Artificial Intelligence

Samatrix Consulting Pvt Ltd

What is Intelligence
Intelligence is studied in human being, non-human animals and plants

By Collins English dictionary, intelligence is ability to think, reason, and

understand instead of doing things automatically or by instinct.

For thousands of years we have been trying to understand how we think

What makes some brains smarter than others?

Whether a calculator is more intelligent than human?

Artificial Intelligence
The field of artificial intelligence goes one step further.

It is about how to build intelligent computer that can-do things, which humans can
do better.

AI is relatively a new field.

Offers multiple opportunity to academia, researchers and industry for break

through invention

● Such inventions are difficult in other engineering and science fields as they
are already saturated.
What is Artificial Intelligence
Artificial Intelligence is the study of the computations that make it perceive, reason
and act

The objective of AI is to build system that can

1. Think like humans (e.g., cognitive architectures and neural networks);

2. Act like humans (pass Turing test);
3. Think rationally (logic solvers, inference, and optimization);
4. Act rationally (intelligent software agents)
Thinking Humanly – The Cognitive Modelling Approach

If we say that a given program thinks like a human, we need find out ways to determine how
human think

We need to get inside the actual working of human brain.There are 3 ways

Through introspection – try to catch our own thoughts as they go by

Through Psychological Experiments – observing a person in action

Through Brain Imaging – observing the brain in action

Once we can understand the brain, it can be translated into a computer program.

If the input-output behaviour of the computer program matches the behaviour of the human,
we can say that computer is able to mimic the human in certain instances.
Acting Humanly – Turing Test Approach
Alan Turing developed Turing Test in 1950.

It tests the ability of a machine to exhibit intelligent behaviour that is equivalent or better than
that of a human.

During the test, a human interrogator poses questions to a human and a computer.

All the participants are separated from each other.

Whole conversation takes place in written format instead of oral format using a key board
and a monitor.

The computer passes the test if the interrogator can not tell whether the response is coming
from the human or the computer
Acting Humanly – Turing Test Approach
In order to pass the test, the computer needs the following capabilities:

Natural language processing enables the computer to understand and process the
language and speech;

Knowledge representation to encode knowledge, actions, beliefs and other mental

states in artificial system;

Automated reasoning helps computers apply logical reasoning to solve the

problem, answer the questions and draw new conclusions;

Machine learning helps computers learn automatically, adapt to new

circumstances and improve from experience without external intervention;
Thinking Rationally – Law of Thoughts Approach
Aristotle, the Greek philosopher initiated the field called logic.

In his famous syllogisms, Aristotle provided patterns for argument structures.

These patterns always give correct conclusion when they are provided with
correct premise.

In the syllogisms the law of thoughts plays one of the most important roles.

These laws of thoughts are so simple and basic that one can argue that they
should not be said.

However, they are fundamental to clear and sound thinking.

Thinking Rationally – Law of Thoughts Approach
These are known as “Law of Identity”, “Law of Contradiction”, and “Law of
extended middle”.

Law of Identity asserts about the absolute truth.

● It states that if any statement is true then it is true.

● This law asserts that everything is itself. It cannot be something else.
● River cannot be cloud; mountain cannot be ocean.

Law of Contradiction assets that no statement can be both true and false.

● For example, Jim can be father of Rick and son of Mike.

● But Jim cannot be biologically father and son of same person. He can be one
or other.
Acting Rationally – Rational Agent Approach
Here agent refers to computer.

An agent acts. The word agent comes from Latin agree to do.

Even though all the computer programs give some output, but they are expected
to do more than giving the output. They act rationally when they

● operate autonomously
● identify the environment they are operating in
● continue to work for a long period of time
● adapt to changes
● Identify their goals and pursue them

A rational agent acts to achieve the best outcome. When there is an uncertainty,
Acting Rationally – Rational Agent Approach
Here agent refers to computer.

An agent acts. The word agent comes from Latin agree to do.

Even though all the computer programs give some output, but they are expected
to do more than giving the output. They act rationally when they

operate autonomously

identify the environment they are operating in

continue to work for a long period of time

adapt to changes
AI problems
What kind of problems AI can solve?

Earlier work focused on formal tasks such as game playing and theorem solving.
People who can play game and solve theorem are known to be intelligent.

AI was solving our day to day problems such as how to get to work in the morning.
This was called common sense reasoning.

It is important to understand the following four topics

1. The underlying assumptions about intelligence

2. Techniques required to solve AI problems

The underlying assumptions
The physical symbol system hypothesis (PSSH) lies at the heart of research of
artificial intelligence. In their Turing award winning paper, Newell and Simon
formulated PSSH.

Physical symbol system hypothesis has been successful in game playing and
visual perception. However, the subsymbolic processes(such as neural networks)
have been more successful in solving visual perception problems.

First, this theory gives insights into

nature of human intelligence.

Required AI techniques
The artificial intelligence problems hard, unique and span broad

Spectrum.

AI techniques provide appropriate solutions for these

variety of problems.

These AI techniques should possess certain

properties.Intelligence requires knowledge. Some of the properties of

knowledge are:

It is huge and complicated.

Level of the model
What is our goal in trying to produce programs that do the intelligent

things that people do?

The efforts to build AI programs can be divided into two classes.

Programs in the first class try to solve problems that be easily solved

by a computer and AI techniques are usually not required.

The second class of problems attempts to solve problems that are

non-trivial for a computer and use AI techniques.

Successfully building an intelligent problem
Scientific or engineering research project, we often ask question –

How will we know if we have succeeded? We ask same question in

case of artificial intelligence. Turing Test as proposed by Alan

Turing can help determine whether the machine can think.

When we design an AI program, we should specify the success criteria for that
program in its restricted domain.
History of AI

Alan Turing

Conference of 1956

Successes and Setbacks

Current Wave
History of AI
Artificial Intelligence has been studied from decades and is one of more most
popular subject in Computer Science.

Since the dawn of electronic computing, computers with the human-like

intelligence has been dream of mathematician and computer scientists.

By 1940s, a generation of computer scientists, mathematicians and philosophers

started working on the concept of artificial intelligence (AI).

One of the pioneers of AI was Vannevar Bush in his work “As We May Think”
talked about a future world in which man-made machine will start to think.

Alan Turing, a young British, who explored the possibilities of mathematical

possibility of artificial intelligence.
Alan Turing
He raised the possibility that machine might be programmed to learn from
experience similar to a young child.

However Turing could not accomplish much in his pursuit towards building
intelligent machines.

Technology lacked a key prerequisite for intelligence: they couldn’t store

commands, only execute them.

In other words, computers could be told what to do but couldn’t remember what
they did.

Second, computing was extremely expensive

Conference That Started AI
Five years later, the proof of concept was initialized through Allen Newell, Cliff
Shaw, and Herbert Simon’s, Logic Theorist.

The Logic Theorist was a program designed to mimic the problem solving skills of
a human and was funded by Research and Development (RAND) Corporation.

It’s considered by many to be the first artificial intelligence program and was
presented at the Dartmouth Summer Research Project on Artificial Intelligence
(DSRPAI) hosted by John McCarthy and Marvin Minsky in 1956.

In this historic conference, McCarthy, brought together top researchers from

various fields for an open ended discussion on artificial intelligence, the term
which he coined at the very event.
Roller Coaster of Success and Setbacks
In the ensuing decades, the field of AI went through ups and downs as some AI
research problems proved more difficult than anticipated and others proved
invincible with the technologies of the time.

It wasn’t until the late 1990s that research progress in AI began to accelerate, as
researchers focused more on sub-problems of AI and the application of AI to real-
world problems such as image recognition and medical diagnosis.

An early milestone was the 1997 victory of IBM’s chess-playing computer Deep
Blue over world champion Garry Kasparov.

Other significant breakthroughs included DARPA’s Cognitive Agent that Learns

and Organizes (CALO), which led to Apple Inc.’s Siri;
Current Wave
The current wave of progress and enthusiasm for AI began around 2010, driven
by three factors that built upon each other:

the availability of big data from sources including e-commerce, businesses, social
media, science, and government;

which provided raw material for dramatically improved machine learning

approaches and algorithms;

which in turn relied on the capabilities of more powerful computers.

During this period, the pace of improvement surprised AI experts.

For example, on a popular image recognition challenge that has a 5 percent