A look into socio-cultural arts in British India(Social Studies Scholarship Project)

Theater And Cinema In Colonial India

By Avni Gadodia

(Image from thewire.com)

Introduction

In the aftermath of 1857, a respect for tradition ran parallel to an enthusiasm for all things
Western. In this context, cultural nationalism was fostered by theater, which, by harking
back to ancient glory through mythology and classical literature, aroused Indian pride and
bolstered self-confidence. At the same time, by protesting against contemporary
conditions, it awakened the political and social conscience of the people, especially in
Bengal and Maharashtra, though the phenomenon was present in other parts of India too.
Both literature and drama became more than entertainment or educational mediums, they
became vehicles of protest against British rule. Historical dramas in particular became
messengers of nationalist sentiment, with plays such as V.J. Keertane’s Thorle Madhav Rao
Peshwe (1861). Political commentary was also incorporated into folk forms such as powada
and tamasha, and into keertans (religious discourses using music and dance).

(source - thewire.com)

Beginning?
Under British colonial rule, modern Indian theatre began when a theatre was started in
Belgachia. One of the earliest plays composed and staged during this period was Buro
Shalikher Ghaare Roa (1860) by Michael Madhusudan Dutt, both in Bengali. Around the
same time, Nil Darpan (1858–59, first commercial production in 1872, by Girish Chandra
Ghosh at the national theatre in Calcutta) a Bengali play by Dinabandhu Mitra garnered
both accolades and controversy for depicting the horror and tragedy of indigo cultivation in
rural Bengal, and played a major role in the indigo revolt. Rabindranath Tagore was a
pioneering modern playwright who wrote plays noted for their exploration and questioning
of nationalism, identity, spiritualism and material greed.[27] His plays are written in Bengali
and include Chitra (Chitrangada, 1892), The King of the Dark Chamber (Raja, 1910), The Post
Office (Dakghar, 1913), and Red Oleander (Raktakarabi,

1924).

(source - wikipedia.com)

What did theatre in pre-independent India portray and

signify?
The first politically significant play in Bengal was Nil Darpan (Mirror to Indigo) written in

1860 by Dinabandhu Mitra, translated by Reverend James Long and produced by the

National Theatre of Calcutta. It created a powerful stir in Bengal. The Anglo Indian Press

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raised a hue and cry and the Landholders Association of British India filed a complaint

against the drama. Long was prosecuted and sentenced to one month’s imprisonment and

a fine.

In spite of this, patriotic drama on British injustice continued to flourish and, after 1870,

nationalist and political sentiments became more openly expressed. Many of the plays

were patriotic but not seditious. Many like Chakar Darpan (Mirror to Tea) and Gaikwar

Darpan (Mirror to the Gaikwar) focussed on various injustices faced by Indians at the hands

of the British.

The government had shown complete indifference to Indian drama till 1870, but thereafter

it moved to control and suppress it. On December 25, 1870, an anti-sedition clause was

introduced to the Indian Penal Code, under which actors in some of the plays were

arrested.

When the satire Gajadananda O Yubaraj (Gajadananda and the Prince) on the visit of the

Prince of Wales to the house of Jagadananda, a loyalist government pleader, was staged

inspite of police warnings and staged again under a changed name as Hanuman Charitra,

the angered government issued an ordinance prohibiting dramatic performances which

were scandalous, defamatory, seditious, obscene or otherwise ‘prejudicial to public

interest’.

In defiance, the Great National Theatre of Calcutta produced an improvised farce, The Police

of Pig and Sheep, making an obvious reference to police commissioner Hogg and

superintendent of police Lamb. This led to the arrest of the producers Upendranath Das

and other members of the theatre who were, however, later acquitted by the high court.

This precipitated the introduction of the Dramatic Performance Bill in 1876, later enacted

into a law. Though obscenity figured largely in the Act, it is clear that in the conditions of

the time it meant ‘anti-British’. Two years later, the Vernacular Press Act was brought in,

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which gagged the native press and made the publication of ‘politically seditious writing’

punishable.

It is worth noting that inspite of such restrictions, patriotic literature and drama continued

to flourish. By the allegorical use of mythological themes and by using covert suggestions,

sometimes even of an improvised nature, Indian theatre managed to avoid prosecution

while simultaneously conveying the evils of foreign domination.

Though the Urdu stage was crude and vociferous in its expression of dissent, the more

advanced theatres preferred to employ subtle insinuations which were plain to intelligent

audiences as well as the common man who witnessed the popular versions, and yet be

beyond the reach of law. For example, K.P. Khadilkar’s play Keechak Vadha is a landmark in

the theatre of protest. It was the allegory of an incident in the Mahabharata in which

Keechak, the lustful brother-in-law of King Virat, in whose court the five Pandavas had

sought refuge incognito, is slain by Bheema, using a stratagem. Though no names were

mentioned, everyone knew that Keechak was Lord Curzon, Draupadi was India, Yudhishtira

was the moderate and Bheema the extremist section in the Congress. The message was

that a weak government in London (King Virat) has allowed Curzon to insult and humiliate

India. While her moderate champion advocates gentle (constitutional) measures, which

prove ineffective, the extremist adopts violent measures and the oppressor is disposed off

without difficulty.

Later, in 1930, Manmatha Ray dramatised Hindu legends by selecting episodes which

highlighted the contemporary situation. His Karagar(Prison) dramatised the birth of Lord

Krishna in prison. Its allegorical significance was not lost, because prisons at the time were

full of nationalists involved in Mahatma Gandhi’s civil disobedience movement. Nor was it

lost on the government, who banned it.

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After 1910, several Marathi writers began the vogue of sangeet natak or musical plays, such

as Manapman, which took care not to arouse government’s anger while keeping the flame

of patriotism alive.

Though political theatre was low-key in the 1920s, the growth of prudishness led to a

demand for stricter censorship on moral grounds. Though there was little in the plays

which could be considered objectionable today, throughout those years there were notices

under the ‘police’ section of newspapers of this or that drama being obscene and action

against them demanded. But since the government was occupied with political questions,

not many were prosecuted on moral grounds.

Who were the actors?

Kalyanam Raghuramaiah, a recipient of the Sangeet Natak Akademi Award, and the
Padmashri, was known for the roles of Krishna or Dushyantha, Bhavanisankar, Narada etc.
in Telugu theatre. He performed those roles for about 60 years. He indulged in elaborate
raga alapana, based on different ragas while rendering padyams.[28][29] One of the finest
method actors, He had the ability to sing padyams and songs through whistle, by putting
his finger in mouth and producing the whistle or flute sound (meaning Eela in Telugu). He
has acted in various dramas and gave more than 20,000 stage performances.[4] He was
called the "Nightingale of the Stage" by Rabindranath Tagore

Censorship - an archaic colonial-era law

Censorship of theatre in India has a long history which dates back to the colonial era. It was
the year 1872 when the Calcutta National Theatrical Society staged a production of
Dinabandhu Mitra’s play Nil Darpan, which exposed the oppression of Bengali farmers at
the hands of British indigo planters. It received positive reviews from the regional language
press, but earned the ire of the British government, which ordered that the play’s
performances be stopped.

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Over the next few years, several such plays challenging and subverting the British rule were
performed, which eventually led to the formulation of a law called the Dramatic
Performances Act, 1876 (DPA). It was brought into force under Viceroy Thomas George
Baring (the First Earl of Northbrook).

As per the Act, the state government has the power to prohibit any play or pantomime in a
public space which is:

a) of a scandalous or defamatory nature, or

b) likely to excite feelings of disaffection to the Government established by law, or

c) likely to deprave and corrupt persons present at the performance.

This led to a string of plays being banned from performance in India, including Nil Darpan,
Anandmath, and Marathi playwright Vijay Tendulkar’s classic text Sakharam Binder
post-Independence. “It (DPA) is completely archaic and we need to get it scrapped or get it
thrown out,” says Arundhati Nag, film and theatre actor-director and founder of Ranga
Shankara in Bengaluru.

“I do think we need to look at the legal framework because nobody has the right to go and
stop a performance. There is so much that goes into making a performance happen. The
audience buys tickets, actors have rehearsed, money is spent, and suddenly someone gets
up and says we need to stop this performance without reading the script or seeing the
play. We need to have something to protect us for sure,” Nag adds.

Shakespeare(Masala) In Indian Theatre?(Impact of Western Culture On Indian

Theatre)

Shakespeare first entered India as

theatrical entertainment for British officers
during colonialism. The work of Parsi

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thespians and literary figures like Harivanshrai Bachchan have paved the way for
adaptations in regional languages and traditional performance arts, like Kathakali

‘He creates heroes, and Indians love the heroic… He shows delicacy of touch in handling the
relations between men and women, and Indians love to keep that relation sacred. He
praises home and home affections, and Indians love their homes and believe in the virtue
of domestic affections…’ wrote Sir Francis Younghusband in the first half of the 20th
century, in an essay titled Shakespeare in India.

A century later, Shakespeare continues to capture the Indian imagination. Ask Hulugappa
Kattimani, who works closely with inmates at Central Jail Mysore, using theatre to help
improve their lives. In one instance, a prisoner who was convicted for murder, became a
more agreeable and humble person after playing the role of Macbeth. “They change over. It
happened because of the play, because of Shakespeare,” says Kattimani.

Though he was conjecturally born and certainly deceased on this day about four centuries
ago in the United Kingdom (then England), can the Bard be accurately described as a British
author? His influence, which has seeped into myriad cultures, and an ever-growing archive
of Shakespeare performance and academia from across the globe, seem to suggest
otherwise. A more accurate description would be to acknowledge him as a global author. A
world author, with an undeniable and growing presence in India’s art.

Although the productions of the Parsi theatre in the late nineteenth and early twentieth
century treated the bard in a cavalier fashion, mixing and mashing up his plays into hybrid
and melodramatic versions, they were considered populist travesties and an
embarrassment by Indian academics. After this, there was a period of faithful translation
and performance, followed by one of creative adaptation and assimilation in indigenous
theatre forms, to the current moment when an irreverent attitude is to be found, which
feels free to bounce its own concerns off his works and “play” around with them.

In his book “Masala Shakespeare”, Harris takes a wide range of examples, from the Indian
adaptations of The Comedy of Errors, A Midsummer Night’s Dream and Romeo and Juliet to the
more modern globally known adaptations of Macbeth, Othello and Hamlet by Vishal

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Bhardwaj and of Atul Kumar’s Twelfth Nightstaged following the nautanki tradition. Harris
also provides an exhaustive critique of Shakespeare adaptations, mainly films, in regional
Indian languages such as Bengali, Marathi, Tamil and Meitei. Although he also discusses
print adaptations such as Utpal Dutta’s Macbeth or Chaitali Raater Swapno(an adaptation of
A Midsummer Night’s Dream) and Ishwarchandra Vidyasagar’s Bhranti Bilas (an early
adaptation of The Comedy of Errors) and some theatre productions, Harris is mostly
interested in discussing film adaptations. The films that he discusses are almost always
loosely connected to some element of Indian culture.

The Rise Of Cinema

‘Door hato aye duniya walo, Hindustan humaara hai'. These lyrics still manage to create a
feeling of pride and enthusiasm amongst many Indians even after seven decades. This song
is from the film Kismet (1942) and became a protest song during the Quit India movement.
There were many films made in the pre-independence era that showcased the freedom
struggle, but they were banned by the British rulers

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(Bhakta Vidur)

A silent film 'Bhakta Vidur' made in 1921 became the first film to be banned in India. The
movie was based on Mahabharata character Vidur, however, the character was reportedly
portrayed as imitating Mahatma Gandhi. Bhakta Vidur was released after Rowlatt Act was
passed in India. Later in 1930, British rulers banned the film Wrath as it portrayed Indian
actors as leaders during the Indian independence movement. In 1938, Raithu Bidda was
also banned by the British administration, for depicting the peasant uprising among the
Zamindars during the British raj. Even though the colonial rulers banned these films, they
had a major impact on the Indian citizens.

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(Dharti Ke Lal)

In 1946, filmmaker Khwaja Ahmad Abbas made 'Dharti Ke Lal', which paved the way for the
social realist movement or parallel cinema in the Indian film industry. The movie was based
on the Bengal famine of 1943, which killed millions of Bengali people. Moreover, it was also
one of the first Indian films to gain recognition outside India as it was widely distributed in
the Soviet Union (USSR). In the same year, Neecha Nagar was released, which showcases
the rich and poor classes in Indian society. The movie won Palme d'Or at the Cannes Film
Festival in 1946.Even after Independence, these movies continued to inspire the filmmakers
to create social realistic films. Critically acclaimed films like Do Bigha Zamin (1953), and
Satyajit Ray's The Apu Trilogy (1955-1959) continued the parallel cinema movement in the
post-independence era. The cult classics like Pyaasa, Mother India, Kaagaz Ke Phool, etc.
had a social theme.

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In 1958, Mother India became the first Hindi film to be nominated for the best foreign
language film Oscar. Another of the films to be nominated in this category, 2001’s
Lagaan, is an underdog story about drought-stricken villagers uniting to take on their
British-sahibs to overturn an unjust tax. Lagaan was an unexpectedly huge box office hit
and is a game-changer in contemporary Bollywood, ushering in an era of bolder and
more innovative storytelling. However, no one would touch its script with a barge pole
until Aamir Khan, Bollywood superstar with a social conscience, stepped forward to star
in, and produce, the film.

Lagaan is one of three films, all starring Aamir Khan, that represent the high point of
independence-inspired films in contemporary Bollywood. Mangal Pandey: The Rising,
from 2005, is a biopic of the Indian soldier who served in the East India Company Army,
and then led the attack which began India’s First War of Independence in 1857 (or the
1857 Indian Mutiny as it’s known in British textbooks). While 2006’s Rang De Basanti, a
major box office success, follows five university students who embark on a journey of
self-discovery and experience an awakening in loving their nation when they make a
film about Indian freedom fighters; arguably these films reflected the chest-swelling
patriotism of the era, tied to the narrative of India arriving on the world stage as a 21st
Century superpower.

Cinema After Independence and its portrayal of the independence struggle.

Radha, the Mother India of the title, played by the actress Nargis, embodies the
nation’s struggle – she even kills her own son in the name of law and order (Credit:
Alamy)

Since then Indian cinema has moved on. “There was a genuine interest in
independence around 2001 to 2006, thanks to the amazing success of Lagaan in 2001
but in 2017 contemporary India couldn’t care less,” says film critic and author Naman

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Ramachandran. “If you look at Gurinder Chadha’s film Viceroy’s House, retitled
Partition: 1947 and released in August to coincide with independence, it tanked at the
box office. Also, Rangoon, out this year, had an independence backdrop and was a box
office debacle. Independence used to be a big trope in mainstream Hindi cinema, but
not anymore.

Lagaan, a title that translates in English to ‘taxation’, is about an Indian village who
must win a cricket match in order to avoid paying a burdensome tax (Credit: Alamy)

Rather than harking back to 1947 and the run up to it, today’s audiences are reacting
positively to films about social change – Toilet: Ek Prem Katha, a satire about public
sanitation, and Dangal are good recent examples,” he explains.

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The 2006 film Mangal Pandey: The Rising was about a soldier in the British East
India company who mutinied, starting the War for Independence of 1857 (Credit:
Yash Raj Films)

As with Lagaan, notes Ramachandran, all it will take to reignite Bollywood’s interest in
independence-inspired stories is a box office smash, and he flags forthcoming
blockbuster Manikarnika: The Queen of Jhansi, due in April 2018 and starring Kangana
Ranaut as the ruler of the princely state of Jhansi who refused to surrender to the East
India Company and became a prominent figure in 1857’s First War of Independence, as
a possibility.

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The 2002 film The Legend of Bhagat Singh focused on the socialist revolutionary
who fought the British colonial forces and was hanged in 1931 (Credit: Tips Industries
Limited)

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