Geology & Minerals 2024 New

Sub : CE – 3003 (Geology)
DUET
CE-3003
GEOLOGY & GEOMORPHOLOGY
NOTE NO – 01
INTRODUCTION OF GEOLOGY & MINERAL
PREPARED BY:
Dr. Md. Mokhlesur Rahman

Professor
Civil Engineering Department
Dhaka University of Engineering & Technology (DUET), Gazipur.
Prof. Dr. Md. Mokhlesur Rahman (CE), DUET, Gazipur Page No. 1
Definition of geology
As known as 'geoscience' or 'Earth science', geology is the study of the structure, evolution
and dynamics of the Earth and its natural mineral and energy resources. Geology
investigates the processes that have shaped the Earth through its 4500 million (approximate!)
Geologists study the materials, processes, products, physical nature, and history of the
Earth. Geomorphologists study Earth's landforms and landscapes in relation to the geologic
and climatic processes and human activities, which form them.
There are three major subdivisions of geology, physical geology, historical geology, and
environmental geology
 Physical geology covers the nature and properties of materials composing
the earth.
 Historical geology is the record of the life, past history, evolution of the
earth.
 Environmental geology is the record of the environmental changes of nature and
properties of materials, also life, past history, evolution of the earth.
Engineering geology:
Also known as Civil Engineer, Engineering geology deals with the study of the structure
of the earth in relation to the civil engineering for the execution of safe and cost-
effective design for construction projects.
Every civil engineering works involve earth and its features. Geological information are
necessary in every stage of the project be it planning, designing or construction phase
of the project.
The importance of geology in civil engineering may be briefly outlined as follows:
1. i. Geology provides a systematic study of the structure and properties of

construction materials and their occurrence. The civil engineers need to know the
properties of rocks accurately to enable them to consider different rocks for any
required purpose that is as a foundation rock, as road metal, as concrete aggregate, as
building stones, as the roofing material for decorative purpose.
2. ii. The selection of a site is important from the viewpoint of stability of foundation
and availability of construction materials. Geology provides knowledge about the site
used in the construction of buildings, dams, tunnels, tanks, reservoirs, highways and
bridges.
3. Iii. Geology helps to identify area susceptible to failures due to geological hazards
such as earthquake, landslides, weathering effects, etc.
4. iv. ‘The knowledge about the nature of the rocks is very necessary for tunnelling,
constructing roads and in determining the stability of cuts and slopes.
5. v. The foundation problems of dams, bridges and buildings are directly related to
the geology of the area where they are to be built.
6. vi. The knowledge of groundwater is necessary for connection with excavation
works, water supply, irrigation and many other purposes. Hydrological maps provide
information about the distribution of surface water channels and the groundwater
depth.
7. Vii. Geological maps help in planning civil engineering projects. It provides
information about the structural deposition of rock types in the proposed area.
8. Viii. Geology helps in determining the earthquake-prone areas. If any geological
features like faults, folds, etc. are found, they have to be suitably treated to increase the
stability of the structure.
9. ix. The knowledge of erosion, transportation and deposition (ETD) by surface
water helps soil conservation, river control, coastal and harbour works.
x. A geological survey of a site before starting a project will reduce the overall cost.
These are the reasons; civil engineering students are taught geology in their curriculum. It
illustrates the importance of geology in civil engineering.
Mineral and Identification of the mineral:

A mineral is a naturally occurring inorganic element or compound having an orderly
internal structure and characteristic chemical composition, crystal form, and physical
properties. Common minerals include quartz, feldspar, mica, amphibole, olivine, and calcite.
Minerals:
 Minerals are naturally occurrence substances having a characteristic of
internal structure and of more or less define chemical composition and
displaying more or less definite physical properties.
 More than 2000 minerals are known.
 Examples are diamond for one element, mineral halite for two element,
mineral pyrite sometimes known as “fools gold” etc.
Composition of mineral:
 Every mineral is composed of elements in definite or slightly varying
proportions:
 Elements:
Name and symbol Volume (%)
Oxygen (O) 93.77
Potassium (K) 1.83
Sodium (Na) 1.32
Calcium (Ca) 1.03
Silicon (Si) 0.86
Aluminum (Al) 0.47
Iron (Fe) 0.43
Magnesium (Mg) 0.49
100.00%
 An occasional replacement by other elements whose atoms are of similar
size need not create a new mineral.
Identification of the minerals or properties of minerals:

 All the minerals are identified by the composition and internal atomic
structure.
 All the minerals are identified by examine their chemical and physical
properties.
 These are as follows:
1. Crystal form.
2. Hardness.
3. Specific gravity.
4. Cleavage.
5. Color.
6. Streak.
7. Striation.
8. Fracture.
9. Magnetism.
10.Luster.
11.Solubility and
12.Ductility.
*** First six are the important properties and rests are less important.
Important properties of minerals

1. Crystal form:
 When a mineral grows without interference or obstacle, it will be bounded
by plane surfaces symmetrically arranged and will acquire a characteristic
crystal form, which is the external expression of its internal crystalline
structure.
 Some crystal form are :
a) Quartz crystals => Six sided prism.
b) Diamond crystals.
c) Graphite crystals. (b) and (c) are eight sided solid called octahedron.
d) Pyrite crystals => A cube.
e) Compound crystals => Several different crystal forms =>The structure
of NaCl.
2. Hardness:
Moh’s Principle for Hardness of Mineral:

 Hardness is another physical property governed by the internal atomic
arrangement of the minerals elements.
 The degree of hardness is determined by the relative case or difficulty with
which one mineral is scratched by another or by a finger nail or knife. It may
be called the minerals “Scratchability”.
 Diamond, the hardest mineral known, cannot be scratched by any other
mineral or substance.
 The stronger the binding forces between the atoms, the harder the mineral.
 Moh’s scale of Hardness (H) range from 1 through 10.
 Moh’s scale has linearity from 1 to 9, but above 9 it has no linearity. Here,
10 is equivalent to 40 because 10 is indicated 40 times hardness.
According to Moh’s scale the hardness (H) is measured:

Range Scratchability
H<2.5 will have mark on paper; can be scratched by finger nail.

(a) Tale -1 (b) Gypsum-2
2.5<H<3 cannot be scratched by finger nail; can be scratched by penny.

(c) Calcite-3.
3<H<5.5 cannot be scratched by penny, can be scratched by knife.

(d) Flourite-4 (e) Apatite-5.
5.5<H<7 cannot be scratched by knife but can be scratched by quartz.

(f) Orthoclase-6 (g) Quartz-7.
7<H<10 cannot be scratched by quartz.

(h) Topaz-8 (i) Corundum-9 (j) Diamond-10.
3. Specific gravity:
 The ratio of mass of certain volume of mineral to the mass of water of same
volume is known as specific gravity of mineral.
 The specific gravity of a mineral increases roughly with the mass of its
constituent elements and with the closeness with which these elements are
packed together in their crystalline structure.
 Most rock forming minerals have a specific gravity of around 2.7.
 Although the average sp. Gravity of metallic minerals is 5.
 Pure gold has the highest sp. Gravity of 19.3.
4. Cleavage:
 Cleavage is the tendency of a mineral to break in certain preferred direction

along smooth plane surface.
 Cleavage planes are governed by the internal arrangement of the atom.
 Cleavage is a direction of weakness.
 This weakness may be due to a weaker type of atomic bond.
 Graphite has platy cleavage because of relatively weak bonds between the
carbon layers.
 Quartz has the cleavage in all direction.
5. Color:
 Color is not very reliable property in identifying most minerals.

 It is used in making certain general distinction.
 The different minerals have different color.
 For example, mineral that contain iron are usually dark colored.
 In geologic uses “dark” includes dark gray , dark green and black.
 Mineral that contain, aluminum as a principal element are usually light
colored, a term that includes purples, deep red and some browns.
6. Streak:
 The streak of a mineral is the color, it displays in finely powered form.

 The streak may be different from the color of the hand specimen.
 Although the color of a mineral may vary between wide limits, the streak is
usually constant.
 One of the simplest ways of determining the streak of a mineral is to rub a
specimen across a piece of unglazed porcelain known as a streak plate.
 The color of the powder left behind on the streak plate helps to identify
some minerals.
 Because the streak plate has a hardness of 7,it cannot be used to identify
minerals with greater hardness.
 For example, specimen of the Hematite (Fe2O3) may brown, green or black
in colors but they always have a distinctive red brown streak.
Less Important properties of minerals

Striation:
 A few common minerals have parallel threadlike lines or narrow bonds,
called striation.
Fracture:
 The fracture of is the way of the minerals break.
 It has no definite direction, rough surface produced during breaking.
 It is useful rather than cleavage.
Magnetism:
 It is the property of mineral by which attract other iron or steel metal like
magnet.
Luster:
 It is the property of mineral by which shining light. Bring lights are given
some of mineral.
Solubility:
 It is the property of minerals by which dissolve in solvent like water, alcohol
etc.
Ductility:
 It is the metallic property of minerals having a relatively large tensile strain
up to the point of rupture.
Common Rock Forming Minerals
The most common minerals:
 Most rock forming minerals or minerals found most abundantly in the rock
of the crust have variable composition caused by ionic substitution of some
element for other elements.
 Most minerals are found in following forms: A. silicates mineral, (B) Oxide
minerals, (C) Sulfide minerals, (D) Carbonate and sulfate minerals, (E)
Halides
 The most common minerals are found in following forms: A. silicates
mineral=>
1) olivine mineral, 2) Augite mineral, 3) Hornblende mineral, 4) Biotite
mineral, 5) Muscovite mineral, 6) Feldspars mineral and 7) Quartz mineral.
Silicate mineral:
More than 90% of the rock forming minerals are silicates compounds containing
silicon, oxygen and more metals.
Si++4O-=(SiO4)-4
Each silicate mineral has silicon-oxygen tetrahedron is called fundamental unit as
shown in figure as follow:
Silicate minerals are two types their distinction is given below:
Ferro magnesium’s Non Ferro magnesium’s

1) Olivine, Augite, Hornblende and Muscovite, Feldspar and Quartz do not
Biotite in these four minerals, the contain magnesium or iron, so these
silicon-oxygen tetrahedron are silicate minerals are known as non-Ferro
joined by ions of iron or magnesium’s.
magnesium or by both of them, so
these silicate minerals are known
as Ferro magnesium.
2) Feldspar group are not Ferro Though according to definition all the
magnesium. other material except Fe & Mg contain
but usually the metals are Na, K, Ca, Al,
and this group is known as Feldspar.
3) Al is not common here. Here Al is common, because its atomic
radius is such that it can always
ingredient in the non-ferrous crystal.
Silicates minerals classification with respect to arrangement and component

ratio of fundamental unit:
Arrangement of Si/O ratio Rock forming minerals

SiO4 tetrahedra i.e. Si : O
1. Isolated 1:4 Olivine.
2. Rings 1:3 Beryl (beryllium aluminosilicate).
3. Single chains 1:3 Augite (Pyroxene family).
4. Double chains 4 : 11 Hornblende (amphibole family).
5. Sheets 2:5 Biotite (Black mica)
Muscovite (White mica).
6. Frameworks 3:8 Orthoclase (Potassium feldspar).
3:8 Plagioclase (calcium-sodium feldspar).
1: 2 Quartz.
Physical properties of various types of silicates mineral:
Olivine:
 It is the ferromagnesium silicate minerals.
 It has isolated SiO4-.
 There is no plane of weakness and the elements are so firmly held together
with ionic bond. Olivine exist no cleavage. It is relatively hard material.
 It is a mineral that undergoes composition may be changed. Its formula (Mg,
Fe)SiO4. Fe and Mg substitute each other freely.
 Property-
Color-greenish to green, sometimes brown.
Hardness-relatively hard mineral, usually hardness is 6.5 to 7.0.
Specific gravity (sp.gr.)-3.27 to 4.37 are shown on graph-.1
Fig: Graph-.1
Augite:
 It has crystalline structure based on single chains of tetrahedral as shown in

figure.
 It is joined by ions of iron , magnesium, calcium, sodium and aluminum.
It is dark green to black, with a colorless streak.
 Its hardness is 5 to 6.
 Its sp. Gravity range from 3.2 to 3.4.
 It has rather poor cleavage along two planes almost at right angles to each
other.
 The cleavage results from the contrast between the stronger covalent
bonding between adjacent chains and the intervening cations.
 Its family name pyroxenes.
Hornblende:
 It has a crystalline structure based on doubles chain of tetrahedral as shown

in figure.
 It is joined by iron and magnesium ions common to all ferro-magnesium’s
and by ions of calcium, sodium and aluminum.
 Hornblende’s color is dark green to black, its streak is colorless.
 Two direction cleavage meet at angles of approximately 56o to 124o,
which helps distinguish hornblende from augite.
 Its family name amphiboles.
Biotite:
 It is Ferro-magnesium silicate minerals, also called black mica.

 Its formula is K[Mg.Fe]3[AlSi3O10(OH)2].
 Its crystalline structure is based on silicon oxygen tetrahedron in sheets as
shown in figure.
 Each silicon ions shares three oxygen ions with adjacent silicon ions to form
a pattern like wire netting. The fourth, unshared oxygen ion of each
tetrahedron stands above the plane of all the others. The basic structural unit
of mica consists of two of these sheets of tetrahedral with their flat surfaces
facing outward and their inner surfaces held together by + ve ions. In biotite
the ions are magnesium and iron. These basic double sheets of mica, in turn,
are loosely joined together by + ve ions of potassium.
 It is usually dark green to brown to black.
 Its hardness is 2.5 to 3.
 Its specific gravity is 2.8 to 3.2.
Muscovite:
 It is named according to a getting place “Moscow”.

 It is a non Ferro magnesium silicate also called white mica.
 Its formula is KAl2[AlSi3O10(OH)2].
 It has same basic crystalline structure as biotite but in muscovite the
tetrahedron sheets are held together by Al+++.
 The double sheets are held together by a loosely bond by ion of K (K+) along
where cleavage take place.
 Properties-
Color-light yellow, brown, green, red.
Hardness-2 to 2.5.
Sp.gr.-2.8 to 3.1.
Feldspar:
 They are non-ferrous magnesium, silicate of Al with Na, K, Ca.
 Its formula of Anorthite, orthoclase, albite are Ca[Al2Si2O8], K[AlSi3O8],
Na[AlSi3O8] respectively.
 It show a good cleavage in two direction at right angle with each other.
 In feldspar all oxygen ion in the tetrahedron are shared by joining silicon ion
in three dimensional network.
 Property-
Color-Commonly white, gray.
Hardness-About 6.
Sp.gr.-2.55 to 2.76.
Comparison of formula, hardness, sp. gravity, color of various types of silicate minerals.
Name of the Hardness Sp. Color
minerals/Formula Gravity
Ferro magnesium
Olivine 6.5 to 7 3.27 to Greenish to green,
(Mg/Fe)2SiO4 4.37 sometimes brown.
Augtite, Single chain of 5 to 6 3.2 to 3.4 Dark green to black.
-4
(SiO4)
Hornblende, double chain 5 to 6 3.2 Dark green to black.
-4
of (SiO4)
Biotite 2.5 to 3 2.8 to 3.2 Dark green or brown to
K[Mg.Fe]3[AlSi3O10(OH)2]. black.
Non-ferro Magnesium
Muscovite 2 to 2.5 2.8 to 3.1 Light yellow, brown,
KAl2[AlSi3O10(OH)2]. green,red.
Feldspar
AnorthiteCa[Al2Si2O8], 6 2.76 Colorless, white, blue-gray
Orthoclase K[AlSi3O8], 6 2.76 or black.
Albite Na[AlSi3O8] 6 2.62 White, gray or pinkish.
Colorless, white, blue-gray
or black.
Quartz,SiO2 7 2.56 Purple or violet, rose red
or pink rose, smoky yellow
to brown.
(B) Oxide minerals:

 Oxide minerals are formed by the direct union of an element with oxygen.
 These have relatively simple formulas compared to the complicated silicates.
 The oxide minerals are usually harder than any other class except the
silicates.
 They are heavier than any other except sulfides.
 Common oxide minerals are ice (H2O), corundum (Al2O3),hematite (Fe2O3) ,
magnetite (Fe3O4) and cassiferite (SnO2).
(C) Sulfide minerals:

 Sulfide minerals are formed by direct union of an metal element with sulfur.
 The metal elements that occur most commonly in combination with sulfur
are iron, copper, lead, zinc and mercury.
 Some of these sulfide minerals occur as valuable ores such as pyrite (FeS2),
chalcocite (Cu2S), galena (PbS) and sphalerite, ZnS.

(D) Carbonate and sulfate minerals:

 Carbonate minerals are builds around the complex ion (CO3)-2and as for
example calcium carbonate (CaCO3).
 Sulfate minerals are builds around the complex ion (SO4)-2and as for
example calcium sulfates (CaSO4), the minerals anhydrite and its hydrous
form CaSO4.nH2O, the minerals gypsum.
(E) Halides:
 Halides form from combination of positive ions with chlorine, iodine,
bromine and fluorine.
 So the common rock salt of halides forms are halite (NaCl), sylvyte (KCl)
etc.
Mineraloids:
Mineraloids:
 Some substances do not yield definite chemical formulas upon analysis and
show no sign of crystallinity. There are said to be amorphous (shapeless) and
have been called mineraloids.
 A mineral may exist in a crystalline phase with a definite composition and
crystalline structure or under certain conditions of formation practically the
same substance may occur as a mineraloid.
 Mineraloids are formed under conditions of low pressure and temperature
and are commonly substances originating during the process of weathering
of the materials of the earth’s crush with similar shaped masses.
 Their ability to absorb other substances accounts for their wide variations in
chemical composition.
 Bauxite, limonite and opal are example of mineraloids.
Organization of minerals:
Organization of mineral has in naturally occurring combination of elements or

compounds in all solid state, each with diagnostic composition and unique
crystalline structure as well as certain common physical properties.
Association of minerals:
Association of minerals commonly occurs in specific geologic settings and reflect

the condition of temperature, pressure or chemical environment at the time of their
origin or when recombined into new minerals.
Mineral structure:
 Mineral structure is the internal orderly arrangement of atoms, which is

unique for each mineral.
 Compounds are combinations of atoms of different elements of organic
compound are those in which the carbon atom plays a large role that is those
mostly formed by life processes.
 The methods by which the atoms are bounded are:
(a) Ionic bond (b) Covalent bond and (c) Metallic bond.
(a) Ionic bond:

 Ionic compound mineral occurs when electrons are lost or added to atoms.
 When electrons are lost or added to form ions, electrical force between the
nucleus and the electrons are thrown at of balance.
 Example: Na+ + Cl- =NaCl
(b)Covalent bond:
 Covalent bonding results from sharing electrons rather than from gaining or
losing them.
 Example:
(c) Metallic bond:

 Metallic bonds are response for metals being such good conductors of heat
and electricity.
 Their outermost electrons are not shared or exchanged but are free to move
around
New Mineral Policy, 2015 and its objectives:
The New Mineral Policy, 2015 is a futuristic policy endeavoring propagation of

sustainable mineral extraction regime aiming zero waste by adopting systematic
and scientific mining with due safety, productivity, conservation, cost-
effectiveness and adhering to the threshold parameters of environment, social
commitments, health and welfare of people employed therein, utilizing the mineral
resources after value addition to augment the financial resources of the State. The
objectives of the policy are:
 To infuse greater transparency and enhance efficiency in grant of mineral

concessions by simplifying the procedure and adopting e-governance;
 To provide conducive framework of procedural, regulatory, fiscal and legal
aspects in the investment regime;
 To enhance exploration of mineral wealth of the State with the help of in-
house facilities available and outsourcing other modern techniques through
private participation;
 To gear-up oil and gas exploration and its related production activities in the
State, step up value addition in hydrocarbon sector;
 To develop scientific mining techniques with due regard to safety,
productivity, conservation, cost-effectiveness, environmental and social
sustainability;
 To encourage investors (present and potential) for establishing mineral based
industries in the State by creating a favorable and transparent environment;
 To promote research and development in association with private
companies;
 To develop human resource and fulfillment of social responsibility
 To develop, enhance and maintain viable infrastructure;
 To boost employment opportunities;
 To curb illegal mining effectively;
 To enhance efficiency of the Departmental officials by conducting trainings
and seminars.
Question on Introduction of Geology & Minerals
1. What is geology? Why do you learn it?
2. Define geology. What are the advantages of geology study?

3. What is mineral? What are the amount of compositions for minerals?
4. What is mineral? Mention the identifying properties of mineral and discuss in
details. (DUET-2012).
5. What is fundamental unit of silicate minerals? Classify the silicate minerals
with respect to arrangement and component ratio. (DUET-2012).
6. What is Moh’s scale? Explain its characteristics.
7. What is hardness of minerals? How will it be determined? Explain by
examples. (DUET-2012).
8. What is cleavage? What are the difference between the cleavage and fracture
of of the minerals?
9. What are the difference between the non-ferromagnesium’s and
ferromagnesium’s group of minerals?
10. Discuss the difference between streak and color of minerals with examples.
(DUET-2012).
11. Who are the members of feldspar group? Mention the physical properties of
such minerals. (DUET-2012).
12. Write short notes on the following most common rock forming minerals:
(i) Augite, (ii) Olivine and (iii) Feldspar. (DUET-2012).
13. Write short notes on the following most common rock forming minerals:
(i) Biotite, (ii) Mascovite and (iii) Hornblende. (DUET-2012).
14. Give the comparison of formula, hardness, specific gravity, color of various
types of silicate minerals.
15. Show and explain the major classification of common rock forming minerals.
(DUET-2012).
16. What are differences between association of minerals and organigation of
minerals? (DUET-2012).
17. Explain the moneraloids with examples. (DUET-2012).
18. Define the mineral structure. Explain the various structures of mineral.

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Sub : CE – 3003 (Geology)

Dr. Md. Mokhlesur Rahman

The importance of geology in civil engineering may be briefly outlined as follows:

1. i. Geology provides a systematic study of the structure and properties of

Mineral and Identification of the mineral:

Identification of the minerals or properties of minerals:

Important properties of minerals

Moh’s Principle for Hardness of Mineral:

According to Moh’s scale the hardness (H) is measured:

H<2.5 will have mark on paper; can be scratched by finger nail.

2.5<H<3 cannot be scratched by finger nail; can be scratched by penny.

3<H<5.5 cannot be scratched by penny, can be scratched by knife.

5.5<H<7 cannot be scratched by knife but can be scratched by quartz.

7<H<10 cannot be scratched by quartz.

 Cleavage is the tendency of a mineral to break in certain preferred direction

 Color is not very reliable property in identifying most minerals.

 The streak of a mineral is the color, it displays in finely powered form.

Less Important properties of minerals

Common Rock Forming Minerals

The most common minerals:

Silicate minerals are two types their distinction is given below:

Ferro magnesium’s Non Ferro magnesium’s

Silicates minerals classification with respect to arrangement and component

Arrangement of Si/O ratio Rock forming minerals

Physical properties of various types of silicates mineral:

 It has crystalline structure based on single chains of tetrahedral as shown in

 It has a crystalline structure based on doubles chain of tetrahedral as shown

 It is Ferro-magnesium silicate minerals, also called black mica.

 It is named according to a getting place “Moscow”.

(B) Oxide minerals:

(C) Sulfide minerals:

(D) Carbonate and sulfate minerals:

Organization of mineral has in naturally occurring combination of elements or

Association of minerals commonly occurs in specific geologic settings and reflect

 Mineral structure is the internal orderly arrangement of atoms, which is

(a) Ionic bond:

(c) Metallic bond:

New Mineral Policy, 2015 and its objectives:

The New Mineral Policy, 2015 is a futuristic policy endeavoring propagation of

 To infuse greater transparency and enhance efficiency in grant of mineral

Question on Introduction of Geology & Minerals

1. What is geology? Why do you learn it?

2. Define geology. What are the advantages of geology study?

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Geology & Minerals 2024 New

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