The Perfect Answer Revision Guide by SWH Learning AQA GCSE Chemistry Triple Award Wkvkec

The Perfect Answer
Revision Guide To... CHEMISTRY

By SwH Learning
AQA GCSE
8462
Triple Award
Higher Tier
2nd Edition
HAZEL LINDSEY &

MARTIN BAILEY
For use by Ian Frankish ianbfrankish@gmail.com ONLY. Not for redistribution.

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About The Authors

Hazel Lindse Martin Baile
Hazel is the creator of the Science with Hazel Martin is the co-founder of SwH Learning.
YouTube channel and a professional science tutor. Together, he and Hazel create and edit numerous
She specialises in GCSE and IGCSE biology, science revision videos, write and publish The
chemistry and physics across all exam boards. Perfect Answer GCSE and IGCSE revision guides
& workbooks, and run the SwH Learning revision
A quali ed secondary school science teacher, courses
Hazel graduated with a degree in Pre-Clinical
Veterinary Sciences from St. John’s College, Martin graduated with a degree in Natural
University of Cambridge, where she subsequently Sciences from Trinity College, University of
completed her PGCE (Post-Graduate Certi cate Cambridge. He has thousands of hours of
of Education) experience tutoring students of all abilities, from
GCSE up to degree level
Through her tuition and YouTube channel, Hazel is
responsible for helping hundreds of thousands of Whilst at Cambridge, Martin specialised in
students from around the globe achieve their pathology and biological anthropology. He also
dream results in their GCSEs, IGCSEs, A Levels studied chemistry, maths, geology and history &
and IB examinations. philosophy of science

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Content
Paper 4
1. Atomic structure and the periodic table .................................................................4
1.1 A simple model of the atom, symbols, relative atomic mass, electronic charge & isotopes......4
1.2 The periodic table ....................................................................................................................10
1.3 Properties of transition metals .................................................................................................16
2. Bonding, structure, and the properties of matter .................................................17

2.1 Chemical bonds, ionic, covalent and metallic..........................................................................17
2.2 How bonding and structure are related to the properties of substances.................................20
2.3 Structure and bonding of carbon .............................................................................................25
2.4 Bulk and surface properties of matter including nanoparticles ................................................28
3. Quantitative chemistry .........................................................................................30

3.1 Chemical measurements, conservation of mass & the quantitative interpretation of chemical
equations .......................................................................................................................................30
3.2 Use of amount of substance in relation to masses of pure substances...................................31
3.3 Yield and atom economy of chemical reactions ......................................................................36
3.4 Using concentrations of solutions............................................................................................37
3.5 Use of amount of substance in relation to volumes of gases ..................................................37
4. Chemical changes................................................................................................39
4.1 Reactivity of metals ..................................................................................................................39
4.2 Reactions of acids ...................................................................................................................42
4.3 Electrolysis ...............................................................................................................................48
5. Energy changes....................................................................................................54
5.1 Exothermic and endothermic reactions ...................................................................................54
5.2 Chemical cells and fuel cells ....................................................................................................56
Paper 58
6. The rate and extent of chemical change ..............................................................58
6.1 Rate of reaction........................................................................................................................58
6.2 Reversible reactions and dynamic equilibrium.........................................................................62
7. Organic chemistry ................................................................................................65

7.1 Carbon compounds as fuels and feedstock ............................................................................66
7.2 Reactions of alkenes and alcohols ...........................................................................................69
7.3 Synthetic and naturally occurring polymers .............................................................................74
8. Chemical analysis ................................................................................................78

8.1 Purity, formulations and chromatography ................................................................................78
8.2 Identi cation of common gases ...............................................................................................79
8.3 Identi cation of ions by chemical and spectroscopic means ..................................................80
© Hazel Lindsey, Martin Bailey 2023 2

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9. Chemistry of the atmosphere ...............................................................................83
9.1 The composition and evolution of the Earth’s atmosphere ......................................................83
9.2 Carbon dioxide and methane as greenhouse gases ................................................................84
9.3 Common atmospheric pollutants and their sources ................................................................85
10. Using resources .................................................................................................87

10.1 Using the Earth’s resources and obtaining potable water .....................................................87
10.2 Life cycle assessment and recycling ......................................................................................90
10.3 Using materials ......................................................................................................................91
10.4 The Haber process and the use of NPK fertilisers .................................................................95
Practical skills assessed in a written examinatio 97
Copyright © 2023 Hazel Lindsey, Martin Bailey. All rights reserved.

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Paper 1
1. Atomic structure and the periodic table
1.1 A simple model of the atom, symbols, relative atomic mass, electronic charge & isotopes
1.1.1 Atoms, elements and compounds
What is an atom?
- The smallest particle of a chemical element that can exist
What is an element?
- A substance which contains one TYPE of atom only
- Cannot be split by any chemical means
What is a compound?
- A substance made up of two or more elements chemically combined together
- Can only be separated into elements by chemical reactions
What is a molecule?
- Two or more atoms chemically bonded together
- By covalent bonds only
What is a chemical reaction?
- When elements or compounds combine together to create one or more new substances
- Often involve a detectable energy change
1.1.2 Mixtures
What is a mixture?
- A substance made up of two or more elements NOT chemically combined together
- Chemical properties of each substance are unchanged
Credit: Martin Bailey for SwH Learning

Elements, Compounds & Mixtures
O
He O C O He O
He He O
C O O He
O
He O
He C O He O O
Element Compound Mixture

Examples of elements, compounds and mixtures
Element Compound Mixture
Iron Calcium carbonate Honey
Lead Ammonia Air
Sulfur Carbon dioxide Sea water
Nitrogen Water Blood
Oxygen Iron sul de Soup

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What is a pure substance?
- Contains one type of material only
- e.g. one type of element or molecule
Describe the melting and boiling points of pure substances
- Fixed
- e.g. boiling point of pure water is exactly 100°C
- e.g. melting point of pure water is exactly 0°C
Describe the melting and boiling points of mixtures
- Melts over a range of temperatures
- Boils over a range of temperatures
De ne the following words:
- Solvent - liquid in which a solute dissolves
- Solute - a solid which dissolves in a solvent
- Solution - mixture of a solute and a solvent
- Saturated solution - a solution where no more solute can dissolve in the solvent
Why are separation techniques described as physical processes?
- Do not involve chemical reactions
- No new substances made
What method is used to separate an insoluble solute from a solvent?
- Filtration
Credit: Tom Morley for SwH Learning

Separation Of Sand & Water By Filtration
What method is used to separate a soluble solute from a solvent?

- Evaporation (or distillation)
Separation Of Sodium Chloride & Water By Evaporation

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What method is used to separate liquids of di erent boiling points?
- Fractional distillation

Separation Of Water, Ethanol & Propanol By Fractional Distillation
Collected first
/propanol
What method is used to separate pure water from sea water?

- Simple distillation (or fractional distillation)

Separation Of Sea Water & Pure Water By Simple Distillation
What method is used to separate petrol and water and why is this used?
- Separating funnel
- Petrol and water are immiscible (don’t mix)
What is paper chromatography used to separate?
- Dyes/inks i.e. liquids with di erent solubilities
Describe how to separate liquids using paper chromatography
- Use a pencil line as reference line
- Add spots of ink/dye to pencil line
- Place lter paper in solvent
- Make sure solvent level is below pencil line
- Leave until solvent nearly reaches top of paper
- Allow to dry
- Furthest dot has the greatest solubility
Why should the line be drawn in pencil

- Pencil does not contain ink so does not run
Explain why it is important for the solvent level to be below the spots of dye
- To prevent spots dissolving in the solvent

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Paper Chromatography
How do you calculate the Rf value?

- Rf = distance travelled by component
distance travelled by solvent
1.1.3 The development of the model of the atom
What led to the development of Thomson’s plum pudding model of the atom?
- Discovery of the electron
Describe Thomson’s plum pudding model
- 'Plums’ are the electrons embedded in a ‘sponge’ made of positive charge

Thomson’s Plum Pudding Model Of The Atom
Positive ‘sponge’
Negative ‘plums’
Describe and explain the results of Rutherford’s alpha particle scattering experiment
- Positive alpha particles red at gold foil
- Most passed straight through - an atom is largely empty space
- Some were de ected a little - nucleus is very small
- Very few were de ected a lot - nucleus is positively charged
-
Rutherford’s Alpha Particle Scattering Experiment

Most alpha particles not
Gold foil deflected
Alpha particle
Some alpha particles
emitter
deflected a little
Very few alpha particles

deflected a lot

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Which model of the atom did Rutherford’s experiments lead to?
- Nuclear model
Describe the nuclear model of the atom
- Atom is mostly empty space
- Mass of an atom concentrated at the centre
- Positive charge located in small nucleus
Describe the di erences between the nuclear model and the plum pudding model of the atom
- Nuclear model has a nucleus
- Nuclear model is mostly empty space
- Nuclear model has positive charge all in the nucleus
- Nuclear model has mass concentrated in nucleus
What did Bohr’s experiments demonstrate?
- That electrons orbit the nucleus at speci c distances away
What did Chadwick’s experiments prove?
- The existence of neutrons
Explain how Chadwick’s work led to a better understanding of isotopes
- Chadwick proved the existence of neutrons
- Isotopes have the same number of protons but di erent number of neutrons
1.1.4 Relative electrical charges of subatomic particles
Give the relative charge of a proton, neutron and electron

Relative charge
Proton +1
Neutron 0
Electron -1
What is the atomic number?

- Number of protons
How would you calculate the number of electrons in an atom?
- Same as the number of protons (atomic number)
What is the overall charge of an atom?
- Zero
- Number of protons = number of electrons
1.1.5 Size and mass of atoms
What is the radius of an atom?

- 0.1 nm (1 x 10-10 m)
What is the radius of a nucleus?

- Approximately 1 x 10-14 m
Where is most of the mass of an atom located?

- In the nucleus

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Give the relative mass of a proton, neutron and electron
Relative mass
Proton 1
Neutron 1
Electron 1/2000
What is the mass number?

- Total number of protons and neutrons

Atomic Number & Mass Number
Mass number
19 (protons + neutrons)
9
F Atomic number
(number of protons = number of electrons)
How is the number of protons in an atom calculated?

- Same as atomic number
How is the number of electrons in an atom calculated?

- Same as atomic number
How is the number of neutrons in an atom calculated?

- Mass number - atomic number
What is an isotope?
- Atoms of the same element with the same number of protons but di erent number of neutrons
1.1.6 Relative atomic mass
What is relative atomic mass (Ar)?

- Ratio of the average mass of one atom of an element compared with one atom of carbon-12
Why do isotopes of the same element have the same chemical properties?
- Have same number of electrons
- Have same electron con guration
How do you calculate the Ar of an element from the relative abundance of a particular isotope?
- (% of isotope 1 × mass of isotope 1) + (% of isotope 2 × mass of isotope 2) + (…)
100
Worked Example 1: Relative Abundance

A naturally occurring sample of the element chlorine contains 75% of the Cl-35 isotope and
25% of the Cl-37 isotope. Calculate the relative atomic mass of chlorine.
Answer: (75 x 35) + (25 x 37)

100
= 35.5

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1.1.7 Electronic structure
Describe the arrangement of electrons in an atom

- Arranged in shells around the nucleus
- Up to 2 electrons can t in the rst shell
- Up to 8 electrons can t in all other shells
- Electrons occupy the lowest available energy levels (innermost available shells) rst

Structure Of An Atom Proton
E.g. Lithium Neutron
Electron shell
7 Electron
3
Li Nucleus
Give the electronic con gurations of:

- Oxygen (O) = 2.6
- Sodium (Na) = 2.8.1
- Chlorine (Cl) = 2.8.7
- Potassium (K) = 2.8.8.1
- Calcium (Ca) = 2.8.8.2

Drawing Electron Configurations
1.2 The periodic table
1.2.1 The periodic table
How are the elements in the periodic table arranged?

- In order of atomic number (number of protons)
What is the period number?

- Horizontal rows
- Tells you the number of shells of electrons
- e.g. Ca 2.8.8.2 has four shells of electrons and is therefore in Period 4
De ne valency
- Number of electrons in outer shell
What is the group number of the periodic table?

- Tells you the number of electrons in the outer shell (valence electrons)
- e.g. F has 7 electrons in its outer shell and is therefore in Group 7

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Why do elements in the same group have similar chemical properties?
- Same number of electrons in outer shell

The Periodic Table
Lanthanoids
Describe the layout of the periodic table

- Hydrogen by itself
- Metals found left of stepped line
- Non-metals found right of stepped line
- Elements arranged in order of atomic number
1.2.2 Development of the periodic table
Describe Newlands’ original periodic table

- Placed elements in order of relative atomic mass
- Didn’t leave space for undiscovered elements
- Resulted in some elements placed in inappropriate groups
Describe Mendeleev’s periodic table

- Placed elements in order of atomic number (number of protons)
- Left gaps for undiscovered elements and predicted their properties
Give two elements that are in di erent positions in Newlands’ and Mendeleev’s periodic tables
- Argon and potassium
- Argon has greater atomic mass than potassium, but comes before it in the periodic table
Gallium was discovered 6 years after Mendeleev published his periodic table. Why did its
discovery help Mendeleev’s periodic table be accepted?
- Mendeleev had correctly predicted Gallium’s properties
- Gallium tted a gap Mendeleev had left in the periodic table
Why is ordering elements based on atomic masses not always correct?

- Presence of isotopes with di erent relative atomic masses

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1.2.3 Metals and non-metals
What sort of ions do metals form?

- Positive ions
- Formed by losing valence electrons
What sort of ions do non-metals form?

- Negative ions
- Formed by gaining electrons
1.2.4 Group 0
What are the noble gases?

- Group 0 elements
- Unreactive
- Monatomic
- e.g. Ar, Xe, Ne
Why are noble gases (Group 0) unreactive?

- They all have a full outer shell of electrons
- Stable
How does the boiling point of the noble gases change going down the group?
- Increases
- Boiling point increases as atomic mass increases
1.2.5 Group 1
What is the name given to Group 1 elements?

- Alkali metals
Describe the physical properties of Group 1 elements

- Soft (can be cut with a knife)
- Low melting and boiling points
- Low density ( oat on water)
- Shiny (tarnish when exposed to air)
Describe the chemical properties of Group 1 elements

- React vigorously with water to form metal hydroxides e.g. NaOH
- React with oxygen to form metal oxides e.g. Li2O
- e.g. 4Li + O2 → 2Li2O
- Form ionic compounds e.g. NaCl
- React with halogens e.g. KCl
Why do Group 1 elements have similar chemical properties?

- All have 1 electron in outer shell
How does the melting point of Group 1 elements change down the group?
- Melting point decreases
How does the density of Group 1 elements change down the group?
- Density increases
How does the reactivity of Group 1 elements change down the group?
- Reactivity increases

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How should Group 1 elements be stored and why?
- In oil
- Very reactive with water
Describe the observations when Group 1 metals react with oxygen

- All react to form metal oxides
- Forms dull coating on surface of metal
- e.g. lithium + oxygen → lithium oxide
- 4Li (s) + O2 (g) → 2Li2O (s)
Describe the observations when Group 1 metals react with chlorine

- All react vigorously when heated with chlorine gas
- Reactions become more vigorous down the group
- Flame produced
- White solid formed
- Colourless solution forms if dissolved in water
What type of compound is formed when a Group 1 metal reacts with chlorine?
- Metal chloride
- e.g. sodium + chlorine → sodium chloride
- 2Na (s) + Cl2 (g) → 2NaCl (s)
Describe the observations when Group 1 metals are added to water

Observations when react with water
Fizzes gently
Lithium Moves across surface of water
Disappears
Melts and forms ball

Fizzes
Sodium Moves across surface of water
Gets smaller and disappears
Leaves a white trail
Melts and forms ball

Fizzes vigorously / explodes
Potassium Sparks
Burns with lilac ame
Leaves a white trail
Observations Of Reacting Sodium & Water

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Compare the reactions of lithium and potassium with water
Lithium Potassium
Float
Move around on surface of the water

Similarities
Fizz (e ervesce)
Disappears
Fizzes gently Explodes
Di erences Does not burn Lilac ame
Does not melt Melts into a ball
What type of compound is formed when a Group 1 metal reacts with water?
- Metal hydroxide
- e.g. potassium + water → potassium hydroxide + hydrogen
- 2K (s) + 2H2O (l) → 2KOH (s) + H2 (g)
Why do Group 1 elements become more reactive down the group?

- Elements are larger
- Outer shell electron further from nucleus
- Electron is more shielded, so less attraction between nucleus and outer electron
- Electron more easily lost
Predict the properties of francium

- Group 1 element
- Soft, low melting and boiling point, low density, shiny (tarnishes when exposed to air)
- Near bottom of Group 1
- Reactions with air and water will be more violent than other Group 1 metals
1.2.6 Group 7
Describe the trends in the physical properties of the halogens (Group 7 elements)
- Colour gets darker down the group
- Boiling point and melting point increase down the group
- Reactivity decreases down the group
- All form diatomic molecules
- e.g. F2, Cl2, I2
Give the states and colours of Group 7 elements at room temperature

Physical state at room temperature Colour at room temperature
Fluorine Gas Yellow
Chlorine Gas Green
Bromine Liquid Red-brown
Grey
Iodine Solid
(forms purple vapour when heated)

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Explain why the boiling points of Group 7 elements increases down the group
- The relative formula mass increases down the group
- Intermolecular forces increase in strength
- More energy needed to overcome the intermolecular forces
Why do Group 7 elements become less reactive down the group?

- Elements are larger
- Outer shell electron is further from the nucleus and more shielded
- Harder to gain an electron
Predict the state and colour and properties of astatine

- Below iodine in periodic table
- Solid
- Very dense
- Dark grey / black
Describe the reactions of halogens with hydrogen (a non-metal)

- Hydrogen halides formed
- e.g. H2 (g) + Br2 (g) → 2HBr (g)
What is a displacement reaction?

- When a more reactive halogen displaces a less reactive halide from its compound
Halogen displacement reactions:

KCl KBr KI
Cl2 X Cl2 + 2KBr → 2KCl + Br2 Cl2 + 2KI → 2KCl + I2
Br2 No reaction X Br2 + 2KI → 2KBr + I2
I2 No reaction No reaction X
Why are three of the reactions not carried out in the above table?
- A halogen cannot displace itself
- No reaction would occur
Why do three of the experiments not produce a reaction?

- A halogen cannot displace a more reactive halogen
Give the ionic equation of the displacement reaction between Cl2 and KBr
- Overall reaction: Cl2 (aq) + 2KBr (aq) → 2KCl (aq) + Br2 (aq)
- Separate out ionic compounds
- Cl2 (aq) + 2K+ (aq) + 2Br- (aq) → 2K+ (aq) + 2Cl- (aq) + Br2 (aq)
- Remove spectator ions that appear on both sides (i.e. 2K+)
- Ionic equation: Cl2 (aq) + 2Br- (aq) → Br2 (aq) + 2Cl- (aq)
Describe two experiments to show the order of reactivity of bromine, chlorine and iodine
- Add chlorine (Cl2) to KBr
- Solution turns orange
- Cl2 + 2KBr → Br2 + 2KCl
- Add bromine (Br2) to KI
- Solution turns brown
- Br2 + 2KI → l2 + 2KBr

1.3 Properties of transition metals
1.3.1 Comparison with Group 1 elements
Compare the physical properties of transition metals and Group 1 metals

- Transition metals are stronger
- Transition metals are denser
- Transition metals are harder
- Transition metals have higher melting and boiling points
Compare the chemical properties of transition metals and Group 1 metals

- Group 1 metals react vigorously with oxygen, water and halogens, transition metals do not
- Group 1 metals react to from white solids, transition metals form coloured compounds
1.3.2 Typical properties
What are the physical properties of transition metals?

- Good conductors of heat and electricity
- Hard
- Strong
- High density
- High melting points
Describe the properties of transition metal compounds

- Coloured compounds
- Form ions with di erent charges e.g. Fe2+ and Fe3+
- May act as catalysts

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2. Bonding, structure, and the properties of matter
2.1 Chemical bonds, ionic, covalent and metallic
2.1.1 Chemical bonds
What is an ionic bond?

- Strong electrostatic force of attraction between oppositely charged ions
- Form by electron transfer from metal to non-metal
What is a covalent bond?

- Strong electrostatic forces of attraction between nuclei (positively charged) and shared pair of
electrons (negatively charged)
- Form between two non-metals
- Result in noble gas electron con gurations (full outer shell of electrons)
What is a metallic bond?

- Electrostatic forces of attraction between positive metal ions and ‘sea’ of delocalised electrons
- Form between metal atoms
2.1.2 Ionic bonding
How is an ion formed?

- An atom loses or gains electrons
- Loses electron → forms positive ion (cation)
- Gains electron → forms negative ion (anion)
When working out the charge on an ion, remember:

- For groups 1 to 3, the charge on the ion is the same as the group number
- e.g. Mg is in Group 2 and therefore forms Mg2+
- For groups 5,6 and 7, the charge on the ion is (8 – group number)
- e.g. N is in Group 5. 8 – 5 = 3, therefore N3-
Ionic Compound Formulae - The Drag & Drop Method
Learn the following ions off by heart

Positive ions (cations) Negative ions (anions)
- H+ - OH-
- Ag+ - NO3-
- Cu2+ - CO32
- Fe2+ - SO42-
- Fe3+
- Pb2+
- Zn2
- NH4+

+
-
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Dot-And-Cross Diagrams - Ionic Bonding
NaCl
MgF2
2.1.3 Ionic compounds
What type of structures do ionic compounds form?

- Giant ionic lattices
How are ions arranged in a giant ionic lattice?

- Regular arrangement
- Strong electrostatic forces of attraction in all directions
- Between oppositely charged ions
- e.g. NaCl

Giant Ionic Lattice Structure (NaCl)
Regular arrangement of
alternating positive and
negative ions
Describe the limitations of using dot and cross diagrams for ionic bonding
- Does not show how ions are arranged in space
- Suggests that ionic substances are not arranged in a lattice formation
- Suggests ions are perfect spheres
Describe the limitations of 3D ball and stick diagrams for ionic bonding
- Not to scale
- Gives no information about the forces of attractions between ions
- Does not show movement of electrons to form ions
- Suggests ions are perfect spheres

What does empirical formula mean?
- The simplest whole number ratio of the di erent atoms or ions present in a compound
2.1.4 Covalent bonding
What is a simple molecular substance?

- Small molecule
- Covalent bonds between atoms
- Intermolecular forces between molecules
- e.g. ammonia (NH3), water (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2)

Dot-And-Cross Diagrams - Covalent Bonding (Showing Outer Shells Only)
H H Cl Cl O O
Hydrogen, H2 Oxygen, O2
Chlorine, Cl2
(O=O)
N N H O H
Nitrogen, N2 Water, H2O

(N≡N) H Cl
H
Hydrogen chloride, HCl
H N H H C H
H H
Ammonia, NH3 Methane, CH4
De ne giant covalent structure

- Large lattice of covalently bonded atoms (macromolecules)
- e.g. graphite, diamond, silicon dioxide
What is a polymer?
- A large molecule formed from many small molecules

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Describe the limitations of using dot and cross diagrams for covalent bonding
- Does not show how atoms are arranged in space
- Suggests atoms are perfect spheres
Describe the limitations of 3D ball and stick diagrams for covalent bonding
- Not to scale
- Gives no information about the forces of attractions between atoms
- Does not show which atoms the electrons in the bonds have come from
2.1.5 Metallic bonding
Describe the structure of a metal

- Postive ions
- Regular arrangement in a giant lattice
- Surrounded by sea of delocalised electrons
What is a metallic bond?
- Electrostatic forces of attraction between positive metal ions and ‘sea’ of delocalised electrons

Metallic Bonding
Structure:
- Regular arrangement of
positive ions
- Sea of delocalised electrons
- Giant metallic lattice
Positive metal ions
2.2 How bonding and structure are related to the properties of substances
2.2.1 The three states of matter
Outline the properties and structure of solids, liquids and gases

Properties Structure
- Particles arranged regularly and packed closely

- Have a xed shape together
Solids - Do not ow - Vibrate in xed positions
- High density - Strong forces between particles
- Small amount of kinetic energy
- Flow easily - Particles are mostly touching with some gaps

Liquids - Fixed volume but will ow - Particles move about at random
to t shape of container - Medium forces between particles
- Moderate amount of kinetic energy
- Particles move at random and quickly

- No xed volume or shape - Particles are far apart
Gases - Less dense than same - Weak forces between particles
volume of solid or liquid - High amount of kinetic energy
- Collide with each other and sides of container

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Draw the structure of a solid, liquid and a gas

Solids, Liquids & Gases
What are the limitations of this simple model of matter?

- No forces shown between particles
- All particles are represented as spheres
- All spheres are solid
- Does not show movement/speed of particles
Give the name for the following conversions:
- Solid → liquid = melting
- Liquid → gas = boiling / evaporating
- Gas → liquid = condensing
- Liquid → solid = freezing
Describe what happens when water vapour cools to form liquid water
- Particles lose kinetic energy
- Particles move closer together
- Particles move slower and less randomly
Describe what happens when liquid water boils to form water vapour
- Particles gain kinetic energy
- Particles move further apart
- Particles move quicker and more randomly
Describe what happens when liquid water cools to form ice
- Particles lose kinetic energy
- Particles move closer together
- Particles move slower and less randomly
Describe what happens when ice melts to form liquid water
- Particles gain kinetic energy and vibrate more
- Particles move further apart as forces of attraction are overcome
- Particles move quicker and more randomly
Why do di erent substances have di erent melting and boiling points?
- Energy needed to change state depends on strength of forces between particles
- The stronger the forces between the particles the higher the melting point and boiling point
2.2.2 State symbols
Give the state symbols for solid, liquid, gas and aqueous solution
- Solid = (s)
- Liquid = (l)
- Gas = (g)
- Aqueous (dissolved in water) = (aq)

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2.2.3 Properties of ionic compounds
Give the properties of giant ionic lattices

- High melting and boiling points
- Conduct electricity when molten or dissolved in aqueous solution
- Brittle
Why do ionic structures have high melting and boiling points?

- Form giant ionic lattices
- Strong electrostatic forces of attraction between oppositely charged ions
- Requires lots of energy to break many strong bonds
Why don’t ionic substances conduct electricity when solid?

- Ions are held tightly in xed positions
- Not free to move
Why do ionic substances conduct electricity when molten/dissolved?

- Ions are free to move
- Can carry electric charge
Explain why ionic substances are brittle

- Applying force causes ions to move
- Like charges align and repel
- Lattice structure breaks apart

Demonstrating Why Ionic Substances Are Brittle
2.2.4 Properties of small molecules
Describe the properties of simple molecular compounds

- Low melting and boiling points
- Poor electrical conductivity
De ne intermolecular force
- Temporary weak attraction between di erent molecules
Why do simple molecular substances have low melting points?

- Weak intermolecular forces of attraction between molecules
- Do not require a lot of energy to overcome

fi fi ff
Why does the boiling point of simple molecular substances increase with increasing relative
molecular mass?
- Boiling overcomes the intermolecular forces of attraction between molecules
- Greater Mr = greater intermolecular forces of attraction to be overcome
- More heat energy needed to overcome these forces
Why don’t simple molecular substances conduct electricity?

- No overall electric charge
- No free electrons
Give examples of substances with weak intermolecular forces

- Methane, carbon dioxide, water, ethene, ammonia, hydrogen, chlorine
Explain why ammonia is a gas at room temperature
- Ammonia a simple molecular structure
- It has weak intermolecular forces
- These require little energy to overcome
2.2.5 Polymers
Why are polymers solid at room temperature?

- Large molecules
- Strong covalent bonds between atoms
- Relatively strong intermolecular forces between molecules
Drawing A Polymer
Monomer Repeating unit Polymer
H H H H
C C C C The ’n’ means a

large number of
H H H H n these repeating units
Ethene Poly(ethene) bonded together
2.2.6 Giant covalent structures
Give examples of giant covalent structures

- Graphite
- Diamond
- Silicon dioxide
Silicon(IV) Dioxide
Silicon
Oxygen

Why do giant covalent structures have high melting and boiling points?
- Many strong covalent bonds
- Require lots of energy to break
Compare the structure and bonding of magnesium oxide, carbon dioxide and silicon dioxide
Magnesium oxide Carbon dioxide Silicon dioxide
Made from ions Made from atoms Made from atoms
Giant ionic lattice Simple molecular Giant covalent structure

Metal & non-metal
Non-metals Non-metals
Bonds formed when two
Bonds formed when electrons Bonds formed when electrons
electrons are transferred from
are shared are shared
magnesium to oxygen
Strong electrostatic forces of
Weak intermolecular forces - Many strong covalent bonds -
attraction between oppositely
require little energy to require a lot of energy to
charged ions - require a lot of
overcome overcome
energy to overcome
Contains double covalent Contains single covalent
bonds bonds
Compare the structure and bonding of sodium chloride and hydrogen chloride
Sodium chloride Hydrogen chloride
Made from ions Made from atoms
Giant ionic lattice Simple molecular

Metal & non-metal
Non-metals
Bonds formed when electron transferred from
Bonds formed when electrons are shared
sodium to chlorine
Strong electrostatic forces of attraction
Weak intermolecular forces - require little
between oppositely charged ions - require a lot
energy to overcome
of energy to overcome
2.2.7 Properties of metals and alloys
Why do metals have high melting and boiling points?

- Strong electrostatic forces of attraction
- Between positive ions and sea of delocalised electrons
- Require a lot of energy to break
What does malleable mean?

- Can be hammered into shape
Why are metals malleable?

- Layers of ions can slide over each other
What does ductile mean?

- Can be drawn into a wire
Why are metals ductile?

- Layers of ions can slide over each other

What is an alloy?
- Mixture of a metal with other elements
- e.g. brass: mixture of copper and zinc
- e.g. stainless steel: mixture of iron, chromium, nickel and carbon
Why are alloys often more useful than pure metals?

- Alloys can be made harder and stronger than pure metals
Why do alloys tend to be harder than individual metals?

- Contain atoms of di erent sizes
- More di cult for layers to slide over each other

Structure Of A Metal & An Alloy
Pure Metal Alloy

Describe the properties and uses of stainless steel
- Alloy
- Contains iron, chromium and nickel
- Hard
- Oxide layer prevents corrosion/rusting
- Uses: sinks, saucepans, cutlery, gardening tools
2.2.8 Metals as conductors
Why do metals conduct electricity?

- Delocalised electrons
- Free to move and carry electrical charge
Why are metals good conductors of heat?

- Delocalised electrons
- As electrons move around in the metal, heat energy is transferred throughout the structure
2.3 Structure and bonding of carbon
What is an allotrope?
- Di erent forms of the same element
Give 2 allotropes of carbon

- Diamon
- Graphit

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ffi
d
ff
2.3.1 Diamond

Structure Of Diamond
Each carbon atom is

covalently bonded to
four other carbon
atoms
Why does diamond have such a high melting point?

- Giant covalent structure
- Each carbon atom forms 4 covalent bonds with 4 other carbon atoms
Why is diamond used in cutting tools?

- Very hard and very high melting point
- Every carbon atom forms four strong covalent bonds to neighbouring carbon atoms
- No free electrons and no ions
- No weak intermolecular forces between molecules
Why doesn’t diamond conduct electricity?

- No free electrons
- Each electron in outer shell is bonded
2.3.2 Graphite
Describe the structure of graphite

- Each carbon atom forms 3 covalent bonds with 3 other carbon atoms,
- Forms layers of hexagonal rings
- Weak forces between the layers
- One electron from each carbon atom is delocalised
Graphite
Weak forces between
layers

Why does graphite have such a high melting point?
Why does graphite conduct electricity?

- Each carbon atom is only bonded to 3 others
- One electron from each carbon is delocalised and therefore free to move
- Free electron can carry charge
Why is graphite soft and used as lubricant?

- Carbon atoms are arranged in layers
- Layers are held together by weak intermolecular forces
- Do not require a lot of energy to break
- Layers slide over each other
2.3.3 Graphene and fullerenes
What is graphene?
- A single layer of graphite
What are the properties of graphene?
- Very high melting point
- Very strong
- Strong covalent bonds between the carbon atoms
- Conducts electricity
- Delocalised electrons can carry electrical charge
What is graphene used for?
- Electronics
- Making composites (two or more materials with di erent properties combined together)
What are fullerenes?
- Molecules of carbon atoms with hollow shapes
- First fullerene to be discovered was Buckminsterfullerene (C60)
What shape is Buckminsterfullerene?
- Spherical
C60 Fullerene
Why are fullerenes useful?

- Cylindrical fullerenes have very high length to diameter ratios
- Can form carbon nanotubes
- Properties make them useful for nanotechnology, electronics and materials

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Give the uses of buckminsterfullerene
- Drug delivery
- Reduction of bacterial growth
- Hydrogen storage
- Anti-oxidants
- Lubricants (spheres can roll over each other)
Bonding Summary
Simple
Giant
Covalent Giant Ionic Giant Metallic
Structure Covalent
(Molecular) Lattice Lattice
Structure
Structure
Metal +
Made Up Of Non-metals Non-metals Metals
Non-metal
C60 fullerene Diamond Sodium Iron

chloride
Key Examples Methane Graphite Zinc
Magnesium
Ammonia Silicon dioxide oxide Aluminium
Melting /
Low High High High
Boiling Point
No (except
Conducts As
No graphite/ No Yes
Solid? graphene)
Conducts As
No No Yes Yes
Liquid?
2.4 Bulk and surface properties of matter including nanoparticles
2.4.1 Size of particles and their properties
What is nanoscience?
- The study of small particles that are between 1 and 100 nanometers in size
De ne nanoparticles, ne particles and coarse particles

- Nanoparticles → particles between 1 - 100 nm in diameter
- Fine particles → particles between 100 - 2500 nm (1 x 10-7 m and 2.5 x 10-6 m in diameter)
- Coarse particles → particles between 2.5 x 10-6 m and 1 x 10-5 m in diameter
How does the size of a nanoparticle compare with the size of an atom?
- Nanoparticles are larger
- The size of a few hundred atoms
Why are nanoparticles e ective in very small quantities?

- Have a high surface area to volume ratio

fi fi ff
Calculating Surface Area To Volume Ratio
Surface Area Volume SA:V
(6 sides)
1
1 12 x 6 = 6 13 = 1 6÷1 = 6 : 1
1
2
2 22 x 6 = 24 23 = 8 24÷8 = 3 : 1
3
3 32 x 6 = 54 33 = 27 54÷27 = 2 : 1
A cube with sides two times longer than another cube

3 will have a SA:V that is twice as small
A cube with sides ten times shorter than another cube

will have a SA:V that is ten times larger
Why does it cost less to use nanoparticles rather than ne particles in many products?
- Nanoparticles have a larger surface area to volume ratio
- So less can be used for the same e ect
2.4.2 Uses of nanoparticles
Provide some examples of nanoscience in industry

- Glass coated in nanoparticles → sunshine triggers reaction which breaks down dirt
- Sunscreens contains nanoparticles which are better blockers of UV
- Nanoparticles in face creams are absorbed deeper into the skin
Give the advantages and disadvantages of using nanoparticles in suncream

Advantages Disadvantages
Better coverage Potential cell damage to body
More protection from Sun’s ultraviolet rays Harmful e ects on the environment

ff ff fi
3. Quantitative chemistry
3.1 Chemical measurements, conservation of mass & the quantitative interpretation of chemical
equations
3.1.1 Conservation of mass and balanced chemical equations
What is the law of conservation of mass?

- No atoms are lost or made during a chemical reaction
- Mass of the products equals the mass of the reactants
3.1.2 Relative formula mass
What is the relative formula mass (Mr) of a compound?

- Sum of the relative atomic masses of the atoms in the compound
Worked Example 2: Calculating Mr From Ar

Find the Mr of MgCO3
Use the periodic table to nd the mass number of each of the elements present
Answer: 24 + 12 + (3 x 16)
= 84
3.1.3 Mass changes when a reactant of product is a gas
Why might the mass of a reactant appear to change?

- A reactant or product may be a gas
- Di cult to take this mass into account
- Gas may escape into atmosphere
3.1.4 Chemical measurements
How is the uncertainty from a set of repeat measurements estimated?

- ± Half the range
Worked Example 3: Calculating Uncertainty From A Set Of Measurements
A student took ve measurements for the volume of acid added in a neutralisation reaction.
Calculate the mean volume and estimate the uncertaint
Repeat 1 2 3 4 5
Volume (cm3) 14.0 14.5 13.5 15.0 13.0
Answer Mean volume = 14.0 + 14.5 + 13.5 + 15.0 + 13.0
= 14 cm3
Range = 15.0 - 13.0 = 2.0 cm3
Uncertainty = 2.0 = 1.0 cm
Volume = 14 cm3 ± 1.0 cm3


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3
5
y
Representing Uncertainty On A Graph

180
The vertical lines

represent the
150 uncertainty of the
measurements at each
temperature (highest
value, lowest value and
120 mean value, excluding
anomalous results)
Time (s)
90
60
30
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Temperature (°C)
How is the uncertainty of a measuring instrument estimated?

- Plus or minus (±) half the smallest scale division
- e.g. a thermometer with a 1.0°C scale has an uncertainty of ± 0.5°C
- e.g. a stopwatch that reads to the nearest 0.1s has an uncertainty of ± 0.05s
3.2 Use of amount of substance in relation to masses of pure substances
3.2.1 Moles
What is the Avogadro constant?

- The number of elements/molecules in a mole
- 6.02 x 1023
De ne the mole
- Amount of a substance that contains 6.02 x 1023 particles
- e.g. 1 mole of carbon contains 6.02 x 1023 carbon atoms
- e.g. 1 mole of carbon dioxide contains 6.02 x 1023 carbon dioxide molecules
- The mass of one mole of a substance (in grams) is equal to its relative formula mass
How do you calculate the number of moles in a given mass?
- Number of moles = mass (in grams)
molar mass (Mr)

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Worked Example 4 & 5: Calculations Involving Moles, Mass & Mr
Example 4: Find the number of moles in 54g of H2O
Answer: Moles = Mass

Mr
Moles = 54
18
Moles = 3
Example 5: Find the mass of 0.2 moles of CaCO3
Answer: Mass = Moles x Mr Use this formula

triangle to help
Mass = 0.2 x (40 + 12 + (3x16)) rearrange the equation
= 0.2 x 100 (n = number of moles)
= 20g
How do you calculate the percentage by mass of an element in a compound?

- % by mass = total mass of element x 100
mass of compound
Worked Example 6: Calculating Percentage By Mass

Find the percentage by mass of magnesium (Mg) in magnesium oxide (MgO
Answer: % by mass = total mass of element x 10

mass of compoun
= 24 x 10
(24+16
= 60%
3.2.2 Amounts of substances in equations
What do the large numbers in a balanced equation represent?

- The molar ratio of each substance in the reaction
- The 1 in front of a substance is not written
- e.g. Mg + 2HCl → MgCl2 + H2
- 1 mole of Mg will react with 2 moles of HCl to form 1 mole of MgCl2 and 1 mole of H2
- So 0.5 moles of Mg would react with 1 mole of HCl, forming 0.5 moles of MgCl2 and 0.5
moles of H2

)
0
d
0
)
Worked Example 7: Calculating Reacting Masses

4.5g of hydrochloric acid, HCl, reacted with calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2. Calculate the mass of
Calcium Chloride, CaCl2, formed.
Step 1: Balance your equation and set out a table like this:
2HCl + Ca(OH)2 → CaCl2 + H 2O
Mass
Mr
Moles
Step 2: Fill in the information that you know (or can work out from the periodic table)
You are working

Mass 4.5
out this value
1 + 35.5 40+(35.5x2)
Mr
= 36.5 = 111
4.5 / 36.5
Moles
= 0.123287…
Step 3: Use the stoichiometry (big numbers in front of the compounds) to calculate the
unknown moles of CaCl2. There is a ‘2’ in front of HCl and an (invisible) ‘1’ in front of CaCl2 so
there are half as many moles of CaCl2 produced as there are moles of HCl being used
You are working

Mass 4.5
out this value
Mr 36.5 111
0.123287 /
Moles 0.123287
= 0.061643
Step 4: Calculate the mass of CaCl2 produced
111 x 0.06164
Mass 4.5
= 6.84g
Mr 36.5 111
Moles 0.123287 0.061643
Answer = 6.84g

2

3
3.2.3 Using moles to balance equations
How do you balance an equation?

- The same number of atoms of each element need to be on both sides
- To multiply the number of atoms, place a big number in front of the element/compound
Worked Example 8: Balancing Equations

Give the balanced symbol equation for the reaction between copper and oxyge
copper + oxygen → copper oxid
Remember: When balancing equations, only change the large number IN FRONT of each
element/compound. Do not change the little numbers
Step 1: Write out your symbols (include state symbols if possible
_Cu (s) + _O2 (g) → _CuO (s
Step 2: Create a tally chart for the number of each atom on both sides of the equation
C C
O II O I
Step 3: We need an extra oxygen on the right hand side, so add an extra Cu
C C II
O II O II
Step 4: We now need an extra Cu on the left hand side, so add an extra Cu
C II C II
O II O II
Step 5: Check that everything balances, and write out the balanced symbol equation using the
number of each element/compound you’ve used (there’s no need to write a ‘1’ in front of the O2
2 Cu (s) + O2 (g) → 2 CuO (s)
3.2.4 Limiting reactants
What is a limiting reactant?

- The reactant that is completely used up in a reaction
- Limits the amount of product that can be made
Why is one reactant often added in excess?

- To ensure all of the other reactant is used up

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)
!
)

O
n

)
Worked Example 9: Determining Limiting Reagents

Copper reacts with concentrated nitric acid according to the equation
Cu + 4HNO3 → Cu(NO3)2 + 2H2O + 2NO2
3.2g of copper is reacted with 0.4mol concentrated nitric acid. Work out which reagent is
limiting and which is in excess
Step 1: Set out your table and ll in the known information
Cu + 4HNO3 → Cu(NO3)2 + 2H2O + 2NO2
Mass 3.2
Mr 63.5
3.2 / 63. Theoretical number

Moles
= 0.05… of moles required
Step 2: Calculate the theoretical number of moles of concentrated nitric acid required using the
stoichiometry
Cu + 4HNO3 → Cu(NO3)2 + 2H2O + 2NO2
Mass 3.2
Mr 63.5
0.05 x
Moles 0.05…
= 0.2 moles
According to the question, we have 0.4 moles of concentrated nitric acid, but we only need 0.2
moles to react with the 3.2g of copper
Therefore the concentrated nitric acid is in excess (and the copper is limiting)
3.2.5 Concentrations of solutions
How is the concentration of solution calculated in g/dm3

- Concentration = mass
volume
Worked Example 10: Calculating Concentration In g/dm3

A solution of NaOH had a concentration of 30 g/dm3. What mass of NaOH would there be in
250 cm3 of the solution?
Answer: Convert cm3 into dm3: 250 = 0.25 dm3
1 dm3 = 1000 cm3
1000
Use mass = volume x concentration
mass = 0.25 x 30
= 7.5 g

4
5
fi
3.3 Yield and atom economy of chemical reactions
3.3.1 Percentage yield
What is the equation for calculating percentage yield?

- Percentage yield = actual yield of product x100
theoretical yield
Why do most reactions not have 100% yield?

- Reaction may be reversible
- Reaction may give unexpected products
- Product lost (e.g. as a gas into the atmosphere)
Worked Example 11: Calculating Percentage Yield

Copper oxide is reacted with sulfuric acid to make copper sulfate and water. 1.6 g of dry
copper sulfate crystals are made. If the theoretical yield is 2.0 g, calculate the percentage yield
of copper sulfate.
Answer: Percentage yield = actual yield x 100

theoretical yield
= 1.6 x 100
2.0
= 80%
3.3.2 Atom economy
What is meant by atom economy?

- The amount of starting materials that end up as useful products
Explain why reactions with high atom economy are favoured

- Produce higher yield of useful product
- Better economically
- Better for sustainable development
What is the equation for calculating percentage atom economy?

- Atom economy = relative formula mass of desired product x100
sum of all relative formula masses of reactants
Worked Example 12: Calculating Percentage Atom Economy

Tungsten (W) is produced from tungsten oxide by reaction with hydrogen
WO3 + 3H2 → W + 3H2O
Calculate the percentage atom economy when tungsten is produced in this reaction
Answer: Percentage atom economy = Mr of desired product x 100

Sum of Mr of all reactants
= Mr of W x 100
Mr of WO3 + (3 x Mr of H2)
= 184 x 100
232 + 6
= 77%

3.4 Using concentrations of solutions
Give the formula that links moles, concentration and volume

- Moles = concentration x volume
- Make sure to convert volume to dm3 if necessary
- 1 dm3 = 1000 cm3
How is mol/dm3 converted to g/dm3?

- Multiply concentration (in mol/dm3) by the Mr
Worked Example 13: Moles, Concentration & Volume

A student reacted dilute sulfuric acid (H2SO4) with potassium hydroxide (KOH)
The student found that 15.5 cm3 of 0.500 mol/dm3 dilute sulfuric acid reacted completely with
25.0 cm3 of potassium hydroxide solution.
2KOH + H2SO4 → K2SO4 + 2H2O
Calculate the concentration of the potassium hydroxide solution in mol/dm3 and in g/dm3
Answer: Moles H2SO4 = 0.500 x 15.5

1000
= 7.75 x 10-3
Using the molar ratio, moles of KOH = (7.75 x 10-3) x 2
= 0.0155
Remember to convert
Concentration of KOH in mol/dm3 = 0.0155 cm3 into dm3 by dividing
(25 ÷ 1000) by 1000
= 0.62 mol/dm3
Concentration of KOH in g/dm3 = 0.62 x (39 + 16 + 1)
= 34.7 g/dm3
3.5 Use of amount of substance in relation to volumes of gases
What is the volume that one mole of gas occupies?

- 24 dm3 (at room temperature, 20°C, and pressure, 1 atmosphere)
- 24 dm3 = 24000 cm3
What is the equation for calculating the volume of gas at RTP?

- Volume = moles x 24 (for answers in dm3)
- Volume = moles x 24000 (for answers in cm3)
Worked Example 14: Calculating Volumes Using Balanced Equations

Calculate the volume of oxygen (in cm3) required to react with 50 cm3 of hydrogen sul de (H2S),
using the balanced equation below
2H2S (g) + 3O2 (g) → 2H2O (g) + 2SO2 (g)
Answer: Use the molar ratio in the balanced symbol equation.

For every 2 moles of H2S we need 3 moles of O2, so divide 50 cm3 by 2 and multiply by 3
3
50 x = 75 cm3
2

fi
Worked Example 15: Gas Volumes
Find the volume, in dm3, of CO₂ produced when 60g of ethane (C2H6) is burnt completely
C2H6 + 3.5O2 → 2CO2 + 3H2O
Answer: Moles of ethane = mass

Mr
Moles of ethane = 60
30
Moles of ethane = 2
Moles of CO2 produced = 2 x 2 (using stoichiometry)

=4
Volume of CO2 produced = 24 x 4
= 96 dm³

4. Chemical changes
4.1 Reactivity of metals
4.1.1 Metal oxides
How are metal oxides formed?

- By reacting a metal with oxygen
- e.g. 2Ca + O2 → 2CaO
What is a basic oxide?

- Oxide formed from the reaction of oxygen with a metal
- e.g. copper (II) oxide (CuO), calcium oxide (CaO)
What type of reaction occurs when a metal reacts with oxygen?

- Oxidation
De ne oxidation in terms of oxygen

- Gain of oxygen
De ne reduction in terms of oxygen

- Loss of oxygen
De ne redox
- A reaction where both reduction and oxidation take place at the same time
4.1.2 The reactivity series
What is the reactivity series?

- List of metals in order of their reactivity
- Most reactive metals at the top
- Least reactive at the bottom
What determines the reactivity of a metal?

- Its tendency to form positive ions
- Easier to lose electrons = more reactive
How can you determine the reactivity of a metal?

- Place in cold water (most will not react) - those which react are the most reactive metals
- If no reaction, test with acid (note: only metals above hydrogen in the reactivity series will react
with acid)
- Note: Potassium, sodium, lithium and calcium are too reactive to react with acids
(dangerous)
Explain how displacement reactions can be used to arrange metals in order of reactivity
- Occur when a less reactive element is pushed out of its compound by a more reactive element
- e.g. with metals and metal oxides:
- Magnesium + copper (II) oxide → magnesium oxide + copper
- Displacement reaction occurred, therefore magnesium more reactive than copper
- e.g. with metals and aqueous solutions of metal salts:
- Zinc + copper (II) sulfate → zinc sulfate + copper
- Displacement reaction occurred, therefore zinc more reactive than copper

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The Reactivity Series (Learn This Off By Heart)
Most reactive Potassiu
Sodiu React with
Lithiu water
Calciu React with
Magnesiu
Aluminiu dilute acid
Carbo
Zinc
Iro
Hydroge
Coppe
Silver (Carbon and hydrogen are included
Least reactive Gold as reference points)
Summarise the reactivity of metals with water and with dilute hydrochloric acid
Metal Reaction with water Reaction with dilute hydrochloric acid
Potassium Very violent with water Explosively fast
Sodium Violent with water Explosively fast
Lithium Violent with water Explosively fast

Calcium Less violent with water Very vigorous
Magnesium Very slow with water Vigorous
Carbon
Zinc No reaction Quite slow
Iron No reaction Slow
Hydrogen
Copper No reaction No reaction
Silver No reaction No reaction
Gold No reaction No reaction
How does reacting a metal with carbon show reactivity?

- Carbon is more reactive than some metals
- Carbon reduces their oxides to the metal
How does reacting a metal with another metal oxide show reactivity?
- If more reactive, the metal reacts with oxygen to form oxide
- A metal will reduce the oxide of a less reactive metal
How does reacting a metal with ions of other metals in solution show reactivity?
- A metal displaces a less reactive metal
- From solutions of its compounds

n

m
n
m
r
n
m
m
Determining The Reactivity Of A Metal Experimentally

A student wants to compare the reactivity of an unknown metal A, with that of magnesium.
Both metals are more reactive than silver. The student is provided with:
- Silver nitrate solution

- Metal A powder
- Magnesium powder
- Thermometer
- Normal laboratory equipment
Describe a method the student should use to compare the reactivity of metal A with that of
magnesium.
Always set your answer out in terms of variables and conclusions

- Independent variable: metal powder used
- Dependent variable: measure temperature change when magnesium powder is added to
silver nitrate solution, and when metal A powder is added to silver nitrate solution
- Control variables: same concentration and same volume of silver nitrate solution, same mass
of metal
- Conclusion: the greater the change in temperature, the more reactive the metal
A student is given three metals, A, B and C to identify. The metals are magnesium, iron and
copper. Plan an investigation to identify the three metals by comparing their reaction with dilute
hydrochloric acid.
- Independent variable: metal used in the reaction

- Dependent variable: measure temperature change when each metal is added to hydrochloric
acid
- Control variables: same concentration and same volume of hydrochloric acid, same mass of
metal, same particle size of metals, same temperature of acid
- Conclusion: magnesium increases in temperature more than iron and copper as it is more
reactive, no temperature increase for copper as it is very unreactive
A student added copper metal to colourless silver nitrate solution. The student observed pale
grey crystals forming and the solution tuning blue. Explain which metal is more reactive.
- Copper is more reactive than silver

- Grey crystals are silver
- The copper ions produced are blue
- Copper displaces the silver
4.1.3 Extraction of metals and reduction
How are di erent metals extracted from their ores?

- Most reactive metals extracted by electrolysis
- Least reactive metals (e.g. gold) occur naturally as pure element
- Metals less reactive than carbon can be heated with carbon or carbon monoxide
- Carbon reacts with oxides of metal less reactive than itself, leaving metal for extraction
- The metal oxides are reduced to form metals

ff
4.1.4 Oxidation and reduction in terms of electrons
De ne oxidation in terms of electrons Remember: Oil Ri

- Loss of electrons
Oxidation is loss (of electrons
De ne reduction in terms of electrons
- Gain of electrons Reduction is gain (of electrons)
Redox Reactions
Magnesium reacts with an aqueous solution of silver nitrate. The ionic equation is as follows
Reduction
Mg(s) + 2Ag+(aq) → Mg2+(aq) + 2Ag(s
Oxidation
Why is magnesium being oxidised
- Mg is losing electrons to form Mg2+
Why are the silver ions being reduced

- Ag+ is gaining electrons to form A
Why is this a redox reaction

- Both oxidation and reduction are occurring
4.2 Reactions of acids
4.2.1 Reactions of acids with metals
Outline the general chemical reactivity of metals with dilute acids

- Most metals react with dilute acids
- Produces salt and hydrogen gas
- e.g. Zn (s) + 2HCl (aq) → ZnCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)
Why are the reactions of metals with dilute acids redox reactions?
- e.g. Mg (s) + H2SO4 (aq) → MgSO4 (aq) + H2 (g)
- Metal is oxidised (loses electrons)
- e.g. Mg → Mg2+
- Hydrogen is reduced (gains electrons)
- e.g. 2H+ → H2
4.2.2 Neutralisation of acids and salt production
What is a salt?
- Ionic compound formed by the neutralisation of an acid by a base or alkali
- Examples of bases: soluble metal hydroxides, metal oxides
- Examples of alkalis: insoluble metal hydroxides
How is a salt made?

- Reacting an acid with either metals, soluble or insoluble bases or carbonates

fi g
?
)
g
?
?
)
:
Useful Information About Making Salts

- All acids contain hydrogen e.g. HCl, H2SO4 and HNO
- When hydrogen in an acid is displaced with a metal or ammonium ion, a salt is formed
- e.g. magnesium sulfate, zinc chloride, ammonium chloride and potassium nitrate
Examples of acids and the salts they form:
Acid Formula Example of salt Name of salts
Hydrochloric acid HCl KCl Chlorides
Nitric acid HNO3 NaNO3 Nitrates
Sulfuric acid H2SO4 MgSO4 Sulfates
Remembering which ionic compounds (salts) are soluble/insoluble:

- All sodium, potassium and ammonium compounds are soluble
- All nitrates are soluble
- All sulfates are soluble except lead (II) sulfate, barium sulfate, and calcium sulfate
- All chlorides are soluble except lead (II) chloride and silver chloride
- All carbonates are insoluble except ammonium, potassium and sodium salts
- All hydroxides are insoluble except ammonium, potassium and sodium salts
- Calcium hydroxide is slightly soluble
Ionic Compound Solubility Table

Soluble Insoluble
Carbonates of ammonium,
Carbonates Most
potassium and sodium
Hydroxides of ammonium,
potassium and sodium. Most
Hydroxides
Calcium hydroxide is slightly
soluble
Oxides of ammonium,
Oxides Most
potassium and sodium
Sodium, potassium &

All None
ammonium compounds
Nitrates All None
Sulfates Most Sulfates of lead (II), barium

and calcium
Chlorides Most Chlorides of lead (II) and silver

Salt Equations
Lean these different reactions off by heart
Metal + acid → salt + hydrogen
- e.g. magnesium + hydrochloric acid → magnesium chloride + hydroge

- Mg + 2HCl → MgCl2 + H
Metal hydroxide + acid → salt + wate
- e.g. Sodium hydroxide + sulfuric acid → sodium sulfate + wate

- 2NaOH + H2SO4 → Na2SO4 + 2H2
Metal oxide + acid → salt + water
- e.g. magnesium oxide + hydrochloric acid → magnesium chloride + wate

- MgO + 2HCl → MgCl2 + H2
Metal carbonate + acid → salt + water + carbon dioxid
- e.g. potassium carbonate + hydrochloric acid → potassium chloride + water + carbon dioxid
- K2CO3 + 2HCl → 2KCl + H2O + CO2
4.2.3 Soluble salts
How do you make soluble salts (except ammonium, potassium and sodium salts)?
- For the reactants, you can use:
- Acid + insoluble metal/metal oxide/metal hydroxide/metal carbonate
- Use the crystallisation method
- REACT: warm acid and stir until no more metal/metal oxide/hydroxide/carbonate will react
- FILTER: to remove excess insoluble metal substance
- EVAPORATE: heat to evaporate some water
- COOL: collect crystals that form
- DRY: allow the crystals to dry in a warm place or on lter paper
Why is the acid warmed?

- To speed up the reaction
Why is the insoluble metal substance added in excess?

- To ensure all the acid has reacted
Why can’t you use this method when reacting an acid & alkali to make a soluble salt?
- Alkalis are soluble in water
- No insoluble excess reactant present that could be removed by ltration
- Titration method should be used (see section 4.2.5)
Why would copper metal not react with an acid to form a salt?
- Copper is below hydrogen in the reactivity series
- Need to use copper oxide/hydroxide/carbonate instead

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Worked Example 16: Making A Soluble Salt

Describe how to prepare a sample of pure, dry hydrated copper (II) sulfate crystals starting from
copper (II) oxid
Answer:
Copper (II) oxide is insoluble, and copper (II) sulfate is a soluble salt. We therefore need to use
the crystallisation method
To make copper (II) sulfate, the copper (II) oxide needs to react with sulfuric aci
CuO (s) + H2SO4 (aq) → CuSO4 (aq) + H2O (l
- REACT the sulfuric acid and copper (II) oxide in a beake

- Heat the sulfuric acid with a Bunsen burne
- Keep adding CuO and stirring until no more will reac
- FILTER using lter paper to remove unreacted copper (II) oxid
- EVAPORATE: heat gently to evaporate some wate
- COOL and collect crystals that form using lter pape
- DRY: allow the crystals to dry in a warm place or on lter paper

This is needed for
Required Practical 1
4.2.4 The pH scale and neutralisation
What ion is responsible for making something acidic?

- H+
- Produced by acids in aqueous solutions
Which compounds are bases?

- Metal oxides
- Soluble metal hydroxides
De ne alkali
- Soluble base
What ion is responsible for making something alkaline?

- OH–
- Produced by alkalis in aqueous solutions

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What is the pH scale a measure of?

- Concentration H+ ions
- More acidic solution = greater concentration of H+ ions

The pH Scale (Using Universal Indicator)
Describe the pH scale

- Ranges from 0 - 14
- 0-3 = strongly acidic (red / orange)
- 4-6 = weakly acidic (yellow / light green)
- 7 = neutral (green)
- 8-10 = weakly alkaline (blue)
- 11-14 = strongly alkaline (purple)
What is a neutralisation reaction?

- Addition of a base to an acid
- Produces a neutral solution
Give the ionic equation for a neutralisation reaction

- H+ (aq) + OH– (aq) → H2O (l)
4.2.5 Titrations
How do you carry out an acid-alkali titration?

- Use volumetric pipette to add acid to conical ask This is needed for
- Add indicator to ask e.g. methyl orange, phenolphthalein Required Practical 2
- Place on white tile
- Use burette to add alkali to the conical ask
- Add alkali to conical ask drop-wise towards the end
- Swirl contents of conical ask to mix
- Stop when indicator changes colour
- Record volume of alkali from the burette that caused colour change
- First attempt gives approximation of alkali volume required to neutralise acid
- Subsequent repeats give more exact volumes
- Calculate mean volume added
- This can also be carried out with the alkali in the conical ask and acid in the burette

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Worked Example 17: Titration Calculations
20.0 cm3 hydrochloric acid were used to neutralise 25.0cm3 of 0.10mol/dm3 calcium hydroxide
2HCl (aq) + Ca(OH)2 (aq) → CaCl2 (aq) + 2H2O (l)
Calculate the concentration of the hydrochloric acid
Answer:
Step 1: Balance the equation (if necessary) and set out a table like this with the information
provided
2HCl + Ca(OH)2 → CaCl2 + 2H2O
Concentration Conc. of HCl

0.10
(moles/dm3) required
20/1000 25/1000
Volume (dm3)
= 0.02 = 0.025
Moles
Step 2: Calculate the moles of Ca(OH)2 in the solution

0.10
Volume (dm3) 0.02 0.025

0.10 x 0.025
Moles
= 0.0025
Step 3: Use stoichiometry to calculate the amount of moles of HCl required (1 mole of Ca(OH)2
reacts with 2 moles of HCl)

0.10
Volume (dm3) 0.02 0.025
2 x 0.0025
Moles 0.0025
= 0.005
Step 4: Use concentration = moles / volume to calculate the concentration of HCl
Concentration = 0.005 / 0.02

= 0.25 mol/dm3

Explain the advantages of using a burette to carry out a titration
- Can add solutions in small increments
- Can measure variable volumes
- More accurate than a measuring cylinder
How is the end-point of a titration identi ed?

- Indicator changes colour
Titration indicator summary (do not use universal indicator for titrations)
Indicator Colour in acid Colour in alkaline
Methyl orange Red Yellow
Phenolphthalein Colourless Pink
Litmus Red Blue
Why shouldn’t universal indicator be used for titrations?

- Colour change is too gradual
4.2.6 Strong and weak acids
De ne strong acid
- An acid that is completely ionised in aqueous solution
- e.g. HCl (aq) → H+ (aq) + Cl– (aq)
- Low pH of around 1-2
- e.g hydrochloric acid, nitric acid, sulfuric acid
De ne weak acid
- An acid that is only partially ionised in aqueous solution
- e.g. CH3COOH (aq) ⇌ H+ (aq) + CH3COO– (aq)
- Equilibrium established between acid (CH3COOH) and ion (CH3COO–)
- Medium pH of around 4-5
- e.g citric acid, ethanoic acid, carbonic acid
Describe how H+ concentration changes with pH

- As pH decreases by one, H+ concentration of the solution increases by a factor of 10
What type of solution is formed by dissolving 1g of hydrogen chloride in 1dm3 of water?

- A dilute solution of a strong acid
4.3 Electrolysis
4.3.1 The process of electrolysis
Why don’t most covalent substances conduct electricity?

- No free electrons
- Each electron in outer shell is bonded
Why don’t ionic substances conduct electricity when solid?

- Ions are held tightly in xed positions
- Not free to move

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Why do ionic substances conduct electricity when molten/dissolved?
- Ions are free to move
- Can carry electric charge
What is an ion?
- Charged particle
- An atom which has either gained or lost electrons
What is an anion?
- Negative ion (gained electrons)
What is a cation?
- Positive ion (lost electrons)
De ne electrolysis
- Decomposition of a molten or aqueous ionic compound
- By the passage of an electric current
Use PANC to help you:
De ne anode
- Positive electrode Positive Anode
De ne cathode Negative Cathode
- Negative electrode
What does oxidation and reduction mean? (Use OIL RIG to help you)
- Oxidation is loss (of electrons)
- Reduction is gain (of electrons)
Outline the process of electrolysis

- Positively charged ions move to negative electrode
- Negatively charged ions move to positive electrode
- Ions discharged at electrodes, producing elements

Simple Electrolysis Apparatus

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4.3.2 Electrolysis of molten ionic compounds
What sort of substances undergo electrolysis?

- Giant ionic structures
Why does the electrolyte need to be molten?

- So ions are free to move
What are the electrodes usually made out of?

- Inert substances e.g. graphite
- Able to conduct electricity
How is charge transferred during electrolysis?

- Negatively charged electrons move from negative terminal towards positive
- New electrons added to circuit at the cathode
- Electrons removed at anode
- Ions transfer charge in electrolyte to electrode of opposite charge
- Positive ions move to cathode
- Negative ions move to anode
How to write half equations:

- Make sure all charges and number of atoms balance
- At the negative electrode (cathode)…
- Positive ions (cations) are attracted
- They gain electrons to form elements
- e.g. Ag+ + e- → Ag
- At the positive electrode (anode)
- Negative ions (anions) are attracted
- They lose electrons to form elements/compounds
- e.g. 2Br- - 2e- → Br2
- e.g. 4OH- - 4e- → 2H2O + O2
- Note: These can also be written as 2Br- → Br2 + 2e- and 4OH- → 2H2O + O2 + 4e-
Electrolysis Rules: Molten Ionic Compounds
For electrolysis using a molten ionic compound
Liquid electrolyte contains:

- Ions that make up the ionic compoun
At the negative cathode:

- Solid metal forms from cations in the ionic compoun
- Gains electron
- e.g. Cu2+ + 2e- → C
At the positive anode

- Negative ion in ionic compound forms its elemen
- e.g. 2Br- → Br2 + 2e-

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Worked Example 18: Electrolysis Of A Molten Ionic Compound

Predict the products at the cathode and anode of the electrolysis of molten lead (ii) bromide
using inert platinum electrode
Answer At the cathode: Pb2+ + 2e- → Pb (electrons gained = reduction

At the anode: 2Br - → Br2 + 2e-(electrons lost = oxidation
4.3.3 Using electrolysis to extract metals
When is electrolysis used to purify metals?

- When the metal to be extracted is more reactive than carbon
What ore is used in the electrolysis of aluminium?

- Bauxite (contains aluminium oxide)
How is aluminium extracted from aluminium oxide using electrolysis?

- Aluminium mixed with cryolite and melted
- Mixture is then electrolysed
- Positive anode is made from carbon
- Oxygen is produced at the positive electrode
- Reacts with the carbon electrode to form carbon dioxide
- Aluminium ions gain electrons at negative cathode
- Aluminium metal forms
- Overall equation: 2Al2O3 → 4Al + 3O2
Give the balanced half-equation for the reaction at the positive electrode
- 2O2- → O2 + 4e
- Oxidation (electrons are lost
Give the balanced half-equation for the reaction at the negative electrode
- Al3+ + 3e- → Al
- Reduction (electrons are gained)
What is the role of molten cryolite?

- Reduces the melting point of aluminium oxide mixture
- Less energy (electricity) needed
Why is the manufacture of aluminium such an expensive process?

- High cost of electricity
- Regular replacement of carbon anode (positive electrode)
Explain why the positive electrode must be continually replaced

- Carbon anode reacts with oxygen to produce carbon dioxide and burns away

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4.3.4 Electrolysis of aqueous solutions
Electrolysis Rules: Ionic Solutions (i.e. An Ionic Compound Dissolved In Water)

For electrolysis using an ionic solution
This is needed for
Solution contains: Required Practical 3
- Ions that make up the ionic compoun
- The ions in water (OH- and H+
At the negative cathode:

- Least reactive element forms from the cations presen
- i.e. hydrogen (from water) produced unless…
- The cations from ionic compound are from a metal less reactive than hydroge
- If metal is less reactive the hydrogen, the metal will be produced at cathode instea
At the positive anode

- Oxygen produced unless…
- The ionic compound contains halide ions (e.g. Cl-, Br-, I-
- If halide ions present, halogen produced instead (e.g. Cl2, Br2, I2 )
Worked Example 19: Electrolysis Of An Ionic Solution (Aqueous Sodium Chloride)

Predict the products at the cathode and anode of the electrolysis of aqueous sodium chlorid
Answer At the cathode: 2H+ (aq) + 2e- → H2 (g) (electrons gained = reduction
At the anode: 2Cl - (aq) → Cl2 (g) + 2e- (electrons lost = oxidation
Why does hydrogen gas form at the negative electrode

- Because hydrogen is less reactive than sodiu
Why does chlorine form at the positive electrode

- Because Cl- is a halide io
What is left in solution

- Sodium ions and hydroxide ion
- Forms sodium hydroxide

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Worked Example 20: Electrolysis Of An Ionic Solution (Dilute Sulfuric Acid)

Give the half equations for the electrolysis of dilute sulfuric acid (H2SO4) using platinum
electrodes
Answer At the cathode: 2H+ (aq) + 2e- → H2 (g) (electrons gained = reduction
At the anode: 4OH- (aq) → 2H2O (l) + O2 (g) + 4e- (electrons lost = oxidation
What will happen at the cathode

- Hydrogen gas produced (bubbles form
- No other positive ions presen
What will happen at the anode

- Oxygen gas produced (bubbles form
- No halide ions present
Worked Example 21: Electrolysis Of An Ionic Solution (Aqueous Copper (II) Sulfate)
Give the half equations for the electrolysis of aqueous copper (II) sulfate using an impure copper
anode and pure copper cathode
Answer At the cathode: Cu2+ (aq) + 2e- → Cu (s) (electrons gained = reduction
At the anode: Cu (s) → Cu2+ (aq) + 2e- (electrons lost = oxidation
What will happen to the cathode

- Gains pure coppe
- Increases in mas
What will happen to the anode

- Loses copper ions (and impurities
- Decreases in mas
What will be formed at the positive and negative electrodes if inert electrodes are used instead
- Positive: Oxygen ga
- Negative: Copper
4.3.5 Representation of reactions at electrodes as half equation
All required half-equations can be found in sections 4.3.2 - 4.3.4

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5. Energy changes
5.1 Exothermic and endothermic reactions
5.1.1 Energy transfer during exothermic and endothermic reactions

This is needed for
De ne exothermic reaction Required Practical 4
- Thermal energy is transferred to surroundings
- Causes increase in temperature
- e.g. combustion, many oxidation reactions and neutralisation
De ne endothermic reaction
- Thermal energy is taken in from surroundings
- Causes decrease in temperature
- e.g. thermal decompositions and the reaction of citric acid and sodium hydrogencarbonate
Give a use of endothermic and exothermic reactions

- Exothermic - hand warmers and self-heating cans
- Endothermic - cold packs for sports injuries
5.1.2 Reaction pro les
De ne activation energy
- Minimum amount of energy that colliding particles must have for a reaction to occur
Explain the shape of the energy level diagram for an exothermic reaction
- More energy needed to make bonds than break bonds
- Reactants have more energy than products
- Energy is released to surroundings
Explain the shape of the energy level diagram for an endothermic reaction
- More energy needed to break bonds than make bonds
- Reactants have less energy than products
- Energy is taken in from surroundings

Energy Level Diagrams: Exothermic & Endothermic Reactions
Exothermic Reaction Endothermic Reaction
Activation Energy Activation

Reactants Energy Products
Energy
Energy
Overall Overall energy

energy change is
Products Reactants
change is POSITIVE
NEGATIVE
Progress of reaction Progress of reaction

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5.1.3 The energy change of reactions
De ne bond energy
- Energy needed to break the bond between two atoms
How are bond energies used to calculate the energy transferred during a chemical reaction?
- Energy transferred = bonds broken - bonds formed
- Energy must be supplied to break bonds
- Energy is released when bonds in the products are formed
Worked Example 22: Calculating Enthalpy Change Using Bond Energies

Methane (CH4) and oxygen (O2) are reacted together to make ethanol. The reaction is
exothermic.
Use the bond energies below to calculate the enthalpy change for this reaction.
H H
2 H C H + O O 2 H C O H
H H
Bond Bond energy (kJ)
C—H 435
O＝O 497
C—O 336
O—H 464
Step 1: Calculate the bond energy of bonds broken (reactants). Remember the stoichiometry.
Methane: 2 x (4 x C — H) = 2 x 4 x 435
= 3480 kJ
Oxygen: 1 x O ＝ O = 497 kJ
Total bonds broken = 3480 + 497

= 3977 kJ
Step 2: Calculate the bond energy of bonds formed (products). Remember the stoichiometry.
Methanol: 2x ((3 x C — H) + (1 x C — O) + (1 x O — H))
Total bonds formed = 2 x ((3 x 435) + (336) + (464))

= 2 x 2105 Remember:
= 4210 kJ
Bond breaking =
Step 3: Calculate the energy transferred by the reaction endothermic process
Energy = bonds broken - bonds formed Bond making =

Energy = 3977 - 4210 exothermic process
Energy = -233 kJ
Energy transferred is negative so this is an exothermic reaction

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Describe an exothermic reaction in terms of bond breaking and bond making
- Energy released from forming new bonds > energy needed to break existing bonds
- Heat energy is released
De ne an endothermic reaction in terms of bond breaking and bond making
- Energy needed to break existing bonds > energy released from forming new bonds
- Heat energy is taken in
5.2 Chemical cells and fuel cells
5.2.1 Cells and batteries
How do cells and batteries work?

- Contain chemicals which react to produce electricity
- Voltage produced by a cell is dependent upon type of electrode and electrolyte
- The greater the di erence in reactivity between the metals, the greater the voltage
- Batteries consist of two or more cells connected together in series to provide a greater voltage
Describe the production of electrical energy in a simple cell

- Simple cell is two metals and electrolyte
- The redox reactions form a current
- More reactive metal is negative pole
- Negative pole produces electrons
- Electrons ow along wire forming current
- If ions in solution are less reactive than the anode, they accept electrons
Which factors a ect the voltage produced by the cell?

- Type of electrodes
- Type of electrolyte
- Concentration of electrolyte
- Temperature
What is the voltage if the same metal is used for both electrodes?
- 0V
Why do non-rechargeable (e.g. alkaline) batteries eventually stop working?

- Reaction stops
- One of the reactants is used up
Why can non-rechargeable batteries not be recharged?

- The reaction is not reversible
Why can a rechargeable cell be recharged?

- The chemical reaction is reversible
- Requires an external current to be supplied
Explain the di erences between the processes in a chemical cell and electrolysis
- Electrolysis uses electricity to produce a chemical reaction
- Chemical cells use a chemical reaction to produce electricity
Why should batteries not be put in the household waste?

- Waste can be toxic
- Could cause pollution at land ll sites

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5.2.2 Fuel cells
How does a fuel cell work?

- Supplied by an external source of fuel (e.g. hydrogen) and oxygen or air
- Fuel oxidised to produce a potential di erence
What is a hydrogen fuel cell?

- Electrochemical cell
- Uses hydrogen and oxygen to produce electricity (a potential di erence)
- Water is only chemical product
- Hydrogen + oxygen → water
- 2H2 (g) + O2 (g) → 2H2O (l)
Give the half equations for the electrode reactions in a hydrogen fuel cell
- At the positive electrode:
- 2H2 + 4OH- → 4H2O + 4e-
- At the negative electrode:
- O2 + 2H2O + 4e- → 4OH-
Give the advantages and disadvantages of using a hydrogen fuel cell to power an electric vehicle
compared with a rechargeable cell
Advantage Disadvantage
Hydrogen is usually made from fossil fuels /
Faster to refuel
non-renewable resources
Can travel further before refuelling Hydrogen is di cult to store
Hydrogen can be renewable Hydrogen is ammable / explosive
Produces a constant voltage Costs more to refuel
No toxic chemicals released after disposal Costs more to manufacture
No loss of e ciency over time Not many hydrogen lling stations
Give the advantages and disadvantages of using hydrogen fuel cells over petrol engines
Do not produce polluting gases
Hydrogen is expensive to produce and store
(e.g. CO2, a greenhouse gas)
Hydrogen and oxygen gases are explosive -
Produce more energy per kg
require high pressure tanks for storage
Less energy lost as heat (no moving parts Hydrogen fuel cells less e cient at low
compared to combustion engine) temperatures

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Paper 2
6. The rate and extent of chemical change
6.1 Rate of reaction
6.1.1 Calculating rates of reactions
How do you calculate the rate of reaction based on the reactants used?
- Mean rate of reaction = quantity of reactants used
time taken
How do you calculate the rate of reaction based on the products formed?
- Mean rate of reaction = quantity of products formed
time taken
What are the units for rate?

- g/s, cm3/s or mol/s
How is the rate of a reaction calculated from a graph of mass of product formed against time?
- By calculating the gradient

Calculating The Gradient Of A Curved Graph Using Tangents
Volume of product formed

(cm3)
80
The rate of a reaction at
any point can be found by 70
calculating the gradient of a 60
product formed Vs time graph.
50
To find the rate at 10 s,
draw a tangent to the curve 40
60 – 20 = 40
at the 10 s point. 30
Calculate the gradient of 20
20 – 0 = 20
the tangent using change in y
change in x 10
Time (s)
Gradient = 60 – 20 0 10 20 30 40 50
20
Gradient = 2
Rate at 10 s = 2 cm3/s
6.1.2 Factors which a ect the rates of chemical reactions
What e ect does a higher temperature have on the rate of reaction?

- Rate increases
- Particles have greater kinetic energy
- More collisions have energy greater than activation energy
- More successful collisions occur per second

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Effect Of Temperature On Rate Of Reaction
Mass of product
Higher Temperature
produced (g)
Lower Temperature
Time (s)
What e ect does increasing the pressure of a gas have on the rate of reaction?
- Rate increases
- Distance between particles decreases
- Collisions occur more frequently
What e ect does increasing the concentration have on the rate of reaction?
- Rate increases
- More particles in the same volume

Effect Of Concentration On Rate Of Reaction
Higher concentration Lower concentration

= more collisions = fewer collisions
= increased rate = decreased rate
Mass of product
produced (g)
Twice the concentration
Original concentration
Half the concentration
Time (s)

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What e ect does increasing the surface area have on the rate of reaction?
- Rate increases

Effect Of Surface Area On Rate Of Reaction
Small surface area Large surface area
Mass of product
produced (g) Larger surface area
Smaller surface area
Time (s)
Describe how to carry out an experiment to measure the rate of reaction when a precipitate is
formed
- Example: Sodium thiosulfate solution and dilute hydrochloric acid react together to form a
precipitate of sulfur
- Place 20 cm3 of sodium thiosulfate solution and 20 cm3 of water in a conical ask
- Add 10 cm3 of dilute hydrochloric acid to the ask
- Place the ask on a piece of paper marked with a black X
- Time how long it takes before the X can no longer be seen
Describe how to carry out an experiment to measure the rate of reaction when a gas is produced
- Example: The decomposition of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) into H2O and O2
- Place a known mass of H2O2 in a conical ask
- Seal ask with a bung attached to a gas syringe
- Time how long it takes for 100cm3 of oxygen to be collected
Describe how to carry out an experiment to measure the rate of reaction from the change in mass
of a solid
- Example: Reaction of marble chips (CaCO3) with dilute hydrochloric acid
- Place 50cm3 HCl into a conical ask. Place the ask on a balance
- Add marble chips and note the starting mass
- Place cotton wool in the neck of the ask to stop acid spraying out
- Measure the mass of carbon dioxide lost at intervals
- Plot a graph of the results
- Repeat changing one variable only
- e.g. temperature, surface area, concentration of HCl

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Investigating Rate Of Reaction Using Marble Chips
Cotton wool
This is needed for
Marble chips
Dilute HCl
Balance
Which variables should be controlled when investigating the e ect of temperature on the rate of a
reaction?
- Concentration of reactants
- Volume of reactants
- Surface area (if using a solid)
Which variables should be controlled when investigating the e ect of concentration on the rate of
a reaction?
- Concentration of all reactants other than the one being investigated
- Surface area (if using a solid)
- Temperature
Which variables should be controlled when investigating the e ect of surface area on the rate of a
reaction?
- Temperature
Which variables should be controlled when investigating the e ect of a catalyst on the rate of a
reaction?
- Temperature
- Surface area
6.1.3 Collision theory and activation energy
Use collision theory to explain how chemical reactions occur

- Chemical reactions occur when particles collide with su cient energy
- Minimum amount of energy required = activation energy
- Rate of reaction is dependent on the energy and number of collisions
- Greater kinetic energy and increased frequency of collisions = faster rate of reaction

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6.1.4 Catalyst
De ne catalyst
- A substance that increases the rate of reaction
- Chemically unchanged at the end of the reaction
- Do not appear in chemical equations for reactions
What are biological catalysts?

- Enzymes
- Increase the rate of chemical reactions in biological systems
How does a catalyst work?
- Speeds up the rate of reaction without being used up
- Provides alternative reaction pathway with lower activation energy

Effect Of A Catalyst On Activation Energy
Activation energy with

catalyst
Overall energy change

Overall energy change

Effect Of A Catalyst On Rate
Mass of product
produced (g) With catalyst
Without catalyst
Time (s)
Why are catalysts used in industry?

- Less energy is used
- Reduces costs
6.2 Reversible reactions and dynamic equilibrium
6.2.1 Reversible reactions
What does this ⇌ arrow represent?

- Reaction is reversible

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De ne reversible reaction
- Reactions where the products can react together to produce the reactants again
- A+B ⇌C+D
How can the direction of a reversible reaction be changed?
- By changing the conditions
- e.g. ammonium chloride ⇌ ammonia + hydrogen chloride
- Heating the reaction favours the forwards direction
- Cooling the reaction favours the backwards direction
6.2.2 Energy changes and reversible reactions
Describe the dehydration of copper (II) sulfate crystals

- Heat blue (hydrated) copper (II) sulfate crystals
- Blue crystals turn to white powder
- Because water is lost i.e. water of crystallisation is lost
- White anhydrous copper (II) sulfate is formed
- Add water and blue (hydrated) copper (II) sulfate crystals form
- Reaction is reversible
- The forwards reaction is endothermic
- The backwards reaction is exothermic
- The same amount of energy is transferred in each case
6.2.3 Equilibrium
What is meant by the term ‘dynamic equilibrium’?

- Forward and reverse reactions occur at the same rate
- Reaction is a closed system (no reactants or products can escape)
- Concentrations and masses of products and reactants remain constant
6.2.4 The e ect of changing conditions on equilibrium
What is Le Chatelier’s principle?

- When a change is made to a system in equilibrium, the position of equilibrium moves to
counteract the change that was made
- e.g. If you heat up a system, the system will try and make it cooler (carry out more of the
endothermic reaction)
6.2.5 The e ect of changing concentration
Describe and explain the e ect of increasing the concentration of reactants on a reversible
reaction
- Increasing concentration of reactants favours the formation of more products
- Position of equilibrium shifts to the right to reduce the concentration of reactants
Describe and explain the e ect of increasing the concentration of products on a reversible
reaction
- Increasing concentration of products favours the formation of more reactants
- Position of equilibrium shifts to the left to reduce the concentration of products
6.2.6 The e ect of temperature changes on equilibrium
Describe and explain the e ect of increasing the temperature on a reversible reaction
- Increasing temperature favours the endothermic reaction
- Position of equilibrium shifts in favour of the endothermic reaction

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Describe and explain the e ect of decreasing the temperature on a reversible reaction
- Decreasing temperature favours the exothermic reaction
- Position of equilibrium shifts in favour of the exothermic reaction
6.2.7 The e ect of pressure changes on equilibrium
Describe and explain the e ect of increasing the pressure on a reversible reaction
- Increasing pressure favours the side with fewer moles of gas
- Position of equilibrium shifts to the side with fewer moles of gas
Describe and explain the e ect of decreasing the pressure on a reversible reaction
- Decreasing pressure favours the side with more moles of gas
- Position of equilibrium shifts to the side with more moles of gas
Worked Example 23: Dynamic Equilibrium

2NO2 (g) ⇌ N2O4 (g) Energy change = – 57 KJ/mol
brown colourless
Describe and explain the e ect of increasing temperature on the colour of the reaction mixture
- Forwards reaction is exothermic (produces heat energy)
- Increasing temperature favours the endothermic (reverse) reaction
- Position of equilibrium shifts to the left
- Mixture turns brown
Describe and explain the e ect of increasing pressure on the colour of the reaction mixture
- There are 2 moles of gas on the left hand side and 1 mole of gas on the right hand side
- Increasing the pressure favours the side with fewer moles of gas (the right hand side)
- Position of equilibrium shifts to the right
- Mixture turns colourless
What e ect does the addition of a catalyst have on the position of equilibrium?
- Catalyst has no e ect on the position of equilibrium
- Because the rates of the forward and reverse reactions increase equally
- Reaction reaches equilibrium quicker
Worked Example 24: Compromised Equilibrium Conditions

Ethanol can be produced from ethene and steam in an exothermic reaction. Explain how the
conditions for this reaction should be chosen to produce ethanol as economically as possible.
C2H4 (g) + H2O (g) ⇌ C2H5OH (g)

- Decrease the temperature to increase the yield of ethanol
- Forward reaction is exothermic so the position of equilibrium shifts to the right
- BUT low temperatures means low rates of reaction because the particles have low kinetic
energy meaning there is a lower frequency of successful collisions
- Therefore choose a compromise in temperature
- Increase the pressure to increase the yield of ethanol
- There are fewer moles of gas on the right hand side so the position of equilibrium shifts to
the right
- High pressures mean high rate of reaction because the particles have an increased
frequency of collisions
- BUT high pressures are dangerous and expensive due to stronger reaction vessels needed
- Therefore choose a compromise in pressure
- Use a catalyst to increase the rate of both forwards and backwards reaction

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7. Organic chemistry
What does the molecular formula show?

- Exact number of atoms of each element present in a compound
What does the empirical formula show?
- Simplest ratio of atoms of each element present in a compound
What does the general formula show?
- Relationship between the number of atoms of each element within a molecule
What does the structural formula show?
- How the atoms in a molecule are arranged
What does the displayed formula show?
- A drawing of the bonds within a molecule
Types Of Chemical Formula
Example: Propene
- Molecular formula: C3H6
- Empirical formula: CH2
- General formula: CnH2n (alkenes)
- Structural formula: CH2 = CH – CH3
- Displayed formula:
What is a functional group?

- An atom or group of atoms which determine the chemical properties of a homologous series
What is a homologous series?
- Group of compounds with same chemical properties because they have same functional group
- e.g. alcohols (–OH), alkenes (C=C)
What do members of the same homologous series have in common?
- Similar chemical properties
- Trend in physical properties
- Same functional group
- Same general formula
- Di er from one member to the next by a – CH2 – unit
What are ‘saturated’ compounds?
- Molecules in which all carbon-carbon bonds are single bonds
- No C=C double bonds
What are ‘unsaturated’ compounds?
- Molecules that contain one or more C=C double bonds

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7.1 Carbon compounds as fuels and feedstock
7.1.1 Crude oil, hydrocarbons and alkanes
What is a hydrocarbon?
- A compound which contains hydrogen and carbon atoms ONLY
What is a fuel? Remember
- A substance which releases energy when burnt
A mnemonic for the rst 4
What is crude oil made up of? carbon chain names
- Mixture of hydrocarbons
Monkeys = meth-
What is the general formulae of an alkane? Eat = eth
- CnH2n+2 Peanut = prop
Butter = but-
Summary of the rst 4 straight-chained alkanes
Number of Carbon
Name Structural Formula Displayed Formula
Atoms
1 Methane CH4
2 Ethane CH3CH3
3 Propane CH3CH2CH3
4 Butane CH3CH2CH2CH3
Why are alkanes classi ed as ‘saturated’ hydrocarbons

- All carbons form 4 single bond
- No C=C double bond
7.1.2 Fractional distillation and petrochemicals
What is a fraction?
- Group of substances with similar boiling points
De ne volatility
- How easily a substance turns into a gas
De ne viscosity
- How easily a substance ows (less viscous - more runny)
How is crude oil separated into its various fractions?
- Fractional distillation
- Crude oil is heated
- Crude oil boils and vaporises
- Vapour passed into bottom of fractionating column
- Column hottest at the bottom - longest chain fractions condense here e.g. bitumen
- Column coolest at the top - shortest chain fractions condense here e.g. re nery gases

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Fractional Distillation Of Crude Oil Short molecules
- Low boiling point
- Very volatile
- Flow easily (not viscous)
- Ignite easily
- Light in colour
Long molecules
- High boiling point
- Not very volatile
- Does not flow easily (viscous)
- Does not ignite easily
- Dark in colour
What are the main uses of the following fractions:

- Re nery gases (mixture of methane ethane, propane) - bottled gas
- Gasoline - fuel for cars
- Kerosene - fuel for planes
- Diesel - fuel for buses, lorries
- Fuel oil - fuel for ships
- Bitumen - road surfacing
Compare the colour, viscosity and boiling point of bitumen and re nery gases
Bitumen Re nery gases
Colour Dark Light
Viscosity Very viscous Not viscous
Boiling point High Low
Chain length Long Short
7.1.3 Properties of hydrocarbons
What is complete combustion?

- Burning in plentiful oxygen
- Produces carbon dioxide and water
- e.g. 2C2H6 + 7O2 → 4CO2 + 6H2O
Describe and explain the trend in boiling points in hydrocarbons
- The boiling point increases as the number of carbon atoms increases
- The strength of intermolecular force increases as the size of molecule increases

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Describe and explain the trend in viscosity in hydrocarbons
- The viscosity increases as the number of carbon atoms increases
- The strength of intermolecular force increases as the size of molecule increases
Describe and explain the trend in ammability in hydrocarbons
- The ammability decreases as the number of carbon atoms increases
- Longer chain hydrocarbons have higher boiling points
- More di cult to evaporate and react with oxygen
Suggest why bitumen is not used as a fuel
- Not very ammable
- Very viscous
- Boiling point too high
Compare the structures and properties of methane and hexane
Similarities Di erences
Methane contains one carbon atom, hexane
Both hydrocarbons
contains six carbon atoms
Both simple molecular structures Hexane has a higher melting and boiling point
Methane is a gas at room temperature, hexane
Both contain single carbon bonds only
is a liquid
Hexane is more viscous
Hexane is less ammable
7.1.4 Cracking and alkenes
What is the functional group of the alkenes?

- C=C
Why are alkenes classi ed as ‘unsaturated’ hydrocarbons?
- Contain C=C double bonds
What is the function of cracking?
- To break down long alkane chains
- Into smaller, more useful chains of alkanes and alkenes
Explain why cracking is important
- Produces shorter chain molecules
- Shorter molecules more useful as fuels
- Used to make petrol/diesel for vehicles
- Alkenes also produced by cracking
- Used to make alcohols / polymers / plastics
What reaction conditions are needed for catalytic cracking?
- Alumina catalyst
- High temperature of 500-600°C
How is steam cracking carried out?
- Hydrocarbon mixed with steam
- Heated to very high temperature (over 800°C)
What type of reaction is cracking?
- Thermal decomposition

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Worked Example 25: Cracking
The chemical equation for a cracking reaction is C16H34 → C8H18 + 2C3H6 + Compound X.
Deduce the molecular formula of X.
Step 1: Count how many carbons and hydrogens are on each side of the equation
Left hand side: C = 16

H = 34
Right hand side: C = 8 + (2 x 3) = 14
H = 18 + (2 x 6) = 30
Step 2: Calculate how many carbons and hydrogens need to be added to the right hand side to
make the equation balance
C = 16 – 14 = 2
H = 34 – 30 = 4
Answer: Compound X is C2H4 (ethene)
What is the test for an unsaturated compound (an alkene)?

- Add compound to bromine water
- Orange colour turns colourless
- This is an addition reaction
- Dibromoalkane formed as product
Why don’t alkanes turn bromine water colourless?
- Alkanes have no double bond (they’re saturated)
7.2 Reactions of alkenes and alcohols
7.2.1 Structure and formulae of alkenes
What is the general formulae of an alkene?

- CnH2n
Summary of the rst 4 straight-chained alkenes
Number of Carbon
Atoms
1 n/a
2 Ethene CH2=CH2
3 Propene CH3CH=CH2
4 But-1-ene CH3CH2CH=CH2
5 Pent-1-ene CH2=CHCH2CH2CH3

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7.2.2 Reactions of alkene
Describe the reactivity of alkenes

- More reactive than alkanes due to double bond
- Undergo addition reactions
- Double bond breaks and atoms can be added
- Addition reaction turns unsaturated alkene in to saturated compound
What is incomplete combustion?
- Burning in insu cient oxygen
- Produces carbon monoxide and water
Why is incomplete combustion a problem?
- Carbon monoxide is made - toxic
- Combines irreversibly with haemoglobin in red blood cells
- Less oxygen carried → reduced rate of respiration and less energy released
What is an addition reaction?
- Addition of hydrogen, water or a halogen to an alkene
- C=C double bond breaks to become a C-C single bond
- Turns unsaturated alkene into a saturated compound
Give the equation for the addition reaction of ethene with hydrogen
- Ethene + hydrogen → ethane
- C2H4 + H2 → C2H6
- Requires a catalyst

Addition Reaction Of Ethene & Water (Steam)
H H H H
C C H H H C C H
H H H H
ethene Ethane
Give the equation for the addition reaction of ethene with water (steam)
- Ethene + steam → ethanol
- C2H4 + H2O → C2H5OH
- Requires high temperatures (300°C) and a catalyst
Addition Reaction Of Ethene & Water (Steam)

H H H H
O
C C H H H C C OH
H H H H
ethene ethanol
Give the equation for the addition reaction of ethene with bromine water
- Ethene + bromine → dibromoethane
- C2H4 + Br2 → C2H4Br2

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Addition Reaction Of Ethene & Bromine
H H H H
C C Br Br Br C C Br
H H H H
ethene dibromoethane
Compare the bonding, structure and reactions of ethane and ethene

- Both are hydrocarbons
- Both contain two carbon atoms
- Ethane contains six hydrogen atoms, ethene contains 4 hydrogen atoms
- Ethane contains single carbon bonds only, ethene contains C=C
- Both react with oxygen in complete and incomplete combustion
- Ethene decolourises bromine water, ethane does not
- Ethene undergoes addition reactions, ethane undergoes substitution reactions
7.2.3 Alcohols
What is the functional group of the alcohols?

- -OH
Summary of the rst 4 straight-chained alcohol
Number of Carbon
Atoms
1 Methanol CH3OH
2 Ethanol CH3CH2OH
3 Propan-1-ol CH3CH2CH2OH
4 Butan-1-ol CH3CH2CH2CH2OH
What is the equation for the reaction of ethanol with sodium?

- Sodium + ethanol → sodium ethoxide + hydrogen
What is seen when an alcohol reacts with sodium?

- Bubbles produced (hydrogen gas)

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What is the equation for the combustion of ethanol?

- Ethanol + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water
- CH3CH2OH + 3O2 → 2CO2 + 3H2O
What happens when an alcohol is added water?
- Shortest chain alcohols dissolve and mix readily
- Longer chain alcohols are less soluble and do not mix
- Two distinct layers seen
What is the equation for the oxidation of ethanol by an oxidising agent [O]?
- Ethanol + oxygen → ethanoic acid + water
- CH3CH2OH + 2[O] → CH3COOH + H2O
How is ethanol made industrially?
- Fermentation: plant glucose and yeast
- Yeast requires warm, anaerobic conditions
- Hydration of ethene: ethene reacts with steam in the presence of a catalyst
Outline the process of manufacturing ethanol by the fermentation of aqueous glucose
- Yeast added to glucose solution
- Left in anaerobic conditions at 30°C
- Optimum temperature for enzymes
- Yeast respires anaerobically
- C6H12O6 (aq) → 2C2H5OH (aq) + 2CO2 (g)
Outline the process of manufacturing ethanol by the hydration of ethene
- React ethene with steam
- Use phosphoric acid catalyst
- Conditions: 300°C, 60 atmospheres
- C2H4 (g) + H2O (g) → C2H5OH (g)
Compare the processes of manufacturing ethanol
Comparison Hydration of ethene Fermentation of sugar
Rate of reaction Fast Slow
Type of process Continuous Batch
Renewable? Non-renewable Renewable
High temperature (300°C) Low temperature (30°C)

Temperature/Pressure
High pressure Low pressure
Purity of Alcohol Pure Impure
C6H12O6 → 2C2H5OH + 2CO2

Equation CH2CH2 + H2O → CH3CH2OH
(this is anaerobic respiration of yeast)
List some uses of alcohol

- Fuels
- Perfumes
- Alcoholic drinks
- Solvents
- Chemical feedstock

7.2.4 Carboxylic acids
What is the functional group of the carboxylic acids?

- -COOH
Summary of the rst 4 straight-chained carboxylic acid

Number of
Carbon Atoms
1 Methanoic acid HCOOH
2 Ethanoic acid CH3COOH
3 Propanoic acid CH3CH2COOH
4 Butanoic acid CH3CH2CH2COOH
How may alcohols be oxidised to carboxylic acids?

- Microbial oxidation
- Oxidising agent e.g. permanganate
Why are carboxylic acid ‘weak acids’?
- Carboxylic acids do not completely ionise in solution
- Have a pH between 4 and 6
Describe the reaction of carboxylic acids with metal carbonates
- Metal carbonate + acid → salt + carbon dioxide + water
- e.g. sodium carbonate + ethanoic acid → sodium ethanoate + carbon dioxide + water
- Na2CO3 (s) + 2CH3COOH (aq) → 2CH3COONa (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)
- Rate of reaction is slower than using HCl
- Reaction zzes as CO2 produced
What happens when a carboxylic acid dissolves in water?

- An acid solution is formed
- pH is less than 7
What is produced when a carboxylic reacts with an alcohol?
- An ester (and water)

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What is the general equation for the formation of an ester?

- Carboxylic acid + alcohol ⇌ ester + water
- e.g. ethanoic acid + ethanol ⇌ ethyl ethanoate + water
What reaction conditions are needed in the formation of esters?
- Strong acid catalyst (sulfuric acid)
What is the functional group of the esters?

- -COO-
Give two uses of esters

- Flavourings
- Perfumes
Summary of common homologous series:
Homologous Series General Formula Example Displayed Formula
Alkanes CnH2n+2
Alkenes CnH2n
Alcohols CnH2n+1OH
Carboxylic acids CnH2n+1COOH
7.3 Synthetic and naturally occurring polymers
7.3.1 Addition polymerisation
De ne monomer
- A small molecule that joins together to form a polymer
De ne polymer
- A large molecule formed from many small molecules
What is an addition polymer?
- A polymer made from the joining up of many monomers
- No other molecule formed in the reaction
Which homologous series do the monomers used in addition polymerisation belong to?
- Alkenes

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How are addition polymers formed?
- One bond in the double bond breaks
- Monomers join together
- Form a long chain containing only single bonds
Drawing Addition Polymers

Monomer Repeating unit Polymer
H H H H
C C C C
H H H H n
Ethene Poly(ethene)
H H H CH3 H CH3
C C C H C C C C
H H H H H H H n
Propene Poly(propene)
Cl H Cl H Cl H
C C C C C C
H H H H H H n
Chloroethene Poly(chloroethene)
How is poly(ethene) made?

- Example of addition polymerisation
- Ethene molecules are monomers
- Undergo addition reaction to make a polymer
Give a use for common addition polymers
- Poly(ethene) - plastic bags
- Poly(propene) - plastic water pipes
- Poly(chloroethene) - window frames (PVC)
7.3.2 Condensation polymerisation
What is condensation polymerisation?

- Formation of a polymer from monomers with di erent functional groups
- Produces polymer and water
How does condensation polymerisation di er from addition polymerisation?
- In condensation polymerisation a small molecule is also formed
- In condensation polymerisation two di erent monomers are required
What is the general equation for the formation of a polyester?
- Diol + dicarboxylic acid → polyester + water

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Drawing Condensation Polymers
dicarboxylic acid + diol → polyester + water
O O O O
nH O C C O H +n H O O H C C O O
+ 2n H2O
Note: Don’t worry about the boxes. They’re simply showing that there are other atoms present in the
polymer. You only need to be aware of the groups involved in the bonds between monomers
Compare the polymerisation reactions used to produce poly(ethene) and a polyester

- Poly(ethene) produced by addition polymerisation, polyester by condensation polymerisation
- Poly(ethene) produced from one monomer, polyester produced from two di erent monomers
- Poly(ethene) produced from ethene, polyester from a (di)carboxylic acid and a diol
- Poly(ethene) is the only product formed, water also produced with polyester
- Poly(ethene) repeating unit is a hydrocarbon, polyester has an ester linkage
7.3.3 Amino acids
How are polypeptides made?

- Condensation polymerisation between amino acids
What are proteins?
- Natural polyamides
- Formed from amino acid monomers

Drawing The Structure Of Amino Acids & Proteins
Condensation reaction between amino acids
R group (represents different types of side chain)
R1 R2 R1 O H R2
H O H O H O
N C C N C C N C C N C C H 2O
H OH H OH H OH
H H H H
Amine group Condensation Carboxyl group
Protein
H O H O
N C N C N C
Summary of making amino acids using glycine
H O
Note: Don’t worry about the boxes. They’re simply showing that there are other atoms present in the
polymer. You only need to be aware of the groups involved in the bonds between monomers

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7.3.4 DNA and other naturally occurring polymers
Describe the structure of a nucleotide

- Sugar (deoxyribose), phosphate, base (A, C, T or G)
- Combine together to form polymer strands → DNA
Describe the structure of DNA
- 2 polymer strands
- Wound into a double helix
- 4 di erent nucleotide bases (A, C, T or G)
Which other naturally occurring polymers are important for life?
- Proteins (monomer = amino acids)
- Starch (monomer = glucose)
- Cellulose (monomer = glucose)

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8. Chemical analysis
8.1 Purity, formulations and chromatography
8.1.1 Pure substances
De ne ‘pure substance’ in chemistry

- A substance made up of just one type of element or compound
De ne ‘pure substance’ in everyday life
- A substance that has nothing added to it
- e.g. milk
What is the test for pure substances?
- Boil and melt at xed boiling points
- e.g. boiling point of pure water is exactly 100°C
- e.g. melting point of pure water is exactly 0°C
De ne ‘ xed points’
- Single melting or boiling points of an element or compound
Describe the melting and boiling points of mixtures
- Melts over a range of temperatures
- Boils over a range of temperatures
8.1.2 Formulations
De ne ‘formulation’
- A useful mixture made up of set proportions
- e.g. paint, fuels, cleaning agents, inks, medicines
What is paint made from?
- Pigment (colour)
- Binder (helps paint attach)
- Solvent (mixes pigment and binder)
What is washing liquid made from?
- Surfactant (helps emulsify fats)
- Water (solvent)
- Colouring
- Fragrance
- Rinse agent (makes dishes shine)
8.1.3 Chromatography
What is chromatography used to separate?

- Mixtures of liquids with di erent solubilities
- e.g. dyes, inks, food colourings
How to carry out paper chromatography:
- Use a pencil line as reference line
- Add spots of ink/dye to pencil line
- Place lter paper in solvent and add a lid
- Make sure solvent level is below pencil line
- Leave until solvent nearly reaches top of paper
- Allow to dry
- Furthest dot has the greatest solubility

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Paper Chromatography Lid
This is needed for
Why should the line be drawn in pencil?

- Pencil does not contain ink so does not run
Explain why it is important for the solvent level to be below the spots of dye
- To prevent spots dissolving in the solvent
Give examples of possible solvents
- Water
- Ethanol
What is the stationary phase in paper chromatography?
- Paper
What is the mobile phase in paper chromatography?
- Solvent
How do you calculate the Rf value?
- Rf = distance travelled by component
distance travelled by solvent
Explain how a chromatogram could be used to identify unknown dyes in a food colouring
- Add known dyes and food colouring to the chromatography paper
- Compare Rf values
- Identify the spots in the food colouring that have the same Rf values as known dyes
How can the distance between spots be increased?
- Allow the solvent front to travel further
- Use a di erent solvent
What is the di erence in the chromatogram of a mixture and a pure substance?

- Compounds in a mixture may separate into di erent spots depending on the solvent
- A pure compound will produce a single spot in all solvents
8.2 Identi cation of common gases

This is needed for
8.2.1 Test for hydrogen Required Practical 7
What is the test for hydrogen?
- A burning splint burns with a squeaky pop
8.2.2 Test for oxygen
What is the test for oxygen?

- Glowing splint relights

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8.2.3 Test for carbon dioxide
What is the test for carbon dioxide?

- Bubble through limewater (calcium hydroxide)
- Limewater turns cloudy
8.2.4 Test for chlorine
What is the test for chlorine?

- Bleaches damp blue litmus paper
8.3 Identi cation of ions by chemical and spectroscopic means
8.3.1 Flame tests
How do you carry out a ame test?

- Dip nichrome wire in hydrochloric acid to clean
- Dip in sample
- Hold in roaring blue Bunsen ame
- Make sure to clean the wire between tests to avoid masking of colours

Flame Tests For Cations
Cation: Li+ Na+ K+ Ca2+ Cu2+
Explain why a luminous (orange) Bunsen ame is not suitable for carrying out a ame test
- Orange colour would mask change in ame colour
- Luminous ame not hot enough
Explain why platinum or nichrome wires are used to carry out ame tests?
- Inert (unreactive)
- High melting point
8.3.2 Metal hydroxides
Give the results of precipitation reactions to test for metal cations

- Add Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) to solutions of each metal
- Cu2+ + 2OH- → Cu(OH)2
- Light blue precipitate
- Fe2+ + 2OH- → Fe(OH)2
- Green precipitate
- Fe3+ + 3OH- → Fe(OH)3
- Brown precipitate
- Al3+, Mg2+ and Ca2+ all give white precipitates
- If excess NaOH added the aluminium hydroxide precipitate dissolves

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8.3.3 Carbonates
How do you test for carbonates?

- Add dilute hydrochloric acid
- Fizzing indicates carbon dioxide being produced
- Test for carbon dioxide using lime water
- Turns milky/cloudy
- 2H+ (aq) + CO32- (aq) → CO2 (g) + H2O (l)
8.3.4 Halides
How do you test for halides?

- Add dilute nitric acid
- Removes carbonate ions
- Add silver nitrate
- Silver halide precipitate forms
Results of adding silver nitrate to halides:
- Silver chloride = white precipitate
- Silver bromide = cream precipitate
- Silver iodide = yellow precipitate
- e.g. Ag+ (aq) + I- (aq) → AgI (s)

Testing For Halides
ions ions ions

White precipitate Cream precipitate Yellow precipitate
8.3.5 Sulfates
How do you test for sulfates?

- Add dilute hydrochloric acid (removes carbonate ions)
- Add barium chloride
- Result: barium sulfate is a white precipitate
- Ba2+ (aq) + SO42- (aq) → BaSO4 (s)
8.3.6 Instrumental methods
What are instrumental methods of analysis?

- Using computers and machines to identify elements and compounds

What are the advantages and disadvantages of using instrumental methods compared to
chemical tests to detect and identify compounds?
Accurate Expensive
Sensitive (only requires small samples) Requires specialist training
Fast Often require known comparison to analyse
8.3.7 Flame emission spectroscopy
What is ame emission spectroscopy?

- An instrumental method, used for:
- Identifying metal ions in a sample
- Measuring metal ion concentrations in a solution
Describe and explain how ame emission spectroscopy works
- Heat sample in ame
- Energy provided by ame excites electrons into higher energy levels
- When electrons fall back down to original energy level, they release energy as light
- Light is passed through a spectroscope
- Output is a line spectrum that can be analysed to identify metal ions
How is ame emission spectroscopy used to identify an unknown metal ion in a sample?
- Compare line spectrum of unknown sample with the spectra of known metal ions
- If two spectra match, they must be from the same metal ion

Flame Emission Spectroscopy
Cu2+
K+
Li+
Na+
Sample
The flame emission spectrum from the sample matches the Na+ and K+
spectra. The sample must contain both these metal ions

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9. Chemistry of the atmosphere
9.1 The composition and evolution of the Earth’s atmosphere
9.1.1 The proportions of di erent gases in the atmosphere
Describe the proportions of gas found in today’s atmosphere

- Approximately 20% oxygen
- Approximately 80% nitrogen
- Small amounts of carbon dioxide, water vapour and noble gases
9.1.2 The Earth’s early atmosphere
How long ago was the Earth formed?

- 4.6 billion years ago
Describe and explain the di erences in Earth’s early atmosphere to the atmosphere today
- Oxygen levels have increased
- Plants and algae evolved and carried out photosynthesis
- Photosynthesis releases oxygen
- Carbon dioxide levels have decreased
- Volcanic activity released water vapour
- Water vapour condensed and formed oceans
- Carbon dioxide dissolved in water to produce carbonates
- Carbon locked up in sedimentary rocks and fossil fuels
- Photosynthesis absorbs carbon dioxide
- Nitrogen levels have increased
- Volcanoes produced nitrogen
- Ammonia (NH3) also present in small amounts in the early atmosphere
Describe and explain how the surface of the early Earth has changed compared to today
- Oceans formed because water vapour from volcanoes cooled and condensed
- Continents formed because the Earth cooled forming a supercontinent
- Continents split as tectonic plates moved
- Volcanoes reduced because the Earth cooled forming a crust
Why are scientists not certain about the percentages of gases in the Earth’s early atmosphere?
- Lack of evidence
- As Earth is 4.6 billion years old
9.1.3 How oxygen increased
What is the word and chemical equation for photosynthesis?

- Carbon dioxide + water → glucose + oxygen
- 6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2
- In the presence of sunlight (UV)
When did algae rst appear?

- Approximately 2.7 billion years ago
- Oxygen appeared in atmosphere shortly after
Why did plants evolved before animals?

- Plants need less oxygen for respiration
- Plants produce oxygen through photosynthesis
- Animals evolved once atmospheric oxygen had increased

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9.1.4 How carbon dioxide decreased
Explain why the evolution of algae and plants led to a decrease in atmospheric carbon dioxide
- Photosynthesis absorbs carbon dioxide
How did the formation of sedimentary rocks and fossil fuels decrease carbon dioxide levels?
- Carbon dioxide dissolved in water to produce carbonates
- Carbonates precipitated and locked up in sedimentary rock
- Carbon within plants locked up in fossil fuels when they decayed
How were fossil fuels formed?

- Remains of plankton and plants
- Died many millions of years ago
- Subjected to high temperature and pressure in Earth’s crust
- Layers of sediment squashed together
9.2 Carbon dioxide and methane as greenhouse gases
9.2.1 Greenhouse gases
What are greenhouse gases?

- Carbon dioxide
- Methane
- Water vapour
What is the greenhouse e ect?
- Greenhouse gases allow short wavelength radiation to pass through the Earth's atmosphere
- The Earth absorbs most of the radiation and warms up
- The Earth re-emits the energy as longer-wavelength (e.g. infrared) radiation
- Greenhouse gases absorb longer wavelength radiation remitted from the Earth’s surface
- Release or re ect this radiation in all directions, which keeps the Earth warm
9.2.2 Human activities which contribute to an increase in greenhouse gases in the atmosphere
Which human activities have increased the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere?
- Animal farming (methane released as waste gases)
- Rice farming (releases methane)
- Land ll (releases methane)
- Burning of fossil fuels (releases carbon dioxide)
- Deforestation (reduces amount of carbon dioxide taken up by trees)
Suggest why the atmospheric carbon dioxide percentage has increased rapidly since the 1900s
- Growth of industry
- Large increase in use of fossil fuels
- Deforestation
- Development and large increase in number of cars
Why it is di cult to produce models for future climate change?
- Very complex systems to model
- Many di erent variables
- Many alternative theories
Why may more evidence be needed to support conclusions made scientists on climate change?
- Biased presentation of the results
- Simpli ed models used
- Lack of peer review

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9.2.3 Global climate change
What is global warming?

- Increase in average global temperature
- Caused by increase in atmospheric greenhouse gases
Describe the e ects of global climate changes (global warming)
- Polar ice caps melt
- Sea levels rise
- Low-lying land oods
- Loss of biodiversity
- Habitat destruction
- Change in bird migration patterns
- Extreme weather
9.2.4 The carbon footprint and its reduction
De ne carbon footprint
- Total amount of carbon dioxide emitted over the full life cycle of a product/event
How can the carbon footprint or a product/event be reduced?

- Reducing emissions of greenhouse gases
- By using less electricity or using renewable energy sourced
- Reducing amount of transportation required
- O setting the carbon produced by planting more trees
Why may actions to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide and methane be limited?
- Renewable energy sources can be expensive
- Di cult to use less electricity
- Can be more expensive to source products locally
- Planting trees takes away land that could be used to grow crops
9.3 Common atmospheric pollutants and their sources
9.3.1 Atmospheric pollutants from fuels
How is carbon dioxide produced?

- Complete combustion of fuels
- Released during respiration
Which two gases are produced by complete combustion?

- Carbon dioxide and water vapour
How is carbon monoxide produced?
- Incomplete combustion of fuels
- Due to insu cient oxygen supply
How are oxides of nitrogen produced?

- Nitrogen and oxygen in air
- React in high temperatures of car engines
How is sulfur dioxide produced?

- Sulfur impurities in fossil fuels
- React with oxygen to form sulfur dioxide when burnt

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How are carbon particulates (soot) produced?
- Incomplete combustion of fuels
Why have the permitted levels of polluting gases emitted from newer cars decreased?
- Greater awareness about pollution
- Improved engine technology
- Catalytic converters have been introduced
9.3.2 Properties and e ects of atmospheric pollutants
What are the dangers of carbon monoxide?

- Toxic gas
- Combines irreversibly with haemoglobin in red blood cells
- Less oxygen carried → reduced rate of respiration and less energy released
Why is carbon monoxide hard to detect?

- It’s a colourless and odourless gas
What causes acid rain?
- Sulfur dioxide
- Nitrogen oxides
What e ects does acid rain have on the environment?
- Damages trees and forests
- Damages limestone buildings (limestone reacts with acid)
- Makes lakes too acidic - kills aquatic animals and plants
What e ect do sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides have on humans?

- Cause respiratory problems
- e.g. breathing di culties, asthma, lung cancer
What e ect do particulates (e.g. soot) have on the environment?

- Cause global dimming (reduced light levels)
What e ect do carbon particulates (e.g. soot) have on humans?

- Cause respiratory problems
- e.g. breathing di culties, asthma, lung cancer
Describe the pollution caused by burning fuels
- Carbon monoxide from incomplete combustion of fuel
- Carbon monoxide is toxic
- Carbon dioxide from complete combustion of fuel
- Carbon dioxide contributes to global warming
- Nitrogen oxides from nitrogen and oxygen reacting in high temperatures found in car engines
- Nitrogen oxides cause acid rain
- Carbon particulates (soot) from incomplete combustion of fuel
- Cause global dimming
- Sulfur dioxide from sulfur impurities in fuel
- Causes acid rain
Why are catalytic converters tted in cars?
- Reduce the amount of pollutants released into the atmosphere
- Reduces acid rain
- Reduces respiratory problems
- Reduces toxic carbon monoxide emissions
- Reduces global dimming

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10. Using resources
10.1 Using the Earth’s resources and obtaining potable water
10.1.1 Using the Earth’s resources and sustainable development
De ne ‘ nite’ resource
- A resource which will run out
Give examples of nite resources
- Metal ores
- Fossil fuels (for fuel and plastics)
- Limestone (building material)
De ne ‘renewable’ resource
- A resource that can be replenished as it’s used
Give examples of renewable energy sources
- Sunlight
- Hydroelectric (water)
- Wind
- Bioenergy
- e.g. sugar cane, wood
Why is using solar energy a more sustainable way of generating electricity than burning oil?
- Solar is a renewable source of energy
Why might solar energy not completely replace the generation of electricity from fossil fuels?
- Sunshine is unreliable
- Solar panels are ine cient
- Lack of space for solar panels
Explain why wood is a more sustainable source of energy than fossil fuels
- Wood is renewable
- Wood is carbon neutral
- Same amount of CO2 is released when wood is burned compared with the amount absorbed
when the tree was growing
10.1.2 Potable water
What is the chemical test for water?

- White anhydrous copper sulfate turns blue
What is the physical test for water?
- Boils at 100°C
- Freezes at 0°C
What is the di erence between potable water and pure water?
- Potable → water that is safe for human consumption
- pure → contains H2O molecules only
Explain how potable water is made from fresh water
- Choose an appropriate source of fresh water
- e.g. stream, lake, river
- Pass water through lter beds to remove undissolved solids
- Sterilise to kill harmful microorganisms

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What are the two main steps in fresh water treatment?
- Filtering removes undissolved solids
- Sterilise to kill microorganisms
How is fresh water sterilised?

- Using chlorine
- Using ozone
- Using UV light
De ne desalination
- Removing salt from water
Describe the process of distillation in purifying sea water
- Sea water is heated until it boils This is needed for
- Salt remains in the liquid, and the steam is pure water Required Practical 8
- Steam is cooled and condensed to make potable water
Why does water obtained by distillation not need to be sterilised?

- Distilled water is pure
- Microbes are destroyed by distillation
What is the disadvantage of using distillation to purify water?
- Uses lots of energy
- Expensive
Describe the process of reverse osmosis in purifying salty water
- Uses membranes to separate dissolved salts from salty water
- High pressure needed
- Requires less energy than distillation as no heating required
- Salt water corrodes pumps, which are expensive to replace
Explain why it is more expensive to obtain potable water from salt water than ground water
- Ground water only needs ltering and sterilising
- Distillation requires energy to boil salty water
10.1.3 Waste water treatment
Why does waste water need to be treated before being released into the environment?
- To remove organic matter
- To remove harmful microorganisms
- To remove harmful chemicals
Provide a summary of sewage treatment
- Screening through a metal grid to remove large solids
- Sedimentation - solid sediments allowed to settle out (produces sewage sludge)
- Bacteria added to feed on sewage, removing organic matter and harmful microorganisms
- Useful bacteria allowed to settle out as sediment
What is sewage sludge used for?
- Fertilisers
- Bio gas to produce electricity
How is liquid e uent processed?
- By aerobic biological treatment
How is solid sewage sludge treated?
- By anaerobic digestion

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Explain why solid sewage sludge may be used as fertiliser
- Increased demand for food
- Increased demand for organic fertilisers
- Conserves energy
- Land ll space is running out
Why is it more di cult to produce drinking water from waste water than from water in lakes?
- Waste water needs more processes
- Because it contains more organic matter, more microbes and toxic chemicals
10.1.4 Alternative methods of extracting metals
What are the two methods for extracting copper?

- Sulfuric acid added to produce copper sulfate solution
- Smelting (roasting) - copper ore heated at high temperature and reacted with oxygen
How is the majority of copper extracted?
- Smelting (roasting) copper rich-ores
How is copper puri ed?
- Electrolysis
- Displacement using scrap iron
What are bioleaching and phytomining used for?
- Used to extract copper from low grade ores
- Important as supplies of copper-rich ores are becoming scarce
Describe the process of bioleaching
- Bacteria feed on copper
- Scrap iron and electrolysis used to purify
Describe the process of phytomining
- Plants grown on soil containing low-grade copper ore
- Plants absorb copper ions in their roots
- Plants burned and ash dissolved in acid to produce solution of copper compounds
- Electrolysis or displacement reactions (using scrap iron) used to purify
Give the word equation for the production of copper from copper sulfate solution using scrap iron
- Copper sulfate + iron → copper + iron sulfate
Explain why phytomining is not widely used to obtain copper
- Land unavailable
- High grade ores still available
- Phytomining takes a long time
Why is recycling scrap copper more sustainable than processing copper ores?
- Recycling conserves copper ores
- Recycling uses less energy
- Recycling reduces waste
- Mining causes environmental impacts
Why should copper not be disposed of in land ll sites?

- Copper ores are limited
- Copper can be recycled or reused
- Copper is expensive
- Copper compounds are toxic

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10.2 Life cycle assessment and recycling
10.2.1 Life cycle assessment (LCA)
What is the purpose of a life cycle assessment?

- To look at environmental impact of products
Summarise the stages of a life cycle assessment
- 1. Raw material extraction and processing
- e.g. are the raw materials renewable or nite, how are they extracted/obtained?
- 2. Manufacture and packaging
- e.g. how much packaging is used, how much energy is required to manufacture?
- 3. Use and operation during the product’s lifetime
- e.g. is the product single use only, how long does the product last?
- 4. Disposal at end of useful life - recycle/waste management
- e.g. can the product be recycled, or must they be taken to land ll?
Worked Example 26: Carrying Out A Life Cycle Assessment

Use the data in the table below to evaluate the use of coated paper bags with poly(ethylene)
plastic bags.
Coated paper bags Poly(ethylene) bags
Raw materials Wood Crude oil

Mass of 1 bag in g 4.2 1.3
Energy to produce 1 bag in kJ 340 180
Energy released when 1 bag is
133 54
burned in kJ
Biodegradable Yes No
Recyclable No Yes
Answer (structure your answer using the stages of a LCA):

Raw materials
- Crude oil nite or will run out whereas wood is a renewable resource
- Wood involves land use for forestry and may involve deforestation, reducing biodiversity
Manufacturing
- Both require energy which may be derived from nite fuels
- Paper more energy intensive, potentially releasing more carbon dioxide to the atmosphere
- Paper cups are heavier to transport so have higher energy requirement
Usage
- Both single-use so neither has an advantage
Disposal
- Paper releases more energy if incinerated, which can be used for other purposes
- Paper will decompose so will not remain in land ll
- Poly(ethylene) could release toxins on incineration
- Poly(ethylene) will not decompose so will remain in land ll
- Poly(ethylene) can be used to manufacture other products
- Both can cause litter or visual pollution

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What types of energy use need taking into account when carrying out LCAs?
- Extraction of raw materials
- Processing of raw materials
- Manufacturing
- Transporting
- Disposal
- Recycling
Explain why CO2 emissions during use and operation are not the total carbon footprint of a car
- CO2 is emitted extracting raw materials, manufacturing and disposing of the car
What are the di culties in carrying out an LCA?
- Allocating numerical values to pollutant e ects requires value judgements
- So LCA is not a purely objective process
- Selective or abbreviated LCAs can be misused to reach pre-determined conclusions
- e.g. in support of claims for advertising purposes
10.2.2 Ways of reducing the use of resources
How can the use of limited resources, energy usage and waste production be reduced?
- Recycling
- e.g. metals can be recycled by melting and recasting or reforming into di erent products
- Aluminium, iron, steel and copper can all be recycled
- Reuse of materials
- e.g. glass bottles can be crushed and melted to make di erent glass products
- Reduction in materials used
- e.g. scrap steel can be added to iron from a blast furnace to reduce the amount of iron that
needs to be extracted from iron ore
What are the bene ts of recycling?

- Saves energy
- Reduces use of limited, nite sources
- Reduces pollution caused by mining and extraction of metals
What is sustainable development?
- Meets the needs of the current generation
- Without compromising needs of future generations
10.3 Using materials
10.3.1 Corrosion and its prevention
De ne corrosion
- Destruction of materials by chemical reactions with substances in the environment
De ne rusting
- Corrosion of iron
What conditions are needed for rusting to occur?
- Water
- Oxygen
What methods are used to prevent iron from rusting?
- Barrier methods
- Galvanising
- Sacri cial protection

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How do barrier methods prevent iron from rusting?
- Provide protective layer
- Prevent water / oxygen reaching iron
- e.g. paint (bridges), grease (car engines), oil (bike chains), coating with plastic
- If the layer is damaged the iron will rust
Explain why objects made out of aluminium don’t corrode despite aluminium’s high reactivity
- An oxide layer forms when aluminium reacts with oxygen
- Aluminium oxide protects the metal (barrier method)
What is galvanising?
- Using a reactive metal to sacri cially protect iron from rusting
- e.g. zinc or magnesium
Describe the process of galvanising
- Coating iron in a more reactive metal e.g. zinc
- Zinc reacts with oxygen rst, forming Zn2+
- Zn loses electrons instead of iron
- Used for car bodies, buckets
What is sacri cial protection?
- Method used to stop iron from rusting
- Iron coated in a more reactive metal / blocks of more reactive metal attached to iron
- More reactive metal undergoes oxidation in preference to iron
- Reactive metal loses electrons to form positive ions
Worked Example 27: Rusting

A student sets up four test tubes in the lab, each containing an iron nail:
Test tube 1 contains water and is open at the top

Test tube 2 contains dry air and a bung seal
Test tube 3 contains boiled water and a layer of oil
Test tube 4 contains water and is open at the top, and a painted iron nail
The test tubes are then left for two weeks.
Bung
Oil
Water Boiled
water
Painted
Iron nail Iron nail Iron nail iron nail
1 2 3 4
Explain what would happen to the nails in each of the test tubes
- The nail in test tube 1 rusts because both water and oxygen are present
- The nail in test tube 2 doesn’t rust because there is no water
- The nail in test tube 3 doesn’t rust because there is no oxygen
- The nail in test tube 4 doesn’t rust because the paint acts as a barrier to oxygen and water

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10.3.2 Alloys as useful materials
What is an alloy?
- Mixture of metals
- e.g. brass: mixture of copper and zinc
- e.g. bronze: mixture of copper and tin
- e.g. stainless steel: mixture of iron, chromium, nickel and carbon
Why are alloys often more useful than pure metals?
- Alloys can be made harder and stronger than pure metals
- Properties of alloys can be changed by altering the proportions of the metals involved
Why are alloys harder than pure metals?
- Ions are di erent sizes
- Layers harder to distort
- Layers can’t slide over each other

Structure Of A Metal & An Alloy
Pure Metal Alloy
Give examples of alloys and their uses:

- Bronze - alloy of copper and tin
- Used to make coins
- Brass - alloy of copper and zinc
- Used for musical instruments, hinges, screws
- Gold in jewellery - alloy with silver, copper and zinc
- Proportion of gold in the alloy is measured in carats
- 24 carat is 100% gold, 18 carat is 75% gold
- Steels - alloys of iron that contain speci c amounts of carbon and other metals
- High carbon steel is strong but brittle - used for cutting tools
- Low carbon steel is softer and more easily shaped - used for fasteners and bolts
- Stainless steel contains chromium and nickel - hard, resistant to corrosion - used for cutlery
- Aluminium alloys
- Low density - used in aircraft construction
Why are alloys of gold often used instead of pure gold to make jewellery?
- Alloys of gold are harder
- Alloys of gold are cheaper
Why is stainless steel suitable for making cutlery?
- Does not corrode/rust
- Does not react with water
- Stainless steel is hard

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10.3.3 Ceramics, polymers and composites
How is soda-lime glass made?

- Heating sand, limestone, sodium carbonate
How is borosilicate glass made?

- Heating sand, and boron trioxide
- Has a higher melting point than normal (soda-lime) glass
How are ceramics made?

- Shaping wet clay
- Heating in a furnace
- Used for pottery and bricks
How is low density poly(ethene) (LDPE) produced from ethene?
- Very high pressure
- Trace (low levels) of oxygen
- Polymer chains branched → cannot pack closely together → lower density
How is high density (HD) poly(ethene) (HDPE) produced from ethene?
- Catalyst
- 50°C
- Slightly raised pressure
- Straighter poly(ethene) chains → packs closely together → higher density
Explain why HDPE has a higher density than LDPE
- In HDPE, polymer chains are closer together
- So more atoms per unit volume
What is the di erence between thermosoftening and thermosetting plastics?

- Thermosoftening plastics will soften easily (melt) when heated
- Thermosetting plastics will not soften when heated
Describe the structure and bonding in a thermosoftening polymer and explain why
thermosoftening polymers melt when heated
- Chains with weak intermolecular forces between them (no cross-links/bonds)
- Intermolecular forces easily broken when heated
Suggest why a thermosoftening plastic is easier to recycle than a thermosetting plastic
- Thermosoftening plastics melt
- Can be reshaped into new products
How can di erent forms of poly(ethene) be produced from ethene?
- Use di erent reaction conditions
What is a composite material?

- Substance made from two materials (a matrix and a reinforcement material) to give better
properties
- Matrix material surrounds bres or fragments of reinforcement material
Give examples of composite materials

- Plywood
- Concrete

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10.4 The Haber process and the use of NPK fertilisers
10.4.1 The Haber process
What are the raw materials used in manufacture of ammonia?

- Nitrogen from air
- Hydrogen from natural gas (methane)
What is meant by the term ‘closed system’?
- A chemical reaction that takes place in a container
- Neither the products nor reactants can leave
What is the equation for the manufacture of ammonia?
- Nitrogen + hydrogen ⇌ ammonia
- N2 + 3H2 ⇌ 2NH3
What reaction conditions are needed?

- 450°C
- 200 atmospheres
- Iron catalyst
Why are the conditions used in the Haber Process described as ‘compromised’?
- Forward reaction is exothermic and therefore favoured by low temperatures
- But rates of reaction are too slow at low temperature so 450°C temperature is used
- Forward reaction results in fewer moles of gas so is favoured by high pressures
- But high pressures are dangerous and expensive so 200 atmospheres is used
What e ect does the iron catalyst have on the yield of ammonia?
- No e ect on yield
- Increases rate of forward and reverse reactions equally
How is ammonia extracted from the process?
- On cooling, the ammonia lique es and is removed
- Ammonia condenses before hydrogen and nitrogen (ammonia has higher boiling point)
What happens to any unreacted hydrogen and nitrogen gases?

- Recycled back into reactor
10.4.2 Production and uses of NPK fertilisers
Give a common use of ammonia

- Making fertilisers (ammonium nitrate)
Why has the demand for ammonia increased in the last 100 years?
- World population has increased
- Demand for food and fertiliser has increased
How is ammonia used to make fertiliser in a laboratory?
- Ammonia used to make nitric acid
- Nitric acid reacted with more ammonia to make ammonium nitrate fertilise
- Ammonia + nitric acid → ammonium nitrate
- Ammonia neutralised by sulfuric acid to make ammonium sulfate fertiliser
- Ammonia + sulfuric acid → ammonium sulfate
- Ammonia neutralised by phosphoric to make ammonium phosphate fertiliser
- Ammonia + phosphoric acid → ammonium phosphate

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What is NPK fertiliser?
- Fertiliser containing nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K)
- Nitrogen comes from ammonia (Haber process)
- Phosphorous comes from phosphate rock
- Potassium comes from potassium salts
How is NPK fertiliser made in industry?
- Ammonia treated with nitric or sulfuric acid to make ammonium nitrate and ammonium sulfate
- Phosphate rock treated with acids to make fertiliser salts
- Potassium salts are soluble, so can be separated from impurities and used directly
Give the salts produced when phosphate rock is treated with nitric acid
- Phosphoric acid H3PO4 and calcium nitrate Ca(NO3)2 produced
- Phosphoric acid neutralised with ammonia to produce ammonium phosphate (NH4)3PO4
Give the salts produced when phosphate rock is treated with sulfuric acid
- A mixture of calcium phosphate Ca3(PO4)2 and calcium sulfate CaSO4
Give the salts produced when phosphate rock (calcium phosphate) is treated with phosphoric
acid
- Calcium dihydrogen phosphate Ca(H2PO4)2
- Also known as triple superphosphate

PRACTICAL SKILLS ASSESSED IN A WRITTEN EXAMINATION
When answering experimental design questions, you should always include…

- Independent variable
- The variable that is being changed
- Dependent variable
- The variable that is being measured
- Include how the dependent variable would be measured
- Sensible time frame for taking measurements
- Control variables (minimum 5)
- The variables that are being kept constant
- Methods of ensuring reliability
What is the purpose of a control?
- Allows a comparison to be made
- Shows what would normally happen so comparison can be made when independent variable is
changed
Common ways of improving an investigation:

- Ensure equal sizes/volumes of samples are used
- Repeat the experiment at least 3 times and calculate the mean
- Test a wider range of values for the independent variable
How to make an investigation more reliable:
- Repeat experiment at least three times to increase number of observations
- Identify anomalous results
- Calculate mean
When have a suitable number of results been obtained for a titration?
- When at least two results are within 0.2 cm3 or less
How to make an investigation more accurate:
- Carry out more tests within existing range
- Introduce method to ensure no double counting occurs
- Use a narrower range (if appropriate)
How to increase the validity of an investigation:
- Make sure that all control variables are the same for each repeat/investigation
- Collect a wide range of measurements/results
When answering ‘describe’ questions:
- Write what the data is showing e.g. trends, changes in rate, increases and decreases etc
- If describing a graph, break the graph down into sections
- Each section should be a describable feature
- e.g. constant rate from A to B, increasing rate from B to C…
- Use data points provided in the question to illustrate description
When answering ‘explain’ questions:
- Say why the results have come about
- Use scienti c knowledge to explain any patterns and trends
- Make sure explanation is speci c to the question
When answering ‘compare’ questions:
- Each statement should include both pieces of data
- e.g. both A and B remained constant for 2 hours
- e.g. the rate of increase of A was greater than that of B from 2 to 4 hours

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When drawing diagrams:

- Include a title
- Use a sharp pencil
- Labels should be outside the diagram
- Use ruled label lines
- Do not cross label lines
- Include a scale bar if required
- State magni cation if required
- Do not use shading
- Use at least 50% of the available space
When drawing graphs:
- Label the x and y axis
- Include units
- Use sensible scale
- Use at least 50% of the available space
- Plot points accurately using an ‘X’
- Draw line of best t if required

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Revision Guide To... CHEMISTRY

HAZEL LINDSEY &

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About The Authors

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2. Bonding, structure, and the properties of matter .................................................17

3. Quantitative chemistry .........................................................................................30

7. Organic chemistry ................................................................................................65

8. Chemical analysis ................................................................................................78

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10. Using resources .................................................................................................87

Practical skills assessed in a written examinatio 97

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1. Atomic structure and the periodic table

1.1.1 Atoms, elements and compounds

Credit: Martin Bailey for SwH Learning

Element Compound Mixture

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Credit: Tom Morley for SwH Learning

What method is used to separate a soluble solute from a solvent?

Separation Of Sodium Chloride & Water By Evaporation

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Credit: Tom Morley for SwH Learning

What method is used to separate pure water from sea water?

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Why should the line be drawn in pencil

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How do you calculate the Rf value?

1.1.3 The development of the model of the atom

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Rutherford’s Alpha Particle Scattering Experiment

Very few alpha particles

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Give the relative charge of a proton, neutron and electron

What is the atomic number?

1.1.5 Size and mass of atoms

What is the radius of an atom?

What is the radius of a nucleus?

Where is most of the mass of an atom located?

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What is the mass number?

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How is the number of protons in an atom calculated?

How is the number of electrons in an atom calculated?

How is the number of neutrons in an atom calculated?

1.1.6 Relative atomic mass

What is relative atomic mass (Ar)?

Worked Example 1: Relative Abundance

Answer: (75 x 35) + (25 x 37)

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Describe the arrangement of electrons in an atom

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Give the electronic con gurations of:

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