthmoving contractor can make.
A tire sinks into the soil until the product of bearing area and bearing capacity is sufficient
to sustain the load; then the tire is always attempting to climb out of the rut. The rolling
resistance will increase about 30 lb per ton for each inch of penetration. Total rolling
resistance is a function of the riding gear characteristics (independent of speed), the total
weight of the vehicle, and torque. It is usually expressed as pounds of resistance per ton of
vehicle weight, or as an equivalent grade resistance. For example, if a loaded truck that has
a gross weight equal to 20 tons is moving over a level road whose rolling resistance is 100
lb per ton, the tractive effort required to keep the truck moving at a uniform speed will be
lb/ton kg/m ton lb/ton kg/m ton lb/ton kg/m ton lb/ton kg/m ton
Smooth concrete 40 20 55 27 35 18 45 23
Good asphalt 50-70 25-35 60-70 30-35 40-65 20-33 50-60 25-30
Earth, compacted and maintained 60-100 30-50 60-80 30-40 40-70 20-35 50-70 25-35
Earth, poorly maintained 100-150 50-75 80-110 40-55 100-140 50-70 70-100 35-50
Earth, rutted, muddy, no maintenance 200-250 100-125 140-180 70-90 180-220 90-110 150-200 75-100
Loose sand and gravel 280-320 140-160 160-200 80-100 260-290 130-145 220-260 110-130
𝑃𝑃
𝑅𝑅 =
𝑊𝑊
Where
R = rolling resistance in pounds per ton
P = total tension in tow cable in pounds
W = gross weight of truck in tons
When tire penetration is known, an approximate rolling resistance value for a wheeled
vehicle can be calculated using the following formula:
𝐹𝐹 𝑉𝑉
=
𝑊𝑊 𝐷𝐷
𝑉𝑉
𝐹𝐹 = 𝑊𝑊
𝐷𝐷
If W = 1000 Kg
V=1m
D = 100 m
1
Then 𝐹𝐹 = 1000 = 10 Kg / ton for 1% grade.
100
𝐹𝐹 = 10 Kg / ton ∗ 𝐺𝐺%
Total Resistance
Total resistance equals rolling resistance plus grade resistance or rolling resistance minus grade
resistance. It can also be expressed as an effective grade.
Using the relationship expressed in Eq. [5.8], a rolling resistance can be equated to an equivalent
gradient.
Rolling resistance expressed in Kg / ton
= G%
10 Kg / ton
Table 5.2 gives values for the effect of slope, expressed in pounds per gross ton or kilograms
per metric ton (m ton) of weight of the vehicle.
TABLE 5.2 The effect of grade on the tractive effort of vehicles
Slope (%) lb/ton kg/m ton Slope {%) lb/ton kg/m ton
By combining the rolling resistance, expressed as an equivalent grade, and the grade
resistance, expressed as a gradient in percent, one can express the total resistance as an
effective grade. The three terms, power required, total resistance, and effective grade all
mean the same thing. Power required is expressed in pounds. Total resistance is expressed
in pounds or pounds per ton of machine weight, and effective grade is expressed in percent.
EXAMPLE
The haul road from the borrow pit to the fill has an adverse grade of 4%. Wheel type
hauling units will be used on the job and it is expected that the haul-road rolling resistance
will be 50 Kg per ton. What will be the effective grade for the haul? Will the units
experience the same effective grade for the return trip?
50 Kg / ton
= =5%
10 Kg / ton
Effective grade (TRhaul) = 5% RR + 4% GR = 9%
Effective grade (TRreturn) = 5% RR - 4% GR = 1%
Where
RR = rolling resistance
GR = grade resistance
AVAILABLE POWER
There are two factors that determine available power:
(1) Horsepower and
(2) Speed.
Horsepower is the time rate of doing work and is a constant value for any given machine.
Since horsepower is a machine specific constant, available pounds pull or push will change
as machine speed is varied. Travel fast and pulling ability will be low; travel slow and the
machine have the ability to exert a high pulling force.
Horsepower
The engine develops a piston force Fp, which acts on a crankshaft having a radius r,
producing a crankshaft torque Tg at a governed speed Ng .
𝑻𝑻𝒈𝒈 = 𝑭𝑭𝒑𝒑 ∗ 𝒓𝒓
Where
𝑇𝑇𝑔𝑔 = crankshaft torque
𝐹𝐹𝑝𝑝 = piston force
𝑟𝑟 = crankshaft radius
The output of the engine at the flywheel at rated revolutions per minute (rpm) and under
environmental conditions of testing (temperature and altitude) is known as flywheel
horsepower (fwhp). This output can be measured either by friction belt or by brake; hence
the names belt horsepower or brake horsepower (bhp).
Typically, manufacturers rate machine horsepower at a specified rpm based on the Society
of Automotive Engineers (SAE) standardized rating procedure. Under the SAE standard,
horsepower will be listed as either gross or flywheel (also often listed as net horsepower).
Flywheel horsepower can be considered as usable horsepower. It is the power available to
operate a machine after deducting for power losses in the engine. If machine horsepower is
listed without reference to the SAE standard it could be a maximum, which would be
substantially higher than flywheel. When the SAE standard is not cited, always check with
the manufacturer to determine the basis of the rating. For applications requiring continuous
high power output, an engine that develops the required horsepower at a lower rpm will be
under less strain. Such an engine may cost more to purchase, but it should last longer and
require fewer repairs.
The power output from the engine, fwhp, becomes the power input to the transmission
system. This system consists of the drive shaft, a transmission, planetary gears, drive axles,
and drive wheels.
When analyzing a piece of equipment, we are interested in the usable force developed at the
point of contact between the tire and the ground (rimpull) for a wheel machine. In the case
of a track machine, the force in question is that available at the drawbar (drawbar pull). The
difference in the name is a matter of convention; both rimpull and drawbar pull are
measured in the same units, pounds pull.
In the mechanical process of developing rimpull or drawbar pull, there are power losses.
For any specified gear or speed torque position on a torque converter
𝑬𝑬%
𝑼𝑼𝑼𝑼𝑼𝑼𝑼𝑼𝑼𝑼𝑼𝑼 𝒉𝒉𝒉𝒉𝒉𝒉𝒉𝒉𝒉𝒉𝒉𝒉𝒉𝒉𝒉𝒉𝒉𝒉𝒉𝒉 = 𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟 ∗
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
Where
𝑬𝑬% is the efficiency of the power transmission.
There are two methods for arriving at a machine's developed output force,
FH (force at the wheel):
If the whole-body velocity of the machine when operating at governed engine speed Ng is
known for a specific gear, the relationship is
𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑,𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎∗ 𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟∗ (𝐄𝐄%/𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏)
𝑭𝑭𝒘𝒘 =
𝒗𝒗
Where
𝒗𝒗 is the velocity in feet per minute (fpm).
In computing the pull that a tractor can exert on a towed load, it is necessary to deduct
from the rimpull of the tractor the force required to overcome the rolling and grade
resistance.
Example
Consider a tractor whose maximum rimpull in the first gear is 13,730 lb, weighs 12.4
tons, and is operated up a haul road with a slope of 2% and a rolling resistance of 100 lb
per ton. Given these conditions, the pull available for towing a load will be determined
as follows:
EXAMPLE
A tractor whose weight is 15 tons has a drawbar pull of 5,685 lb in the sixth gear when
operated on a level road having a rolling resistance of 110 lb per ton. If the tractor is
operated on a level road having a rolling resistance of 180 lb per ton, the drawbar pull will
be reduced by
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕 ∗ (𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍/𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕 − 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍/𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕) = 𝟏𝟏, 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰.
Thus, the effective drawbar pull will be
𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑 = 𝟓𝟓, 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔 − 𝟏𝟏, 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 = 𝟒𝟒, 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔 𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰.
The drawbar pull of a crawler tractor will vary indirectly with the speed of each gear. It is
highest in the first gear and lowest in the top gear. The specifications supplied by the
manufacturer should give the maximum speed and drawbar pull for each of the gears.
USABLE POWER
Usable power depends on project conditions, primarily haul-road surface condition and
type, and altitude and temperature. Underfoot conditions determine how much of the
available power can be transferred to the surface to propel the machine. As altitude
increases, the air becomes less dense. Above 3,000 ft, the decrease in air density may cause
a reduction in horsepower output of some engines. Manufacturers provide charts detailing
appropriate altitude power reductions . Temperature will also affect engine output.
Coefficient of Traction
The total energy of an engine in any unit of equipment designed primarily for pulling a load
can be converted into tractive effort only if sufficient traction can be developed between the
driving wheels or tracks and the haul surface. If there is insufficient traction, the full
available power of the engine cannot be used, as the wheels of tracks will slip on the
surface.
The coefficient of traction can be defined as the factor by which the total weight on the
drive wheels or tracks should be multiplied to determine the maximum possible tractive
force between the wheels or tracks and the surface just before slipping will occur.
Usable force — coefficient of traction X wt. on powered running gear [5.17]
The power that can be developed at the interface between running gear and the haul-road
surface is often limited by traction. The factors controlling usable horsepower are the
weight on the powered running gear (drive wheels for wheel type, total weight for track
type the characteristics of the running gear, and the characteristics Of the travel surface.
The coefficient of traction between rubber tires and road surfaces will vary with the type of
tread on the tires and with the road surface. For crawler tracts, it will vary with the design of
the grosser and the road surface. These variations are such that exact values cannot be
given. Table 5.3 gives approximate values, for the coefficient of traction between rubber
tires or crawler tracks and road surfaces that are sufficiently accurate for most estimating
purposes.
TABLE 5.3 Coefficients of traction for various road surfaces
EXAMPLE
Assume that the rubber-tired tractor has a total weight of 18,000 Ib on the two driving
wheels. The maximum rimpull in low gear is 9,000 Ib. If the tractor is operating in wet
sand, with a coefficient of traction of 0.30, the maximum possible rimpull prior to slippage
of the tires will be
𝟎𝟎. 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 ∗ 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏, 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍 = 𝟓𝟓, 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒
Regardless of the horsepower of the engine, not more than 5,400 Ib of tractive effort can be
used because of the slippage of the wheels.
If the same tractor is operating on dry clay, with a coefficient of traction of 0.60, the
maximum possible rimpull prior to slippage of the wheels will be
𝟎𝟎. 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔 ∗ 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏, 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏, 𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖 𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍
For this surface, the engine will not be able to cause the tires to slip. Thus, the full power of
the engine can be used.
EXAMPLE
A wheel tractor scraper is used on a road project. When the project initially begins, the
scraper will experience high rolling and grade resistance at one work area. The rimpull
required to maneuver in this work area is 42,000 lb. In the fully loaded condition, 52% of
the total vehicle weight is on the drive wheels. The fully loaded vehicle weight is 230,880
lb. What minimum value of coefficient of traction between the scraper wheels and the
traveling surface is needed to maintain maximum possible travel speed?
𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘 = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓 𝒙𝒙 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐, 𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖 𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏, 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍
𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒, 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍
𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴 𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕 = = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟑𝟑 𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏, 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍
FIGURE 5.7 | Drawbar pul! performance chart.
2. How much dirt (bcy) can be moved in one production cycle? The quantity takeoff is in
bcy so the lcy load must be converted to bcy.
4. What is the work hour productivity if the operator works 50 min per 60-min hour?
5. How long will it take to move the 1200 bcy?
Scraper Production
To load the scraper, the front end of the bowl (nearest the cab) is lowered
until the attached cutting edge penetrates the travel surface. As the
scraper moves forward, the front apron of the bowl is raised so that a strip
of excavated earth can flow into the bowl. The amount of excavated soil
depends on the depth of penetration of the cutting edge. The scraper
moves forward until the bowl is full. The blade is lifted and the apron
closes. Ripping (bulldozer with ripper shanks) or tilling (tractor pulling a
plow) the soil lift to be excavated prior to the scraper making a pass can
increase scraper production. Sometimes applying water will loosen soil
also.
To dump the scraper load, the cutting edge is set above the discharged
material, raising the apron. The material is forced out by means of a
movable ejector mounted at the rear of the bowl. The size of the apron
opening regulates the amount of material discharged and the material lift
depth.
The capacity of the scraper bowl can be measured by volume or weight.
When the capacity or the weight is exceeded, operating efficiency
decreases. Scraper volume is measured in two ways in loose cubic yards.
Struck volume is the loose cubic yards that a scraper would hold if the top
of the material were struck off even at the top of the bowl. Heaped
volume is the loose cubic yards that a scraper would hold with the
material heaped and sloping above the sides of the bowl. The heaped
volume takes into account the fill factor.
The cycle time for a scraper is estimated by adding the fixed times to
load, dump, turn around, and spot for the next cut, and the variable or
travel times to haul full and return empty. Scraper rimpull, speed, and
gradability performance can be verified by referring to the rimpull, speed,
and gradability curves for the model. The expected performance of the
scraper can be compared to these operating requirements of the work.
Load times vary based on power, bowl capacity, and site conditions and
range from 0.4 to 1.0 min typically.
Maneuver and spread or maneuver and dump times range from 0.6 to
0.7min. Additional maneuvering (spotting) when approaching the cut
might be required and should be added if necessary.
Dozer-assisted means that the dozer makes contact with the back bale of
the scraper as it starts into the hole. The dozer is actually providing most
of the pushing power to not only make the cut, but also to transport the
full bowl through and out (boost) of the cut. This greatly optimizes what a
bulldozer is designed to do and greatly reduces the power needed by the
scraper to excavate and start hauling when fully loaded. It is an ideal
pairing of equipment to optimize the capabilities of both.
To determine the number of scrapers that can be matched to one pusher
or dozer, the pusher cycle time must be determined. This cycle time
includes match up and to contact with the rear of the scraper, push
through the hole, boost out of the hole, and maneuver to match up to the
next scraper coming through the hole.
Example
A Cat D631E Series II wheel tractor scraper assisted with a D9R
bulldozer is to be used to move dirt about 4200' to build a detention pond
at the entry of subdivision. The D9 has ripped the soil in the area to be
excavated about 18" deep. The D9 is to push the scraper until it is out of
the hole. Once full, the scraper’s average haul speed will be around
10 mph. The return route is about 4400' and the average return speed will
be around 14 mph. The rated heaped capacity of the D631 is 31 lcy. The
estimated load time according to the performance manual is 0.6 min. The
estimated dump time is about 0.7min. The Cat estimated hourly O&O for
moderate conditions for the D9 is $86/h and for the D631 is $87/h. The
projected O&O cost includes the operator for this calculation.
1. What is the work hour productivity if the operator works 50 min
per 60-min hour?
2. How many scrapers will the D9 support?
3. How many hours will it take to excavate and haul 20,600 bcy of
soil with swell factor of 15% using the D9 and 8 D631 scrapers?
4. How much will it cost to excavate and move this dirt?
5. What is the unit cost for the work?
Solution
Example
Estimate the production of a single engine tow-axle tractor scraper
whose travel-time curve in Figures 4-4 and 4-5 based on the
following information:-
Maximum heaped volume = (24 LCM)
Maximum payload = (34020 kg)
Material: sandy clay, (1898 kg/BCM), (1571 kg/LCM)
Rolling resistance (50 Kg/t)
Job efficiency = (50 min/h)
Operating conditions = average
Single pusher
Fixed time = 1.6 min
Haul route:-
Section 1: Level loading area
Section 2: Down a (4%) grade, (610 m)
Section 3: Level dumping area
Section 4: Up a (4%) grade, (610 m)
Section 5: Level turnaround, (183 m)
FRONT-END LOADERS
Front-end loaders typically are tractor powered and operate on tires.
They are typically articulated and very maneuverable, making them ideal
for constricted areas. They are used primarily for material moving and re-
handling. They are ideal for scooping and hauling materials in storage
piles, where it is to be permanently placed, or loading it into dump trucks.
Loaders are ideal for dumping soil back into the hole after the necessary
below grade work is done. Tracked loaders may be required for extreme
surface conditions demanding greater traction or stability. Every concrete
or asphalt batch plant has a tire equipped frontend loader to stock the feed
to the batch hopper with aggregate and sand. Fixed cycle times for
loaders (raise, dump, and lower the bucket) range from about 9 s to about
20 s depending on the size of the loader. General-purpose bucket
capacities range from about 0.75 to 18 lcy. Figure 4.10 shows a small
loader that is ideal for confined spaces and smaller loads.
These small loaders are very maneuverable and are ideal for use in
constricted limited working areas. They are used often for moving sand
within slab forms or with fork attachments to carry brick, mortar, or sand.
They are excellent for surface movement of small amounts of material.
Loader Production
Loaders are used many times with feed hoppers and dump trucks. The
loader is sized by the demand of the feed hopper or the size and number
of dump trucks that can be filled. Production cycle components are
similar whether running on tracks or tires. The work surface stability will
influence the cycle time.
Example
A Cat 950G wheel loader with a 4.25 lcy heaped bucket is to be used to
move fairly loose stockpiled dirt onto a conveyor running under the road.
The conveyor is carrying the dirt to another part of the site. The dirt will
be used to fill that side of the project site. The Cat Performance Manual
suggests a cycle time (load, dump, maneuver) of about 55 s for the way
you have the work setup and an O&O cost of about $31/h. Your operator
costs about $23/h. The conveyor will haul about 280 lcy/h. Will the
production of the loader keep up with the conveyor?
1. How much dirt (lcy) can be moved in one production cycle?
2. What is the cycle time for one production cycle?
4. What is the daily cost for using this loader if the conveyor runs
11 h/day?
5. What is the unit cost per day to use the 950G loader?
MOTOR GRADERS
This type of equipment has been around since the start of road building,
though originally powered by a team of oxen, mules, or horses. The need
for a smooth stable travel surface has always been an important part of a
road system. Another name for a motor grade is ‘‘maintainer.’’ This
name is appropriate because this equipment is typically used to maintain
grade and a smooth surface for rural non paved travel roads or haul routes
on construction sites. The grader is a long tractor-driven piece of
equipment with a blade mounted underneath as shown in Figure 4.11.
The blade is used to push dirt straight ahead or to the side at a desired
level. The grader can be used for light surface excavation, but is mainly
used to move soil to create a level surface. Note the ring to which the
blade is attached underneath the frame. This ring can be swiveled
vertically and the casting angle of the blade adjusted on it. The blade can
be angled to shape road banks. Standard blade widths range from 12' to
14' and speed in midrange gear is approximately 6 mph. Front tires are
usually leaning to resist the force created when the blade is cutting and
side casting the material.
As the dirt is pushed ahead of the blade it fills voids in the surface over
which it is moving. Excess dirt is pushed into other surface voids or to the
side. When the dirt is cast to the side of the grader, this is called a
windrow (row of piled dirt). Usually a front-end loader will follow behind
the grader to scoop up excess dirt in the windrow if necessary. Laser level
readers can be attached to the motor grader blade so that the operator can
establish a desired elevation using the level signal, not having to rely on
feel and experience as much. The grader depth of cut is adjusted based on
the signal setting.
Example
A Volvo G740B motor grader with a 14' blade is to be used to knock
down dirt on a 66' wide × 980' long road base area. The effective grading
width is 12'. The average speed will be around 3 mph. The number of
passes required is two to reach the desired smoothness. In the following
passes, sf denotes square feet and sy denotes square yards.
1. What is the work hour productivity if the operator works 50 min per
60-min hour?