CHAPTER 14:
INTERGROUP
RELATIONS
What are the characteristics of
intergroup relationships?
Presentation by Glenda L. Sanchez, LPT
INTRODUCTION
As a social species, humans strive to establish
close ties with one another. Yet the same
species that seeks out connections with
others also metes out enmity when it
confronts members of another group.
Intergroup relations are more often
contentious than harmonious.
WHAT IS THE ROLE OF COMPETITION AND
CONFLICT IN INTERGROUP CONFLICT?
Realistic group conflict theory: A conceptual framework
arguing that conflict between groups stems from
competition for scarce resources, including food,
territory, wealth, power, natural resources, and energy.
Discontinuity effect :The markedly greater
competitiveness of groups when interacting with other
groups, relative to the competitiveness of individuals
interacting with other individuals.
WHAT WE WILL TALK ABOUT:
Introduction
How does conflict between groups
arise?
What is intergroup bias?
How can conflicts between groups
be solved?
What methods can be used in
order to solve conflict?
HOW DOES CONFLICT
BETWEEN GROUPS ARISE?
Intergroup conflict: disagreement or
confrontation between two or more groups
and their members, which can consist of
physical violence, interpersonal
disagreements and psychological tension.
THE CAUSES OF DISCONTINUITY ARE THE
FOLLOWING:
GREED IS MORE PREVALENT IN GROUP MEMBERS AS PART
PEOPLE ARE MORE FRIGHTENED
OF GROUPS THAN OF
GROUPS THAN IN INDIVIDUALS. OF THE GROUP INDIVIDUALS.
People feed on each other's Group members are of the opinion They describe groups to be more
selfishness. They are more selfish that as a part of the group, they competitive and aggressive and
when they are in a group. should do everything in order to less cooperative than individuals.
optimize the outcomes of the group, This is also named intergroup
GROUP FUNCTION even if the outgroup suffers. paranoia: the conviction of group
members from the ingroup that
they will be treated badly by
Functioning in a group can make group members feel members of the outgroup.
less responsible for mistakes, because of the presence
of other group members.
WHAT IS THE ROLE OF POWER AND
DOMINATION IN INTERGROUP CONFLICT?
SOCIAL DOMINANCE THEORY
An approach to oppression and domination, developed
by Jim Sidanius, Felicia Pratto, and their colleagues,
assuming that conflict between groups results from
dynamic tensions between hierarchically ranked groups
within society.
Individuals who are socially dominant are more often
focussed on gaining and using power. Those who are less
socially dominant are more likely to use cooperative
methods in order to deal with conflicts.
INTERGROUP EMOTIONS
Stereotype Content Model A theory of group perception positing that people’s stereotyped views about social groups
reflect their beliefs about the warmth and competence of the stereotyped group. These two are the basic dimension.
THERE ARE FOUR DIFFERENT KINDS OF EMOTIONAL REACTIONS TO
THE OUTGROUP.
Envy is most likely when the outgroup, although judged
negatively, is nonetheless higher in status than the ingroup
and this status difference is thought to be due to the
competence of the outgroup. It arises when the outgroup
has a higher status than the ingroup and when it is thought
that the difference in status exists because the outgroup is
more competent. Envy goes with the idea that the outgroup
is not very warm, but very competent.
WHAT IS THE ROLE OF NORMS IN CONFLICT?
Just like individuals, groups also behave according to the norm
of reciprocity. They respond to threats with threats, they
insult people who insult them, and behave aggressively
towards people who are aggressive towards them.
Within groups, individualists are more
confrontational, while between groups
collectivists are more confrontational.
WHEN DOES INTERGROUP AGGRESSION
OCCUR?
When one group dominates and extorts another group it often GENERAL AGGRESSION MODEL
leads to conflict. When an intergroup conflict ends, one group is
This is a framework made up out of biological, environmental,
often branded a loser, while the other group is seen as a winner.
social, and psychological factors that influence hostility and
The winning group is proud and experiences positive emotions,
negative behaviour. Environmental factors such as pain, threats,
while the losing group feels defeated. The emotions can
and stressors can increase arousal. When increased arousal is
contribute to the escalation of a conflict between groups.
paired with a negative appraisal of a situation, it can lead to
aggression.
THE FRUSTRATION-AGGRESSION
SCAPEGOAT THEORY
HYPOTHESIS
An explanation of intergroup conflict arguing that hostility
INTERGROUP EXPLOITATION. posits that individuals become more aggressive when
caused by frustrating environmental circumstances is
one group tries to dominate another group. The external conditions inhibit the achievement of set goals.
released by taking hostile actions against members of other
The aggression is caused by frustration.
other group tries to resist. social groups.
INTERGROUP EMOTIONS
Pity, as an intergroup emotion, is directed at outgroups
Admiration is rare in intergroup contexts, for it is
that are viewed negatively in terms of competence, but are
experienced when the outgroup is perceived as being both
thought to also have positive, endearing qualities. Pity is
Contempt is one of the most common of intergroup high in warmth and high in competence, an unusual
usually directed downward, to outgroups that are low in the
emotions, occurring when the outgroup is the most occurrence. Intergroup admiration occurs when outgroup is
overall status ranking. Outgroups that evoke pity are not
negatively stereotyped, that is, viewed as low in terms of thought to be completely deserving of its accomplishments,
blamed for their plight, unlike outgroups that are held in
both competence and warmth. The members of such an when the outgroup’s gains do not come at a cost to the
contempt.
outgroup are viewed as responsible for their failings, and ingroup, and when the outgroup members are generally
there is little consideration given to the idea that the judged positively.
The outgroup is thought to be warm, but not competent.
division between the two groups can ever be lessened.
The consequence is that members from this group evoke a
This emotion is exceptional. Admiration arises when the
sense of pity. Often, people pity groups that have a low
It arises when the outgroup is not warm and also not ingroup thinks the outgroup is both warm and competent.
social status. These groups are not blamed for their
competent. The outgroup is thought to be responsible for
situation.
its own bad circumstances.
WHAT IS INTERGROUP BIAS?
Social categorization arises when we start calling our own group 'us' and the other groups 'them'. Research shows that just belonging to a group can increase the likelihood of
conflict with other groups. Just the sense that you belong to a group (us) and that others belong to another group (them) is enough to take on a discriminating attitude towards
other groups.
ETHNOCENTRISM DOUBLE-STANDARD THINKING OUTGROUP HOMOGENEITY BIAS
The belief that one’s own The tendency to consider the The perceptual tendency to
tribe, region, or country is actions and attributes of one’s assume that the members of
own group as positive, fair, and
superior to other tribes, other groups are very similar
appropriate, but to consider these
regions, or countries. to each other, whereas the
very same behaviors or displays to
be negative, unfair, and membership of one’s own
inappropriate when the outgroup group is more heterogeneous.
performs them
 WHAT IS INTERGROUP BIAS?
LAW OF SMALL NUMBERS GROUP ATTRIBUTION ERROR
The tendency for perceivers to
The tendency for people to
assume that specific group
base sweeping members’ personal characteristics
generalizations about an and preferences, including their
beliefs, attitudes, and decisions,
entire group on observations
are similar to the preferences of the
of a small number of
group to which they belong; for
individuals from that group example, observers may assume
that each member of a group that
votes to reelect the president
supports the president, even
though the group’s decision was not
a unanimous one
ULTIMATE ATTRIBUTION ERROR
The tendency for perceivers
to attribute negative actions
performed by members of the
outgroup to dispositional
qualities and positive
actions to situational,
fluctuating circumstances.
WHAT IS INTERGROUP BIAS?
LINGUISTIC INTERGROUP BIAS
The tendency to describe
positive ingroup and
negative outgroup behaviors
more abstractly and negative
ingroup and positive
outgroup behaviors more
concretely.
When it comes to ingroup (members of one's own group) positive behaviors and outgroup
(members of other groups) negative behaviors, people often tend to describe them in
abstract terms. For example, if someone from our own group achieves success, we might
attribute it to their inherent qualities or virtues, such as talent, intelligence, or hard work.
On the other hand, if someone from an outgroup commits a wrongdoing, we might
generalize it as a characteristic of the entire outgroup, using abstract labels like "typical
behavior" or "common trait."
Conversely, when it comes to ingroup negative behaviors and outgroup positive behaviors,
individuals are more likely to describe them in concrete terms. For instance, if a member
of our own group makes a mistake or behaves poorly, we may attribute it to specific
circumstances or external factors, minimizing its significance. However, if someone from
an outgroup performs a positive action, we might focus on specific details or actions,
describing them in a concrete and detailed manner.

WHEN DOES EXCLUSION AND

IMPLICIT ASSOCIATION TEST (IAT)
measures the extent to which people associate
one concept (such as the ingroup) with another
concept (such as goodness). Individuals are
shown two concepts, for example:
ingroup/friendly, outgroup/mean. When the
individuals are shown a pairing that matches
with their own associations, they react quickly
and without mistakes. However, when they are
concepts that they do not associate with each
other, like ingroup/bad and outgroup/good, they
respond more slowly.
GROUPS MAKE COGNITIVE MISTAKES SUCH AS:
A stereotype is a socially learned procession of
cognitive generalizations (such as attitudes
and expectations) about the qualities and
characteristics of the members of a certain
group or social category. Stereotypes are most
often negative and overblown, but because
people unconsciously keep searching for
information that supports their opinions, they
don't change.
DEHUMANIZATION OCCUR? Dehumanization; the belief that other individuals or
groups do not have the characteristics necessary to be
Moral exclusion is a psychological process whereby
treated as a human. Dehumanization is often used in
opponents in a conflict start seeing each other as order to rationalize the extreme negative treatment of
subhuman, so that moral questions and moral principles are
the outgroup by the ingroup.
no longer relevant. Violence is often rationalized by
attributing it to actions, intentions or the character of the
Dehumanization involves depicting individuals or
victims. The more aggressive people get, the more they
groups as less than human, often to justify
rationalize and the less the victims are valued.
mistreatment, discrimination, or violence against
them.
Moral exclusion refers to the process of denying moral
consideration to certain individuals or groups, effectively
placing them outside the scope of moral concern.
Moral exclusion causes moral rules to not be applicable to certain people, while dehumanization
causes humanitarian rules to no longer apply. Dehumanization often causes the ingroup to behave
aggressively towards the outgroup. Research shows that even showing people images of an extreme
outgroup activates their insula and amygdala. These parts of the brain are activated when people
experience disgust and contempt.

WHEN DOES EXCLUSION AND DEHUMANIZATION OCCUR?

MORAL EXCLUSION EXAMPLE
1. Refusal to Recognize Rights: Historical examples
include denying certain groups basic human rights or
legal protections. For instance, during the era of
slavery in the United States, enslaved individuals were
denied the rights and freedoms afforded to white
citizens, effectively excluding them from moral
consideration.
HOW CAN CONFLICTS BETWEEN GROUPS BE SOLVED?
DEHUMANIZATION EXAMPLE The contact hypothesis posits that contact when there is equal status between the members of different groups will
decrease intergroup conflict. When the ingroup often interacts with the outgroup, the ingroup-outgroup bias will
1. Slavery: Throughout history, enslaved people have been fade. It is important however that in this contact the following is kept in mind:
systematically dehumanized by slave owners and societies
that condoned slavery. Enslaved individuals were often
treated as property rather than human beings, subjected to Equal status: creating equal status is very important. This can cause people with about the
brutal treatment and denied basic rights. same wealth, skill, experience and education background to come together.
2. Human Trafficking: Victims of human trafficking are often
Personal interaction: the contact between groups needs to be informal and personal instead
dehumanized by traffickers who view them as commodities
to be bought, sold, and exploited for profit. This of superficial and role based.
dehumanization contributes to the perpetuation of Supportive norms: the contact needs to be such that individuals from group are stimulated to
trafficking networks and the exploitation of vulnerable
be friendly and helpful.
individuals.
Cooperation: the groups need to work together towards a shared goal.
 What methods can be used in
order to solve conflict?
EXTENDED posits that when group members find out that multiple
members of their own group are friendly with someone
CONTACT from the outgroup, they will also have more positive
DECATEGORIZATION

HYPOTHESIS attitudes towards the outgroup. Strong group

connections prevent friendships from occurring
between members of different groups, but these kinds
of friendships can be very positive for the relations
between two groups. It also turns out that the more
time is spent together, the more positive the attitudes
about the outgroup become.
Decategorization (or personalization): minimalizing the emphasis that is put on group membership and emphasizing the
individuality of every member of a group. By emphasizing the individuality of every outgroup member, the intergroup
conflict can be decreased.
RECATEGORIZATION
combining two groups that are in conflict into one single group or category. This method overlaps with the common ingroup
identity model. This model predicts that intergroup conflict can be decreased by membership in general social categories and the
emphasizing the independence of individuals in groups. Additionally, the similarities between groups needs to be made as large as
possible, in order to increase unity (entitativity).

Not everyone has the capacity to solve conflicts, but this can be learned through
What methods can be used in several methods. Some of these are described below.
order to solve conflict?
Jigsaw method: a method whereby different subjects are assigned to group
members. Group members can have discussions with someone from another group
who is researching the same subject, and they have to report the end result to their
COMMON-ENEMY APPROACH
groups.
It can be helpful to have a common enemy (common-enemy approach), but this is a dangerous tactic. When the common enemy Another method is to teach people to handle conflict better, for example by
disappears, the old conflict can return. workshops. whereby each one should take several steps in solving a conflict. The
CROSS-CATEGORIZATION (OR MULTIPLE SOCIAL CATEGORIZATION) five steps are:
Step 1: defining the problem
the decreasing of the impact of social categorization on the perceptions of individuals. This can be done by emphasizing
Step 2: exchanging information about the conflict
that the group members are also part of two or more social groups that are not related to the categories that cause the
Step 3: viewing the situation from multiple perspectives
tensions between the ingroup and the outgroup.
Step 4: think of solutions to the conflict
AVOID STEREOTYPES Step 5: Choosing a solution that is acceptable for all parties.
Even though stereotypes are familiar to everyone and difficult to control, it is possible to control how you act on these
stereotypes. In order to avoid conflicts, you should try not to be influenced by stereotypes.

GRADED TASK 6:
REFLECTIVE ESSAY
"Reflecting on your understanding of intergroup conflicts, describe
a personal experience or observation where you witnessed or were
involved in an intergroup conflict. What were the underlying
factors contributing to the conflict? How did individuals or groups
perceive each other, and what role did communication and
empathy play in either exacerbating or resolving the conflict?
Based on your reflection, what lessons or insights have you gained
about the nature of intergroup conflicts and the potential for
reconciliation and peacebuilding?"