9.

Social Philosophy
wae
"What we hed in mind when we foUnded the ciy
not how to make one class happy above the rest, but
how to make the city asa whole as happy as t could
be."
-Plato in The Republic

T
he ancient social philosophers, in East as wellas in West, did not
distinguish between the society and the state. Their primary concern
was the good of the society and the state originated as a means to
achieve its good. Thus one cannot rigidly distinguish between the
social philosopby and the political philosophy of Plato. However,
since these two branches of knowledge are now quite distinct it will
be more useful to discuss the social and political issues raised by
Plato under different chapters. In the present chapter the social
philosophy of Plato will be discussed with particular reference to the
social ideas and means to realise them. While the theory of justice
explains the social ideal; communism is a means to realise it.
The most important question in social philosophy is the nature
of. social ideal. The social philosopher has to point out the aim or
Sumum bonum of human society. Social philosophy may be restricted
to a particular society or it nmay be applicable to human society as
awhole. In Plato's social philosophy one may find both of these
types of social philosophies. While some of his prescriptions were
limited to the society of city-state, some of them are cqually applicable
to all the human societies, ancient and modern, western and eastern.
THE DIALECTICAL METHOD

Dialectic is an art of conducting discussion. In this art a persou

is gradually taken from thesis to anti-thesis and fiFally to synthess.
This isalso known as question-answer method. It is ascientificapproac1n
 SocialPhilosophy
to the process of discovery of truth. Developed from Socrates and
Platothis method has come to stay in the field of scientific
Itinvolves four processes. Firstly, there is generalisation on thinking.
the basis
ofinduction, Secondly, the data are classificd and divided into different
classes. Thirdly, propositions are constructed relating different terms.
Fourthly, the propositions are linked to arrive at a syllogism which
may lead us to conclusions, Plato has called dialectic as the highest
knowledge, the crest jewel of knowledge.
EVALUATION OF PREVALENT THEORIES OF JUSTICE

In his interpretation and enquiry into the nature of justice Plato

has followed the above-mentioncd dialectical method. As in his
epistemology and ethics so here also before finally presenting his
following four theories
Own idea of justice Plato has evaluated the
time:
of justice prevalent in his the son of Cephalus,
1. Traditionalism. According to Polymarchus,proper to him. Thus
what is
justice consists in giving to each man debt. In other words, justice
the
it is speaking the truth and paying friends and evil to enemies. Criticising
is an art which gives good to
of justice Plato has advançed the followingargumnts
this thoery
an art or a capacity it can be equally used for
(i) If justice is physician or a soldier.
evil like the capacity of a
good or for friend and foe and
difficult to distinguish between
(ü) It is
the basis of this theory we cannot decide
therefore on
conduct about them.
about our ideal foe. Evil even towards
for both friend and
(111)- Good is good justice.
enemies cannot be called Plato's
this theory, prevalent in
According to
2. Radicalism. stronger. This theory was supported
interest of the According to Thracymachas
time, justice is the Thracymachas. to
Sophists including One should act according As
oy interest of the stronger. possible for him.
justice is the whatever is
and he should achieve
the state does is just. In
his capacity of all
whatever his own good.
the state is the strongest will of a ruler who wills the following
the advanced
other words, justice is justice Plato had
Criticising this theory of ruler it may lead us to the
interest.
arguments is true about the ofother's and
theory realisation
(9 If this justice is the whosatisfies the ruler
Conclusion that just
words. thatman is
ln other himself is unjust.
88
Plato
(ii) On the basis of this theory we
contradictions found in the activities ofcannot explain the
different rulers at
different times and in different countries. If an action is
right for one ruler it should be right for another as well.
(ii) Thus this theory leads us to the
contradictory situation that
opposite actions are cqually good. It cannot however give
us any universal standard of justice which may be
by every one. followed
(iv) Therefore, it is not a rational principle, since a
principle is always universal. rational
(v) It cannot be the guiding principle of a
is morc concerncd with the rational person who
own light. achievement of justice in his
3. Pragmatism. According to this theory
fear. Glaucon, the originator of this theory, justice is the child of
social justice followed later by the social presented a theory of
and Rousscau. Justice, according to it, is contract theory of Hobbes
is thus not natural but borne out of traditions. Ît
artificial, ancient times people used to heap
In
injustice upon others who succumbed
and therefore, could not oppose the to it. These-people- were weak
at asort of social contract that strong, They therefore, arrived
nor tolerate injustice. This they will neither do injustice to others
in human society. These Social contract led to certain conventions
social ethics lies betweenconventions resulted into social
the two extremes of doing ethics. This
tolerating injustice. As against this explanation of injustice and
basis of social customs and
traditions, Plato has
injustice on the
arguments in criticism: advanced the following
() There is no evidence of
any age in evolution of
civilization when men did arrive atthesome sort of
human
Overt social contract. If there was real and
any contract between
human beings, it was only tacit and
(ü) There is a implied.
Tecognize th¹ spontaneous tendency among human beings to
rights of others, This innate
resulted the historical fact that people tendency has
in
injustice nor to tolerate it. agreed not to do
(m) People naturally believe that the ruler should rule with
justice and the rulers also
upon this will of the ruler,know
It
that their ruBe depends
natural tendency of a relationshipwas on the basis of this
the ruledhat some scholars between the ruler and
have arrived t the false theory
 Social Philosophy
89
that the state is the result of some real
Contract between the ruler and the ruled. historical social
(iv) Law is not artificial or merely conventional. It may
called artificial So far as it is a be
is. however, a coditied torm of the product of human mind. It
general
the society, according to which we ought will, the will of
to do certain
actions and ought not to do others. The sanction behind
the law and its obligation is notsimply due to the political
nressure but depends upon the human preparedness to
tollow the law. Even if law is obligatory one accepts it only
because it is not imposed by sheer brute force. Law is
based upon right will which also leads us sometimes to
oppose the law,
4,. Rationalism. Justice, according to Socrates, is an art. Art
aims at removal of the defects of things. For example, a physician
emoves the defects ofthe body and the teacher removes the defects
Githe mind. An ideal teacher is a person who develops the capacity
of the mind of the student removing all the defects and incapacities.
Similarly, a ruler is successful only if he removes the defects from
the ruled. He is following the art of justice so far as he is absolutely
unselfish and aims at the good of the ruled. Accepted that a person
satisfaction
utilises his art for his tiving and even sometimes for theIn the ideal
condition:
of his selfish ends, but this is not the ideal
the intrinsic aim
condition the artist is unselfish, totally devoted toachieve
narrow end to and always
of the art, without any selfish and
for the improvement of his art. It is hence that Plato, in his
acting philosopher king for the
The Republic, advocated the rule of a
achievement of ideal republic.
JUSTICE
PLATO'S THEORY OF

social philosophy of Plato is the theory of justice.)

(Theaim of the as has been
of social justice since,
S may be called the theery whole of the society. Therefore,
pointed out, state was a means for the justice(The
corrolary of the theory of the socialdialogue The
cal justice isa elaborated in Plato'sfamous theory
theory of justice has been books first and second discuss books the
two,
Republic! In this work the has been discussedinthe justice,
ofi justice while political justicewas concerned withthe naturesociety
of
and
three and four. The Republic dispensed withinthe
iks and how it can be imagination of an
characteristics
State This was developed on
the basis of
ot based
upon a survey
 90 Plato

of the actual facts in Grccce or clsewhere. Therefore the discussion

is mostly philosophical. Obviously, it has led to many grave crrors
from the point of viewof practice. And sociologists and political
scientists have ampty criticised the social philosopher for his ncglect
of the facts, Js has becn pointed out that Plato started philosophical
speculations concerning the concept of justice without any reference
to social facts leading to ideas which only show that philosophical
reflection in this branch of knowlcdge is uscless. This, however, is
too harsh a criticism of the philosopher. As we shall see from the
passages quoted from The Republicat the end of this Chapter, Plato's
insight into the nature of social justice has been the torch bearer of
thinkers in this field in ancient and moderntimes.
Quality of the Soul
In The Republic the nature of social justice has been discussed
in the form of a dialogue between Socrates and some of his friends
concerning the am of human life, the structure of human personality
and the parallelism between the individual and the society. The
philosopher pointed out that just as in the individual different aspects
must be given their due and no one aspect should be allowed to
dominate allthe rest for all the time, similarly in society the different
classes must be given what is due to them and no sngle class should
be allowed to dominate all the other classes without any
restriction.
Justice, according to Plato, is the quality of the soul Therefore, it
does not depend upon any external source of power. It is the voice
of conscience of man. The human personality is guided by
three
tendencies - knowledge, physical tendency and the spiritual tendency.
Of these justice tendencies the spirit should rule and the
rest should
be ruled. Similarly, in the society, persons whÍ are
primarily spiritual
should be appointed the. guardians of the state and the others should
be ruled by them.Rcason, courage,
four ideal values to be equallyfollowedtemperance and justice were the
bythe
Of these justice was chiefly the function of theindividuals and groups.
state. The ideal state
dispensed ideal justice. Justice, again resulted in happiness both in
the individual and thc society. Justice
the individual and the means harmony and rythm in
society.
Organic Theory of Society
Thus it is clear that justice, according to
ethical concept not ajural one. It insists upon Plato, is primarily an
in the path of morality. It following one's dutaes
maintains
spiritual impulse. Plato has however, the necessity of following the
committed nistake in
a holdimg
 Social Philosophy 91

the organic theory of society in which different parts have an intrinsic

and' vital relationship with each other. As has been pointed out by
modern sociologists and political scientists, society is not an organism.
While organism has an internal relationship between different parts,
some of the relationships in the social groups are external. Again,
there is hardly any parallel between the human body andthe human
group. In the human body every cell is an integral part of the body,
but it has no identity out of it. In the human group, on the other
hand, the individual, in spite of having internal relationships, maintains
his individuality. While in body no harm is done if a part is not given
freedom apart from the body, in the social group the freedom
any
of the individual cannot be denied. Plato's conception of social justice,
totalitarianism
on the basis of organic theory of society, resulted in
individual. In his
which tended to annihilate all the freedom of the
powers of the rulers
ideal republic the guardians were given all the
criticise them. Whatever
and the ruled were not given any freedom to definitely
efficiency, it is
may be its reward in terms of politicalliberty. Again, it could not
against the democratic emphasis upon
fraternity among the memburs of the society. Therefore, in
lead to
to create an ideal society through
spite of the fact that Plato soughtresulted
of social justice, it into practices contrary to
his concept
human good.
Integral Approach justice is
important characteristic of Plato's theory ofpersonality
The most allthe sides ofthe individualpart of the
approach. It looks to
its integral aims at giving justice to every hierarchy
and the body politic. It
class of society. However, in maintaining a he
individual and each adhering to it too rigidly,
in India and purpose.
like the varna systemwhich was a negation of his essential from
arrived at aconcept Plato's theory of justice will be clear
of at the
The above discussion from his famous dialogue The Republic
extracted
the passages
end of this chapter.
Characteristics of Justice characteristics:
the following
justice exhibits threc
Plato'stheory of Stratification. Plato has pointcdouta the
1. Three-fold
Social
the guardians, the soldiers andhim
stratification involving farmers etc. According classcs
to
fold social as the artisans, these three
general people such fulfilment of duties by all
the
Justice consists in
in a state.
 92 Plato

2. Innate tendency. Justice, according to Plato, is innate. Itis the

quality of the soul. It is the voice of conscicnce.
3. Functional specialisation. Plato classified society into three
classes according to the three human tendencies - the cognitive, the
conative and the affective. While the guardians represent the first,
soldiers the second, the third is represented by the general masses.
Thus Plato arrived at afunctional specialisation among citizens.
Philasopher King. Justice, according to Plato, is possible only
in astate where the philosopher rules since the philosopher, according
to Plato, is the wisest among human beings.
5. Communism. In order to keep the guardians free from personal
worries and envics, Plato has advocatedcommunism of property and
women among guardians and soldiers.
6. Two Types of Justice. Plato has classified justice into two types
- Social and Individual, both of which are inimately related.
7. Universal. Justice, according to Plato, is the same everywhere.
It is the universal principle.
8. Moral concept. Platonic concept of justice is not jural but
moral. Fulfilment of justice does not so much require fulfilment of
jural duties but the following of moral obligations.
9. Freedom of Women. The establishment of justice, according
to Plato, requires freedom of women. Women should be given equal
rights in the state to participate in all the activities alongside with
men.
10. Education for justice. In order to prepare the citizens for the
realization of justice in the state, Plato has advanced a scheme of
planned education.
The Individual Justice

Justice, according to Plato, is the spirit by which men are animated

in the fulfilment of duty. In human mind there are three elements
reason, spirit and appetite. While wisdom is the virtue of reason, the
courage is the virtue of spirit and the temperance of the appetite,
justice is the virtue which maintains harmony in all these three.
Thus, according to Plato, each part of human mind must get its due
satisfaction and ultimately there must be a harmony between different
parts of the individual. Only such harmonious individuals can create
a harmonious society and a harmonious state. Sacial justice is not
possible without individual justice. In fact, the social justice is based
upon the individual_justice. In other words, only in asociety where
individual justice is generally found, social justice can beachieved.
 Social Philosophy 93

Social Justice
Just as in the individual, there are three elements, similarly in
asociety there are three types of men corresponding to it. These
men are classified according to the predominance of some
one part out of the three pointed out above in the individual source.
Thus some people are predominantly rational. They are more adept
in rational pursuits. Some other people, are strong in spirit and therefore
more active. The majority of the people are neither strong in reason
in spirit but only in passions. These are required to be controlled
by the other two. On the basis of this classification of the individual
types in society, Plato has established a three-fold functional social
stratification in which the philosophers are at the apex, the soldiers
in the middle and the artisans, farmers etc. at the base. Each of
these parts of the state should carry on its own activity. According
to Plato the man should practise one thing only and that is the thing
Plato, is
to which his nature was best adapted. Justice, according toconcerning
justice
oftwo types justice concerning the individual and
conceived on parallel
the state. Both the types of justice have been
principles. Justice everywhere is the principle of harmony among the
constituents. In the justice concerning thestate all the citizens should
their duty The ideal virtue of the ruler is to rule the state with
do the ruler is_ wisdom.
temperance. The main virtue of
wisdom and The ruler is among the
Justice, therefore, is the virtue of the wise. that
persons in the state. That is why Plato has recommendedgiven
wisest society/In an ideal state justice is
philosophers should rule the
individual whc in his turn, fulfils his duties towards the state.
to. each means fulfilment of one's duties.
citizens, therefore justice
For the
citizen fulfils the duties according to his status
In the ideal state each
the basis of all the virtues. No ideal state
and role.Thus, justice is justice means
The situation contrary to
is possible without justice. the state is allowed to dominate the other
that some one part of is the elimination of such a possibility.
justice
parts.On the other hand, at selfish individualism. Individual according
Plato's theory of justicehits single unit. His aim is not
to him is a complex whole and not apart of it. He should realise
pleasure of any
personal pleasure or resulting into harmony and happinc_s.
satisfaction of all his parts according to which citizens
organic theory of state, are
Platohas accepted the body politic, their pains and pleasures
this theory
are the constituents of of the state. It is undeniable that the ruled
plea_ures
the pains and intimate relationship between the ruler and
maintains an with the parts of the body politic,
human individuals
94 Plato

states were
Plato finds place for totalitarianism. Later on, fascist
built upon Plato's social philosophy.
Criticism of the Theory of Justice
The following criticisms have been advanced against Plato's theory
of justice explaincd above:
1. Moral concept of justice. Plato's theory of justice is the concept
moral justice. He has therefore laid more emphasis upon the
duties rather than the rights. Undeniably, emphasis on rights keeps
the society united and in the state of solidarity, exclusive emphasis,
however, lcads to exploitation. Both rights and duties are important
in an ideal society.
2. Centralization of Power. Plato provided wide powers to the
philosopher king. He, however, forgot the psychological principle
that ab[olute power corrupts absolutely. Even the wise person becomes
Çorrupt if he is allowed absolute power.
3. Disadvantages of functional specialization. Though some sort
of division of labour is necessary for the harmonious growth of
every
society, yet too much functional specialization lads /to the hindranee
in the all round growth of individual
division of labour based upon inherent personalities. By prescribing
tendencies Plato prescribed
a division of labour insociety solely according to
forgot the principle that heredity alone is not these functions. He
personality traits.Personality is governed bothresponsible for the
by heredity and
environment; Laying
education suitable forcxclusive emphasis upon heredity, Plato prescribed
different functions in society. He, therefore, in
spite of his ideal of harmony and justice, laid
system of society and the system of education which the foundation of the
one-sided personalities. tended to develop
4. Fascism. As has been
already pointed out, Plato's theory of
justice lays a foundation for fascism.
expected lo show absolute loyalty According to it each citizen is
is all powerful.
Modern towards the state, which in its turn,
the state which invariablythinkers are against entrusting all powers to
individual, results in curbing the frecdom of the
5. Guardian's
importance to law freedom from law. While
that he refused to escape Socrates gave so much
considered the guardians of the state
above
from the prison, Plato
justice is the dictate of the law, In fact what he calls
indwelling spirit of the guardians. True
justice, however, cannot be based
theory of justice does not upon personal
conscience.
 1 D.Litt.(Meerut), has

Soclal Philosophy
95
Aferent from loyalty. It is
the state, while on cOncerned
the other with regulation of society
oucht and the ideal. hand morality is Concerned with and
legal obligation PlatoNeglecting
has
this distinction between the
moral and
6.Passive concepts. failed to provide sound basis for either.
Being primarily individualPlato's concept of justice is
and moral it cannot be extremely
the passive.
regulation, does not provide any solution in the
He basis of jural
desire and duty, duties and rights. conflict between
7. Emphasis on unity than
sort of relationship between thediversity. In spite of maintaining some
unity and diversity Plato has laid too
much emphasis upon unity of the state. In his search for unity he
arrived upon such absurd ideas as communism of women and abolition
of marriage and family. He provided to0
So much so that it reduced individual to_a much authority to the state,
mere cell of the state
organism.
In spite of the above criticism of Plato's theory of justice and our
conclusion that the theory does not provide asound basis for body
politic, we must remember that Plato was first a philosopher and
then a political thinker. As we have already pointed out, his political
philosophy is in fact based upon his social philosophy. His theory of
justice is not concerned with legality but with social morality. It is,
therefore., neither a subject of law nor a subject of individual ethics
oY a confusion of the two. It is rather a harmony of the two. It
studies the means by which goodness
can be achieved in society. It
seeks to arrive at the essence of morality, which, according to it, is
the fulfilment of_ one's duties in society. This society, again, is not
based
legal and based upon the legal rights. It is a moral society guides
upon moral duties. Justice in fact is the inner spirit whichwith self
men in the fulfilment of their duties. It is closely connccted of an
bases
control. It involves both harmony andsymphony, the two
ideal society.
IDEAL
THE COMMUNIST SOCIAL
father of modern communism
Long before Karl Marx, the derived a social philosophy
presented his theory, Plato in Greece presented in his
Dased upon communist ideals. This ideal was first
Republic which was later on improved in another dialogue
dialogue The Platonic communism was moral evolution.
Ihe LaWs. The aim of citizens according
he wanted to develop the
While through educationcommunism he wanted to
prepare a social
for
tO ns 1deas, through plan. Communism was the means
environment conducive to his
 Plato
96
reforms. Education was the
the realization of moral and spiritual wanted to reform the
means for maintaining unity in the state. Plato communist system
individual and society through spiritual means. His of the
aimed at creating an ideal environment for the moral growth
guardians.The mind of man is the creator of the state and therefore.
if the state is to be reformed, men's mind must be reformed. Justice
is not something external, but atendency of the mind. It can be.
therefore, achieved only in a right thinking mind. The nature of the
mind, however, is very much governed bythe social circumstances in
which one has to work. The creation of justice in society depends
upon the condition that should be created which lays emphasis upon
fulfilment of duties. Fulfilment of duties, again, depends upon the
condition that impediments in it are removed.
Platonic communism is not an original idea. Communist system
was prevalent in Greece long before the advent of Plato. In Greece
the ownership of land was generally collective. In Athens the State
was considered the owner of all the forests and mines and the caretaker
of the individual property. In Sparta the produGe on individual lands
was communally distributed. The people considered it their right to
take food in other's homes. They could use
other's horses, dogs and
slaves for their personal good. The dramatist Eurepides has
to the communism of women. Thus referred
Plato's
communism of property and women were very ideas concerning the
much borrowed from
contemporary circumstances. It is a different matter that while we
have forgotten about the
widely influenced differentcircumstances of his time, his ideas have
branches of knowledge.
Communism of property
In the third book of his
explained his theory of famous work The Republic Plato has
the guardians may be communism of property. In the first place,
with them. No guardian allowed to keep only the
treasure which is only his should
minimum
be allowed to have property
a home
own, He should be or a
be used just as it is provided materials to
provided for others. He may
much as is neither short be
time of war the warriors of nor more than necessary.given only so
gathered at one place. Soshould be provided food and During the
other
guardians do not need themfar asas they
gold and silver are materials
Guardians are not allowed to are pure gold in concerned the
gold. They should not use pOssess or even to touchtheir spirits.
they use golden and ornaments of silver and silver and
silver utensils. Only in this gold nor should
way can they
 Social Philosophy
97
their states. T, on the other
storc gold and silver, land andhand, they are allowed to
house-hold persons, full of animals, they will becomeposseSs and
ordinary
sellishne%%
to protcct the state and involve in and egoism." They will thus fail
Plato's personal rivalries and conflicts.
communism concerning property was based upon the
following considerations:
1. The individualís not a
Platohas separate unit. In his book The Republic
rejccted the idca that
ims at fulfilment of his desires.theHc,individual is an isolated unit and
on the other
that the individual is a unit of society and he shouldhand, maintained
in the fulfilment of his social duties. He should, see satisfaction
therefore, share all
his propertics with every-one else. This is particularly true about the
guardians who are responsible for the growth of the state.
2. The ideal of justice. Communism of property was a means for
the realization of the ideal of justice. Justice is possible onty wb
cach member of society honestly fulfils his duties. In an ideal state
the guardians should be selfless and without any strings of property
ctc. It is only then that they can show wisdom and courage and
remain free from passions, characteristic of the general people. In
fact they should totally sacrifice the economic possessions so that
achieve the
they may become free from passions and their soul may sacrifice their
virtues of wisdom and courage. In the absence of such the passions.
surrender to
reason will be either passive or weak and will realised
An ideal state can be
3. Realisation of the ideal state.
free from personal property and the
only if its guardians are keptThis is possible only through communistic
bonds of marriage and family.
provisions.
argumnent. Plato bas advanced a pragmatic argument
4. Pragmaticcommunism of property. He pointed out that if the
in favour of his economic possessions, they willfight among
guardians are allowed us that concentration of wealth in the
themselves. Experience shows disharmony. From the
into conflict and
nands of few people
results
view, therefore, the guardians
point of In the ideal
PSychological and pragmatic property.
should be free from the
bonds of personal farmers
consisting of artisans, class is
general masses
state of Plato only the personal property. But even this much
and others had the rightto state as too much poverty or
to0
much coptrolled by the maintenance of justice in the
Yery
equally harmful for the
PrOSPerity is
State. PlatÝ's communism
Abolition of private
state. unity of the
Maintenance of the of the state.
J.
taining the unity
100
Plato
2.
Elimination of Marriage. Plato's
are wrong both from strictures concerning
psychological and social view-point. marriage
human beings need marriage
institutions have always been and therefore,
idea of communism of
women
.Psychologically
some sort of marriage
prevalent human societies. Plato's
in
is
psychologically resulting into elimination of marriage
harmful both
the social point of view it for male and female guardians. From
moral degeneration. The will result into promiscuity leading to
negation of it for the two provision marriage for the lay man and
of
these two sections. higher clases may lead to
3. Against the law of
inequality between
improvement of the progeny. genetics. Communism of women
Plato has himself It is, however, aimed at
against the
admitted that wise and able parentslaw of genetics.
birth to good children, they may even give birth to need not give
opposite traits. The
does not meet the artificial mating of children having
end of genetics. able male and female, therefore,
4. Immoral
moral thinker, could systen. It is really strange that
two social suggest abolition of family and Plato, primarily a
institutions
virtues including which form the basis of all marriage, the
that of social virtues. The
without a
will lead topermanent
temperance
institution
and wisdom cannot
of marriage. be developed
The idea of the incest and all sort of ilicit Communism of women
The idea of mating search for ideal pairs by theand immoral relationships.
animal husbandry butableit ismale and female state
is hardly
hardly could be a good practicable.
idea in
5. Against the
of women
suitable for
good of Women. Nor does human society.
fulfil the interest the theory of
female are in fact of the
women themselves.communism
identical status in compl i m ent
both. Equality ary to each other.
of women onlyThey do not require
Male and
opport unitie s for
them into males. Plato their
devel o pment . It does not
means provision of
male and female are has himself mean convertingof
his system of It is accepted that
different. hence difficult to the functions
themselves. Thecommunism of women will
women are not suitable for thebe useful understand how
for WOmen
Temperamental y
Plato' s provision they are more suited for
of
job of the
to them inupbringing of thewarriors.
can be hardly
6. Neglect considered
comradeship
as an ideal the two higher family.
ideal situation for of
Children. The opportunity for them. classes
of women the growth of institution of family
of hitting at the children, The idea of provides the
children. The arrangement institution of
that all thefamily will result communism
into neglect
males and females
mating
 Social Philosophy
during a particular festival of 10t
of all children born as a marriage should be
the
the psychological point tesult
of
of this
view. festival,consid ered
is hardly parents
is purely personal. No one loves The
pychol o gy of suitahle
of general children as much parent as he hloves
ood
his own. Plato's
provision other's
general neglect of children. parentage will onty result in the
The above
women and evaluation
children
of Plato's theory of
communism of property,
favour of the good of amply demonstrates that
the state as resulted in he had much bas in
lead to a barbarous primitive provisions which may
all soft virtues. In fact society full of inequalities and short of
Plato has becn indirectly influenced by Greek
praise for virile virtues. A social
place for soft virtues, may however, philosophy, not finding suitable
result in the creation of a society
which will not be suitable for the growth of human values.
Functionat Distinctions of Social Justice in the Republic
<What we had in mind when we founded the city was not how
to make one class happy above the rest, but how to make the city
as a whole as happy as it could be. For we believed that in such a
city we were most likely to find justice, and injustice again in the
worst managed city; then we might examine them and decide the
matter which we have been searching all this time. Well then, now,
as we believe, we are moulding the happy city, we are not separating
a few in it and putting them down as happy, but we take it as a
whole »1l
"By and by we willexamine the opposite kind. Suppose we were
came up andfound fault
putting colour on a statue, and some one
finest parts of the
because we did not put the finest colours on the says, been tinted
part have, bhe
Tigure, for the eyes, a most beautiful it
think areasonable answer lo give
dark, nor crimson, We should ought to paint such
him if we said, "Don't be silly: Do you think we also
pair of eyes that they don't look like eyes al all? Sotheir
abeautifsl and see if, bygiving all the parts now,
the other parts? But look
are making the whole beautiul? Just so will
Proper treatment, we to the guardians as
such happiness well
don't force us to take on guardians. We could indeed just as gold
make them anything but pure and fine linens and hang
order the farmers to dress in
for their pleasure; we might
and till the land and
Chains about them, away, and recline on couches
wheels round
make the potters put theirmatches at thefire, and sendthe cupand we
disposed;
feast, and have drinking
make their pots when they felt so
to the
102 Plato

and then
might make all the others live in bliss in that sort of way,
expect the whole city to be happy. Don't preach to us like that; for
potter will not be
if we obey you, farmer will not be farmer, and will have its
potter, and no other class of those which make a city who are
proper form. The others are really no great matter; cobblers and
bogglers may work badly and pretend to be what they areof not,
city and
may do ruin with no danger to the city; but if guardians
laws are not what they thought to be, you see they destroy the city
utterly, and they alone have the opportunity to make it well managed
the city,
and happy. Then if we are making real and true guardians of
kind having
no marauders, and if our critic talks of farmers of some
telling
a jolly time at a fair or a feast, not in a city at all, he must be
mind,
of something else, not acity. Consider them, with this in our
whether we shall arrange that our guardian's happiness, or if we
be
shall keep in view the city as a whole and see how that shall
happy. Then we must compel and persuade these assistants, and all
the guardians,to do as I have said, in order that they may be the best
possible craftsmen in their own work; we must do the same with ll
the other craftsmen, and the whole city will increase and be managed
well, and we must leave each class to have the share of happiness
which their nature gives to each."2
No Meddling and Interchange
Then the meddling and interchange between the three classes
would be the greatest damage to the city, and would rightly be
entitled evil doing in chief."
"Sothis is injustice. On the other hand, let us put it in this way.
The opposite of this, own-dealing of cach class, money-makers, assistants
and guardians, each one of these doing its own business in the city,
would be justice and would make the city just,"3

Parellelism of Individual and Society

"Let us not yet say so quite firmly, but only if this pattern enters
into each single one of our people and is there accepted as justice:
then we will grant it at once (for what else shall we say?); if not,
there will be another enquiry for us. But at present let us finish the
examination we made in which we believed it would be easier to see
what sort of thing justice is in one man, if we were to try to inspect
it in somne larger thing, one of those which contain justice, viewing
it there first. We have agreed already that this larger thing is the cily,
and we founded our city so as to be at its very best, as well as Wo
 Social Philosophy 103

could, since we knew well that in the good city surely justice would
be. What we
found there, then, let us apply to the síngle man; and
fit be found to agree, well and good; but if sOmething else becomes
manifest inthe one man, we will come back to the city and tellikeit.
together
So by examining them side by side and rubbing them
justice flash out, and when it
fresticks, we may very likely make ourselves "4
shows itself we may confirm it for
man : If he
Then, my friend, here is our claim for the single same names
has these same patterns in his soul, he is entitled to the
conditions,"5
as the city because of the same
same patterns and
Then, we must necessarily admit that the city, mustn't we?
are in the
qualities are in each one of us which from that source? It would
Whence do they come there at all if not was not engendered
temper
be ridiculous to believe that the spirited
the city from the private persons wherever and have a reputation
in the Scythians or the peopie
for example the Thracians and
for such, of intellectual enquiry, which
general; or the temper
up country in belong to our own part of the word, or
would be said especially to
money-making, which is reported to be the particular
the love of Egyptians."6
mark of Phoenicians and
and Society
Division of Labour in Individual
forgotten that the city was just by
But we have by no means business."
each single man in its three classes did his own
reason that own
remember then that each of us will be doing his
We must willbe doing its
business, and will be just, when each part of him
OWn business in him," and gymnastic
cThen, as we were saying, a mingling of music with
concord, stringing up the reason and feeding it it
Will putthem in temper while
words and teachings, but slackening the
beautiful tune and rhythm."
Soothes it and makes it gentle by and educated, will truly learn
trained,
These two, then, thus will preside over the desiring part,
they
their own business: then the soul in each man and by its nature
which is the largest part of This they will watch lest
it be filled
enough.
Can never have wealth bodily pleasures, and so growing great and
ulof what are called the own business but may try to enslave and
srong may no longer do itsproperlyshould not, and so overturn the
it
Ue the classes which
whole life of all.'"
104 Plato

Virtue asaGolden Mean

"And when we speak of any man as brave, we call him so because
of this part, when his high-spirited temper preserves through both
pains and pleasures the reason's teaching as to what is realiy dangerous
or not,"
"Yes and wise by that small part which was ruling in him and
gave these instructions, because that again had in itself knowledge.
that is, knew what was the advantage to both or each single one of
their commonwealth of the three classes."
"Further: when we speak of him as temperate, it is by the friendship
and concord of these very threc, whenever the ruler and the two
ruled are of one mind, and agree that the reasoning part ought to
rule, and make no faction against it."
Nature of Injustice
"So be it, then. The next thing is to examine injustice. Surely it
must be factions among these, and meddling in many businesses, and
meddling in other's business, and revolt of one part of the soul
against the whole in order that this part may rule in the soul though
it is not proper for it to do so, being a part sitable by nature to be
the slave of that which is the ruling principle. Something like that we
shall say, Ibelieve, and the confusion of these and their error
be injustice and riot and cowardice and will
in a word.9 ignorance complete vice,
Justice in the Individual
And to make health is to settle the parts of
rule or be ruled together, according to nature; to the body SO as to
settle that this part rules and that is ruled one make disease is to
to nature." by another contrary
"On the other hand, to implant justice to
soul so as to rule and be ruled settle the parts of the
is to settle things so that one together to nature; to implant injustice
by
part rules and one part is ruled one
another contrary to nature?10
Virtue and Vice
Virtue then it seems, would be a kind of
fine fitness of the soul? Vice is disease and health and beauty and
ugliness weakness."
Justice in Integral Personality
"But in truth, justice, it appears,
was something like this: not
 Soclal Philosophy
105
however,in man's outward practice, but
do his own business in himself, He must inwardly
not have
and truy he must
of himselfto do the business of other parts, nor theallowed any part
parts in
to meddle in many businesses with each other; but he his soul
managed his oWn well, and himself have ruled must have
himself, and set
order, and become å friend to himself. He must have put al all in
norts in tune within him, highest and lowest and middle, exactlythree
he three chief notes of a scale, and any other intervals between ike
that
there may be; he must have bound al these together and made
himself completely one out of many, temperate and concordant; and
then only do whatever he does, getting of wealth, or care the body,
or even matters of state or private contract. In all these he must
believe and name as just and beautiful dealing whatever practice
preserves this condition and works along with it, and as wisdom he
must name the knowledge which presides over this pracice; but as
unjust dealing he must name whatever dissolves it, and as brute
ignorance again, the opinion which presides over such."2
COMMUNITY OF WOMEN AND CHILDREN

The following passages from Plato's The Republic summarize

Plato's prescriptions about the status of women in the ideal republic.
Equality of Sexes
"Now, take the male and female sex; if either is found to be
better as regards any art or other practice, we shall say that this
ought to be assigned to it. But if we find that they iffer only in one
thing, that the male begets and the female bears the child, we shall
not take that difference as having proved any more clearly that a
WOman differs from a man for what we are speaking of; but we stll
believe that our guardians and their wives should practise the same
things, "13
Similar Functions
callingin the life of the city
"Then, my friend, no
belongs to
practice or
as woman or to man as man but
the various
woman by nature the woman
eS are dispersed among both sexes alike:
has ashare in all so has man, but in all, woman is
all practices, and
rather weaker than man.*
chosen for such men; to live with
"Such then; must be and akin to
them and women; to guard with them, since they are fit for it
them, by nature."
108 Plato

«so we have come round to where we began, and we agree that

it is not against nature to assign music and gymnastic to the wives
of the guardians, "1s
Naked Women of the Guardians

"So the women of the guardians must strip, since naked they witl
be clothed in virtue for gowns; they must share in war and in all the
guarding of the city, and that shall be their only work. But in these
same things lighter partswill be given to women than men because
of the weakness of their sexX. And the man who laughs at naked
women, exercising for the greatest good, plucks in unripe fruit of
wisdom from his laughter, he apparently does not know what he
laughs or what he is doing. For it is and will be the best thing ever
at
said, that the useful is beautiful and the harmful is ugly.»16
Community of Women and Children
These women are to be all common to all
must have a private wife of his own, and the these men; no one
too, and the parent shall not know the child children must be cOmmon
nor the child its parent."7
Compatibility of Male and Female
"Then suppose you are the
men, and Hkewise then you willlaw-giver. You have picked out the
nature as far as possible, and givepick out the women of the same
them to men, These will al have
dwellings and masses in common, and no one will have any
property of that kind at all; so they will be
private
together in places of exercise and in all their together and mingle
necessity, Ithink, they will mingle in union training;
with one
then by inborn
Useful Marriages another."*
It is plain then, that we
we can; and sacred would shall make marriages as sacred as ever
mean the most useful."9
Best men with Best
Women
"It follows from what we
most often with the best agreed that the best men must
worst, least often and thewomen, but the opposite, the worst with mingle
but not the others, if the children of the best must be the
this to be going on exceptflock is, to be tiptop.
And none
brought up
is also to be as the rulers alone, if the must know
free as possible from herd of guardians
quarrels.920
 Social Philosophy 107

Holidays for Love Making

Then hoidays must be provided by law, when we shall bring
together the brides and bridegrooms, and there must be festivals,
and hymns must be made by our poets suitable to the weddings
which come about. But the number of weddings we will leave the
rulers to decide, so that they may keep the number of the men as
far as possible the same, taking into account war and disease and so
forth, inorder to keep the city from becoming either too large or too
small as far as possible."1
Population Planning
"And there must be some clever kinds of lots devised, I think,
so that your worthless creature will blame his bad luck on any
conjunction; not his rules."
Suitable Mating
And Isuppose, when young men prove themselves good and
them, and
true in war or anywhere else, honours must be given to
intercourse with
prizes and particularly more generous freedom of for lett1ng as
excuse
women; at the same time, this will be a good
men."
many children as possible be begotten of such
Care of Children
will receive the children
"Then the officials who are set over these
men or women or both, for offices are
as they are born; they may be
Women and men."
COmmoOn, of cOurse, to both
willtake, Ithink, into the
The children of the good, then, they some
and hand them over to certain nurses who will ive in
fold,
city; those of the inferior sort, and any one of the
place apart in the
may be born defective, they will put away as is propr
others who
place."2
in some mysterious, unknown
Provision for Maternity
have charge of their nature; they will
"Those officials, then,will when they are in milk, taking every
mothers
bring into the fold the recognise her own; if these are not
precaution that no mother shallwho have milk. They shall be careful
others
able, they shall providenot suckle too long; sleepless nights and other
that these mothers do nurses and nannies "23
troubles will be left for
 Plato
108
Planned Parenthood
The woman, shall bear for the state from the age of twenty to

shall beget for the state from the time when, "his
forty: the man past" to the age of five and fifty."
quickest racing speed is
Unlawful matings
these shall medde
«Then ifaman either older or younger than
offence is neither lawful
in begetting for the state, we shall say thiscity, which will be born e
nor right. He has planted a child in the sanctity: no
the secret is kept, not as one conceived in the grace of
holy rite and prayers will be heard over it, such as priestesses and
priests wll in tone for each wedding while the whole city prays that
the children born may be better children of good parents, and more
useful children of useful parents, from generation to generation:
instead it was begotton in darkness with incontinance to the common
danger,"
«The same law will hold, if one still within the creative age touch
awoman with her age without a ruler's pairing bastard and unaccredited
and unsanctified we shall call that child which he dumps upon the
city. "4
Sexual Promiscuity
But I think, as sOon as the womnen and the men pass the age
of begetting, we shall leave the men free to consort with any they
will, except with daughter or mother, and daughter's children, and
those of an carlier generation than the mother, and the women again
free except for son or father or thOse above and below as before.
However, with all this allowance, we must warn them to be as careful
as possible not to bring any of such
even one; but if a child is born, if oneconceptions
forces
into the light, not
must dispose of it on the understanding that its way isthrough, they
nurture for such a one, 25 there no food or

Fixing of Paternity
"They willnot, but
he will call all the malewhenever one of them becomes a bridègro0m,
children daughters, who children, sons and all the female
are born in the tenth month, daughters,
seventh month, counting from the day of his or indeed the
call him father; and likewise he marriage; and they w
and they again will call will call their offspring grandchildren,
those born in that these grandfathers and
particular time grandmothers.
when their mothers And
and fathers
 Social Philosophy 109
were begetting they will call sisters and
brothers. So these will not
touch each other in the way we spoke of; but
law will allow to live together, if the lot brothers and sisters the
falls that way and if the
Pythian oracle sanctions, "2%
Organic theory of state
That is when the city is nearest the single man. For
what happens when your finger is hurt?The whole community,example,
arranged
throughout the body, stretching to the soul as one orderly whole
under that which rules in it, feels the pain, and the community has
pain all together as a whole when the part is in trouble, so we say
the man has pain in the finger, and the same is said of any other of
the parts of the man, about pain when a part is in trouble and about
pleasure when a part gets better."7
«Then if something cither good or bad happens to any of the
citizens, such a city will be most likely to say that the sufferer is part
of the city, and it will be happy or unhappy as a whole."28
But that we agreed, furthermore, was the highest good for the
city, and we compared a well managed city in the body as to how the
parts and the whole were connected in pain and pleasure."
been shown
Then the cause of the highest good for the city has assistants."30
among the
to be the community of women and children

Notes and References

Rouse (Ed.),Grect Dialogues of Plaio, Trans.

E.H. and Philip G.
1. Warmington, Mentor, New York, 1956, pp. 218-219.
by W.HD. Rouse,
2. Ibid.
3. Tbid., p. 233.
4. Tbid., p. 234.
5. Ibid.
6. Ibid., p. 235.
7. Ibid., p. 242.
8. lbid., pp. 242-43.
9. Ibid., p. 244.
10. Tbid., p. 245.
11. Ibid.
12. Ibid., p. 244.