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Journal of Food Process Engineering ISSN 1745-4530

DE-OILING AND PRETREATMENT FOR HIGH-QUALITY

POTATO CHIPS jfpe_686 1..9

TAEHOON KIM and ROSANA G. MOREIRA1

Department of Biological and Agricultural Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843-2117

1
Corresponding author. ABSTRACT
TEL: (979) 847-8794;
FAX: (979) 845-3932; A de-oiling step using a centrifuge ensures oil content reduction and improves the
EMAIL: rmoreira@tamu.edu quality of fried snacks. A commercial deep-fat fryer was used to fry potato slices,
untreated, blanched in hot water (85C/3.5 min) and rinsed in 3% NaCl solution
Accepted for Publication May 3, 2012
(25C/5 min). A de-oiling step (350 ⫾ 1 and 457 ⫾ 1 rpm) for 1 min was performed
doi:10.1111/j.1745-4530.2012.00686.x
after the frying (145, 165 and 185C) and cooling (0, 15, 30, 45, 60 and 120 s) steps.
Higher frying temperature, high-centrifuge speed and short cooling time yielded
potato chips with low oil uptake. In general, the blanching and soaking pretreat-
ments decreased oil absorption compared with the untreated chips. Neither the
frying temperature nor the pretreatments had a significant effect (P > 0.05) over
the final texture of the potato chips. However, de-oiling led to increased hardness of
the chips fried at 145 and 165C for 0 s cooling time, and the hardness decreased as
cooling time increased. Potato chips had lower lightness and redness color value
when fried at 145C, and higher values when fried at 185C; yellowness (b* values)
increased with increasing temperature. In general, pretreated samples were lighter
(paler) than the untreated controls. A consumer test indicated that blanching and
de-oiling without cooling enhanced the texture and overall quality of the chip;
soaking and de-oiling improved the color, flavor and the overall quality; and the two
pretreatments did not significantly influence the odor of the chip.

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
Fried snacks are a popular item in the American diet. These results are useful for an
effective process design for high-quality potato chips.

absorption by 14 or 27%, respectively, compared with the

INTRODUCTION
Oil content in fried foods has been related to prefrying treat-
ment (Gamble et al. 1987a,b; Moreira et al. 1999), initial
moisture content (Gamble et al. 1987a,b; Moreira et al. 1995)
and structural changes during frying (Lee 1991; Rock-Dudley
1993). In the commercial production of French fries, blanch-
ing is a pretreatment used to control the color, the texture and
the flavor of the final product (Anderson et al. 1994; Agnlor
and Scanlon 2000). Blanching may also reduce oil adsorption
(Smith 1977) by gelatinization of the surface starch in French
fries (Califano and Calvelo 1987). Rimac-Brnčić et al. (2004)
found that blanching (85C, 6 min) potato strips in solutions
of citric acid (1%) or calcium chloride (0.5%) reduced the oil
blanched only samples.
Soaking potato strips in NaCl solution decreased oil uptake
and increased hardness of French fries, without changing
color, moisture content and sensory acceptability (Bunger
et al. 2003). Longer soaking time and higher NaCl concentra-
tions improved the texture. Potato slices become darker after
frying compared with the water-soaked slices (Santis et al.
2007).
Lamberg et al.(1990) showed that by blanching French fries
in combination with hot air-drying (80C, 2% relative humid-
ity [RH], 15 min) produced lower oil content fried products
compared with those that were only blanched. Moyano and
Pedreschi (2006) found that predrying of blanched potato

Journal of Food Process Engineering •• (2012) ••–•• © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. 1
DE-OILING AND FRYING
slices generates an external crust during frying that increase
resistance to oil absorption reducing oil uptake.
The effect of predrying treatments on the oil uptake in
potato chips during frying was studied by Gamble and Rice
(1987). Microwave and hot air pretreatment caused a reduc-
tion in the final oil content; but freeze-drying increased the oil
content of the fried products.
Osmotic dehydration is another pretreatment alternative
by immersion of potatoes in sugar solutions to reduce the
final oil content after frying. Krokida et al. (2001) found that
treating potato slices with sucrose solution (40% w/w at 40C
for 3 h) resulted on 60% oil reduction compared with the
samples dehydrated with NaCl (20% w/w) or maltodextrine
solutions (20% w/w).
Baking prior to frying is a procedure used to make tortilla
chips (Moreira et al. 1999). Baking reduces the initial mois-
ture content in the chips, thus, decreasing the oil content
absorption during frying.
Oil absorption mechanism in fried products is a complex
process. According to Moreira et al. (1997), oil absorption is
a surface phenomenon that happens as the product is
removed from the fryer (cooling time) because of tempera-
ture difference between the product and ambient tempera-
tures. The change in temperature causes an increase in
capillary pressure in the product pores, which causes the oil
to flow into the open pore spaces. In fact, during the first
seconds of cooling, the internal oil content increases at a fast
rate in the product and then slowly rises to the final value.
Thus, by being able to control the cooling effect by remov-
ing the surface oil, we may reduce the final oil content from
potato chips.
Centrifuges are generally used in vacuum fryers as a
de-oiling mechanism after the frying process, before depres-
surization of the vacuum vessel. Vacuum frying is generally
operated at pressures below 50 torr so that the product can be
fried at much lower temperatures (<100C) than atmospheric
fryers and still produce high-quality products (crispy, low-oil
and colorful). According to Da Silva et al. (2009), de-oiling is
one of the most important unit operation steps in vacuum
deep-fat frying to ensure best quality products. Pandey and
Moreira (2011) showed that the de-oiling system in a lab-
vacuum fryer removed up to 81% of the potato chip’s surface
oil when centrifuged for 40 s at 750 rpm (84% at 300 rpm).
Short frying time and/or longer centrifuging time combina-
tions maximized oil removal from the chip’s surface during
the process.
The major goal of this study was to evaluate the effect of
de-oiling process in an atmospheric fryer using a centrifuge
force with varying frying temperatures and cooling times,
and two pretreatments (blanching and NaCl soaking) on the
quality of potato chips. The ultimate objective was to develop
a process that yields potato chips with reduced oil content and
improved product quality attributes (texture and color).
2 Journal of Food Process Engineering •• (2012) ••–•• © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
T. KIM and R.G. MOREIRA
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Potato Preparation
Potatoes (Solanum tuberosum) were received from a potato
processing company and stored at 10C and 90% RH. Before
frying, the potatoes were reconditioned at room temperature
(~23C) for 3–4 days to lower the reducing sugars content
before processing. The initial moisture content of the raw
potato was determined by weight loss after drying 5 g of
chopped samples for 72 h at 105C (AACC 1986 – Method
44-15.02). The experiments were done at least in tripli-
cate. The average moisture content of the potatoes was
73.72 + 0.62% w.b. The specific gravity was 1.084 ⫾ 0.001
following the procedure by Gould (1995).
Pretreatments
The effect of the three pretreatments on improving the frying
process was evaluated in this study:
(1) Control: The potatoes were peeled and sliced (1.5 mm
average thickness) using a Mandolin slicer (Matfer model
2000, Van Nuys, CA), and then cut to a diameter of 5.1 cm
using a cylindrical metal cutter. The potato slices were rinsed
in distilled water to prevent color changes due to the Maillard
reaction in the chips during frying. The potato chips were
then blotted with paper towels and wrapped in aluminum foil
to avoid any moisture loss before further treatments;
(2) Blanching in water at 85C for 3.5 min: The rinsed slices
were blanched in 5 L of water at 85C for 3.5 min (potato-to-
water ratio ~0.005 w/w). The samples were then blotted with
paper towels before frying;
(3) Soaking in 3% NaCl solution at 25C for 5 min: The rinsed
slices were soaked in 3% NaCl solution at 25C for 5 min. The
ratio of NaCl solution to potato slices was 10:1 (w/w). At this
condition, no noticeable changes were observed in the taste of
potato chips (data not shown). The samples were then blotted
with paper towels before frying.
Frying Process
A commercial deep-fat fryer (George Foreman Spin Fryer –
GSF026B, George Foreman’s, Columbia, MO) was used in
this study. The fryer has a capacity of 2.6 L of oil and it has a
centrifuge system that consists of a basket, which rotates at
two different speeds. The radius of the basket is 8.57 cm and
the length is 7.62 cm. A tachometer (laser photo/contact
tachometer with infrared thermometer – model Extech
Instruments Corporation, Nashua, NH) was used to deter-
mine the rotational speed of the centrifuge. The basket can
rotate at two speeds (loaded with potatoes and sample
holder), 350 ⫾ 1 and 457 ⫾ 1 rpm. The relative centrifugal
T. KIM and R.G. MOREIRA
force (RCF), commonly referred to as “g-force” or “times g”
values, were 8.1 and 13.8 for 350 and 457 rpm, respectively.
Once the temperature of frying oil (canola) reached the
target value, the samples were placed inside a double-layer
Teflon mesh (25 cm diameter by 15 cm depth) inside the
frying basket and then immersed in hot oil. About six slices of
potatoes (~20 g) were fried each time. The samples were fried
at 145, 165 and 185C for 300, 210, and 150 s, respectively,
which resulted in a final moisture content around 2% (w.b.)
(AACC 1986). The effect of cooling time (0, 60 and 120 s) and
centrifuge speed (8.1 and 13.8 RCF) on the final oil content of
the chips were evaluated at each frying oil temperature.
Some samples were also fried at 165C for 210 s to deter-
mine the effect of the pretreatments on the fried product
quality. After the de-oiling process, potato chips were allowed
to cool down for 2 min at room temperature and the oil on
the chips’ surface was removed by blotting with paper towels.
The samples were then enclosed in Zip-lock (SC Johnson,
Racine, WI) plastic bags and placed in a desiccator for further
analysis.
De-oiling Setup
After frying, the chips, which were lifted out from the oil but
still remained inside the fryer, were de-oiled by a centrifuging
process (8.1 and 13.8 RCF) for 60 s after cooling the product
for 0, 15, 30, 45, 60 and 120 s in the fryer.
Analytical Methods
Moisture Content of Potato Chips. Potato chips were
ground and the moisture content was determined by weight
loss after drying 5g of ground chips for 24 h at 105C (AACC
1986). Otherwise mentioned, all the experiments and test in
this study were done at least in triplicate.
Oil Content. Total oil content of potato chips was mea-
sured using a Soxtec System HT (Pertorp, Inc., Silver Spring,
MD) extraction unit with petroleum ether (AACC 1986) by
measuring the weight differences.
Product Characteristics in Frying
Color. The color of the potato chips was measured using a
HunterLab Colorimeter LabScan XE (Hunter Associates
Laboratory, Reston, VA). The colorimeter records and inter-
prets readings in L-a-b Hunter scale using the Universal Soft-
ware. L*a*b* scale is the standard scale to indicate color
readings. L and L* values exhibit lightness with a range of zero
for black to 100 for white as the human eyes recognize the
intensity of light. The a and a* values describe red–green
Journal of Food Process Engineering •• (2012) ••–•• © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
DE-OILING AND FRYING
chromaticity and b and b* measures yellow–blue chromatic-
ity of the sample. A white calibration plate was used to stan-
dardize the colorimeter, and the samples were placed against
the same background to measure the color value in a glass
plate. Fifteen samples were taken to measure color by rotating
the chip with a 180° angle.
Texture. A rupture test was performed on using a TA-XT2
Texture Analyzer (Texture Technologies Corporation, Scars-
dale, NY). The test was conducted by applying a direct force
using a 6.32-mm ball probe to a sample 9 chip) placed at the
base of an 18-mm hollow cylinder. The instrument setting
was maintained with 10 mm/s of test speed, 5.0 mm of
rupture test, 0.67 N of force and 10 points/s in resolution. The
peak force value of each sample through the rupture test was
recorded to measure hardness and work, defined as the force
(N) at maximum compression and area under the curve
before rupture, respectively. Fifteen samples were taken for
the experiment. Tests were conducted at room temperature.
Sensory Analysis. Sensory evaluation of potato chips was
done with a 30-member consumer panel (randomly selected
faculty, students and staff) at Texas A&M University. The
quality attributes evaluated were color, odor, texture, flavor
and overall quality. Panelists scored the samples using a nine-
hedonic scale (Meilgaard et al. 1999), where a score of 1 rep-
resented attributes most disliked and a score of 9 represented
attributes most liked. Scores higher or equal to 5 were consid-
ered acceptable. Five different kinds of potato chips, both pre-
treated before frying and de-oiled by a centrifuge process (8.1
and 13.8 RCF) for 60 s after cooling down for 0, 30 and 60 s
were evaluated by the panelists. Pretreatment methods were
classified as nonpretreatment, blanching in hot water (85C/
3.5 min) and soaking in 3% NaCl solution (25C/5 min). The
samples in capped-glass-labeled containers were served to
each panelist at once. The containers were coded with a
random three-digit number to identify the sample.
Statistical Analysis
Data analysis was performed using SPSS software for
Windows, v. 11.5.1 (SPSS 2002). The effect of frying tempera-
ture, cooling time and centrifuge speed were evaluated.
Differences between variables were tested for significance by
one-way analysis of variance. Significantly, different means
(P ⱕ 0.05) were separated by the Tukey’s test.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Oil Absorption in Potato Chips
Table 1 presents the oil content in potato slices fried at differ-
ent conditions (frying temperatures, centrifuge speeds and
3
DE-OILING AND FRYING T. KIM and R.G. MOREIRA

TABLE 1. EFFECT OF FRYING OIL TEMPERATURE, CENTRIFUGE SPEED these gradients are, the higher the capillary pressures will be
AND COOLING TIME ON THE OIL CONTENT OF POTATO CHIPS in the product pores, resulting in a faster oil transfer rate into
PROCESSED WITHOUT PRETREATMENT
the product structure.
Toil (C) CS (RCF) CT (s) IMC (g/g solid) FOC (g oil/g solid) The centrifuge step drives the surface oil out of the chips,
145 0 0 4.30 ⫾ 0.002 x 0.78 ⫾ 0.003a thus diminishing the transfer of oil from the surface of the
145 8.1 0 4.40 ⫾ 0.022 x0.21 ⫾ 0.003
b
chip into the inner parts of the product. A sharp decrease (65–
145 8.1 60 3.75 ⫾ 0.026 x0.40 ⫾ 0.010
c
77%) in oil absorption occurred when the chips were de-oiled
145 8.1 120 4.03 ⫾ 0.005 x0.71 ⫾ 0.016
d
using the centrifuge (0 s cooling time) (Table 1). As expected,
145 13.8 0 4.63 ⫾ 0.028 x0.21 ⫾ 0.001
b
increasing the centrifuge force usually decreased the final oil
145 13.8 60 3.59 ⫾ 0.005 x0.48 ⫾ 0.001
e

145 13.8 120 3.73 ⫾ 0.005 0.66 ⫾ 0.005 f content. As soon as the chips were removed from the oil, the
x

165 0 0 4.19 ⫾ 0.002 y0.83 ⫾ 0.005

a centrifuge force drove the surface oil out of the chips, result-
165 8.1 0 3.29 ⫾ 0.006 y0.26 ⫾ 0.005
b ing in less oil content for the chips de-oiled at 13.8 RCF than
165 8.1 60 3.84 ⫾ 0.005 y 0.49 ⫾ 0.004 c
those at 8.1 RCF.
165 8.1 120 4.09 ⫾ 0.006 x0.76 ⫾ 0.025
d
Pedreschi et al. (2005) noted that when potato chips were
165 13.8 0 2.94 ⫾ 0.002 x0.19 ⫾ 0.012
e
fried at higher frying temperature (180C), faster softening
165 13.8 60 3.15 ⫾ 0.001 y0.58 ⫾ 0.008
f
of the tissue and hardening of the crust occurred. The crust
165 13.8 120 4.70 ⫾ 0.007 y0.72 ⫾ 0.044
d

185 0 0 3.48 ⫾ 0.004 0.94 ⫾ 0.007 a microstructure development had a significant effect in oil
z

185 8.1 0 4.55 ⫾ 0.003 z0.33 ⫾ 0.034

b absorption. Most of the oil is limited to the surface of the fried
185 8.1 60 3.92 ⫾ 0.002 z0.88 ⫾ 0.002
c product while the core region is virtually oil-free (Aguilera
185 8.1 120 3.63 ⫾ 0.005 y0.80 ⫾ 0.002
d
and Gloria 1997; Moreira et al. 1997; Bouchon and Aguilera
185 13.8 0 3.83 ⫾ 0.003 z0.25 ⫾ 0.002
e
2001). Therefore, the potato chips fried at 185C (Table 1)
185 13.8 60 3.83 ⫾ 0.004 x0.48 ⫾ 0.006
f
formed a crust faster than those fried at 145 and 165C, so that
185 13.8 120 3.25 ⫾ 0.004 x0.56 ⫾ 0.005
g
most of the oil remained limited to the surface. When potato
Tests were performed in triplicate. chips were fried at 165 and 185C, and de-oiled at 8.1 RCF, the
a–g means between rows with different superscript letters are signifi- oil content increased in average by 14 and 34%, respectively,
cantly different (P < 0.05).
compared with those fried at 145C. However, for the chips
x–z means between rows with different subscript letters are significantly
de-oiled at 13.8 RCF, the oil content increased by only 11% (at
different (P < 0.05).
Toil, oil temperature; CS, centrifuge speed; CT, cooling time; IMC, initial 165C) and decreased for those fried at 185C. Therefore, the
moisture content; FMC, final moisture content; FOC, final oil content; greater the centrifuge force is, the lesser the oil on the surface
RCF, relative centrifugal force. of the chip.
In a previous study, Moreira et al. (1997) reported that the
internal oil content increased rapidly during the first 15 s of
cooling times). The subscript letters represent the effect of cooling then slowly thereafter in the frying of tortilla chips.
cooling time and centrifuge speed on the final oil content of The chips absorbed most of the 64% of oil content during the
potato chips for the same frying temperature. The superscript first 15 s of cooling. The rest of the surface oil migrated con-
letters represent the effect of frying temperature on the final tinuously after the initial 15 s of cooling time, and 36% of the
oil content of potato chips processed at the same centrifuge total oil content might remained on the surface of the chip.
speed and cooling time. Potato chips without de-oiling (non- Thus, the effect of cooling time on oil absorption was also
centrifuged and 0 s cooling time) were considered as controls. evaluated in this study (Table 1).
Oil uptake was significantly (P < 0.05) influenced by the In this study, the potato chips were cooled in the fryer with
centrifuge speed and cooling time. Oil content increased as the lid closed (with the chips off the oil). The chips in the fryer
the cooling time increased from 0 to 120 s for both centrifuge were cooled to around 125, 142 and 157C when fried at 145,
speeds. Higher centrifuge speed (13.8 RCF) and 0 s cooling 165, and 185C, respectively, before de-oiling. These tempera-
time resulted in the lowest oil uptake in potato chips (0.20– ture reductions may lead to a decrease in the pressure gradient
0.24 g-oil/g-solid), regardless of the oil temperature (Pandey in the pore spaces, thus, accelerating the oil-uptake rate from
and Moreira 2011). Frying at high temperature (185C) and the surface (Moreira et al. 1997). It was difficult to observe the
de-oiling at low centrifuge speed (8.1 RCF) for 60–120 s equivalent concept of the first 15 s cooling time in this study
cooling time, resulted in the highest oil uptake values (0.81– because the chips were cooled in the fryer so that the internal
0.88 g-oil/g-solid). oil content increased gradually.
The faster the product’s surface oil is removed, the lower When the chips were de-oiled without cooling (0 s cooling
the oil content in the final product (Moreira et al. 1997). time), the surface oil did not flow easily to the chips’ interior
Temperature gradients in the products start to develop as because there was not enough residence time to reduce the
soon as the product is removed from the fryer. The larger chips’ temperature and capillary pressure in the pores. As the

4 Journal of Food Process Engineering •• (2012) ••–•• © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
T. KIM and R.G. MOREIRA DE-OILING AND FRYING

TABLE 2. EFFECT OF CENTRIFUGE SPEED AND COOLING TIME ON THE FINAL OIL CONTENT OF POTATO CHIPS PRETREATED AT DIFFERENT
CONDITIONS AND FRIED AT 165C

No pretreated Blanching Soaking

CS (RCF) CT (s) IMC (gw/gs) FOC (go/gs) IMC (gw/gs) FOC (go/gs) IMC (gw/gs) FOC (go/gs)
0 0 4.47 ⫾ 0.001 1.33 ⫾ 0.001 a
4.48 ⫾ 0.002 1.31 ⫾ 0.004 b
3.23 ⫾ 0.001 1.28 ⫾ 0.004c
8.1 0 4.88 ⫾ 0.000 0.37 ⫾ 0.003a 4.04 ⫾ 0.003 0.33 ⫾ 0.003b 3.41 ⫾ 0.005 0.24 ⫾ 0.003c
8.1 15 5.15 ⫾ 0.001 0.72 ⫾ 0.006a 3.68 ⫾ 0.022 0.33 ⫾ 0.004b 4.37 ⫾ 0.012 0.36 ⫾ 0.001c
8.1 30 4.50 ⫾ 0.011 0.90 ⫾ 0.003a 4.67 ⫾ 0.022 0.79 ⫾ 0.002b 2.75 ⫾ 0.009 0.41 ⫾ 0.004c
8.1 45 4.68 ⫾ 0.011 1.05 ⫾ 0.007a 4.54 ⫾ 0.023 0.94 ⫾ 0.004b 4.08 ⫾ 0.005 0.39 ⫾ 0.004c
8.1 60 4.00 ⫾ 0.021 1.10 ⫾ 0.007a 4.43 ⫾ 0.022 0.83 ⫾ 0.006b 2.90 ⫾ 0.005 0.40 ⫾ 0.003c
13.8 0 4.34 ⫾ 0.003 0.29 ⫾ 0.003a 3.79 ⫾ 0.024 0.30 ⫾ 0.002a 3.35 ⫾ 0.008 0.26 ⫾ 0.002b
13.8 15 4.06 ⫾ 0.001 0.49 ⫾ 0.005a 3.93 ⫾ 0.024 0.55 ⫾ 0.005b 3.76 ⫾ 0.008 0.30 ⫾ 0.003c
13.8 30 3.73 ⫾ 0.001 0.73 ⫾ 0.006a 3.85 ⫾ 0.022 0.82 ⫾ 0.003b 2.95 ⫾ 0.005 0.54 ⫾ 0.005c
13.8 45 4.89 ⫾ 0.010 0.82 ⫾ 0.006a 5.02 ⫾ 0.023 0.83 ⫾ 0.004a 4.08 ⫾ 0.009 0.63 ⫾ 0.005b
13.8 60 4.44 ⫾ 0.001 1.04 ⫾ 0.007a 4.57 ⫾ 0.017 0.74 ⫾ 0.006b 2.79 ⫾ 0.011 0.51 ⫾ 0.005c

Tests were performed at least triplicate.

a–c means within a column with different superscript letters are significantly different (P < 0.05).
CS, centrifuge speed; RCF, relative centrifugal force; CT, cooling time; IMC, initial moisture content; FOC, final oil content.

cooling time increased, the final oil content increased regard-
less of the frying oil temperature of centrifuge speed
(Table 1).
Effect of Pretreatments
Pretreatments improved oil uptake of the chips (Table 2). The
chips blanched in hot water usually had a slight decrease in oil
uptake, compared with the nonpretreated samples. Blanching
alone had no significant (P > 0.05) effect on the oil content of
the control samples. However, a 10–54% decrease in oil
absorption was observed for the chips cooled for 0–60 s
before de-oiling at 8.1 RCF. At higher centrifuge speed
(13.8 RCF), the preblanched chips had lower oil content only
when cooled for 60 s after frying.
Pedreschi et al. (2005) observed that blanching potato
slices causes starch gelatinization, which results in a micro-
structure with significant influence on the increase of potato
chips oil uptake after frying. Some authors reported that
blanching in low-temperature water (55–70C) before frying
activates the pectinesterase enzyme, and the resulting reac-
tions decrease porosity and hence reduce oil uptake (Aguilar
et al. 1997). Alvarez et al. (2000) found that blanching potato
strips before frying at higher temperatures for a short time
(97C, 2 min) resulted in higher oil content than the control
strips.
In this study, the high-centrifuge speed seems to have an
effect in the oil absorption characteristics of the blanched
samples due to the forced convection cooling effect during the
rotation of the chips in the fryer. This hypothesis needs to be
investigated further.
Pretreating the potato slices with 3% NaCl solution had
significant (P < 0.05) effect on the final oil content of the
chips compared with the nonpretreated samples (Table 2).
However, the difference was only 4%. De-oiling at lower
speed (8.1 RCF) without cooling resulted in 35% less oil
content compared with only 10% when the chips were
de-oiled at 13.8 RCF. Increasing the cooling time resulted in
higher oil absorption as expected. Less oil absorption was
observed by the chips de-oiled at 8.1 RCF than at 13.8 RCF.
Compared with blanching, soaking in NaCl solution resulted
in lower oil absorption after frying.
Changes in the structure of the pretreated chips surface
together with the forced convection cooling effect of the cen-
trifuge may result in less oil reduction from the product’s
surface.
Texture of Potato Chips
Neither the frying temperature (not shown) nor the pretreat-
ments had a significant effect (P > 0.05) over the final texture
of the potato chips (Fig. 1). However, de-oiling led to
increased hardness of the chips fried at 145 and 165C for 0 s
cooling time (by 13 and 41%), respectively, and the hardness
decreased as cooling time increased (by 25 and 21%).
These results are in agreement with the work of Pedreschi
et al. (2005) who found that pretreatment did not have a sig-
nificant effect (P > 0.05) over the final texture of the potato
chips. However, pretreatments had some slight effect on the
textural properties of the chips. Blanching in hot water and
soaking in 3% NaCl solution (Fig. 1) usually resulted in
increased hardness by about 10 and 51%, respectively, when
compared with the chips fried at the same temperature
(165C) without pretreatment (control). In other words,
during rupture, the pretreated chips required less work than
the untreated chips. It is possible that during the pretreat-
ments, structural changes took place.

Journal of Food Process Engineering •• (2012) ••–•• © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. 5
DE-OILING AND FRYING
FIG. 1. EFFECT OF DIFFERENT PRETREATMENTS ON THE TEXTURE
(HARDNESS) OF POTATO SLICES FRIED AT 165C AND COOLED AT
DIFFERENT TIMES BEFORE DE-OILING
Color of Potato Chips
Pretreatments before frying significantly influenced
(P < 0.05) the lightness and yellowness of the final products
(data not shown). All the products (nonpretreated, blanched
in hot water and soaked in NaCl), compared with the controls
(0 s cooling time and not de-oiled) of each pretreated sample,
had increased lightness (L*) and yellowness (b*) values,
whereas the redness (a*) values of the final products fluctu-
ated (data not shown).
Blanching in hot water or soaking in NaCl usually
decreased the yellowness of the final products, compared with
the nonpretreated samples (Fig. 2a,b). Blanching is used
when the reducing sugar level of the raw potatoes is high
and could result in an undesirable dark color after frying
(Anderson et al. 1994). The color is improved by blanching
(Califano and Calvelo 1987). In addition, Santis et al. (2007)
reported that soaking in NaCl led to potato chips that were
lighter in color (paler).
The lightness (L*) and redness (a*) of de-oiled potato
chips were significantly (P < 0.05) influenced by the frying
temperature (Table 3). Potato chips had lower lightness and
redness values when fried at 145C and higher values when
fried at 185C. Potato chips fried at 165C did not show sig-
nificant (P > 0.05) color differences, compared with those
fried at 145 and 165C. Frying temperature increased
(P < 0.05) yellowness (b*) as temperature increased.
Figure 2d–f shows the potato chips fried at different tem-
peratures. As discussed above, potato chips fried at 185C
(Fig. 2f) were darker than the chips fried at 145 or 165C.
De-oiled chips were lighter in color than not de-oiled chips
(Fig. 2d–f), which also had an “oily” appearance.
6 Journal of Food Process Engineering •• (2012) ••–•• © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
T. KIM and R.G. MOREIRA
Sensory
Most of the samples scored above 5 (Table 4); however, the
blanched chips, which had higher oil content, scored low in
color and flavor attributes. The chips cooled for 0 s, which
were also the chips with lower oil content, were scored highly.
The highest score in color was 7.09 ⫾ 0.10 for chips soaked in
3% NaCl solution, cooled for 0 s, and de-oiled at 13.8. The
two highest scores for odor were 6.77 ⫾ 1.23 and 6.64 ⫾ 0.97
for the samples with no pretreatment, de-oiled for 30 s at 13.8
and 0 s at 0 RCF, respectively; while low scores for odor were
given to those chips with high-oil content, except the chips
with no pretreatment. The highest score for texture was
6.82 ⫾ 0.89 for the samples that were blanched and de-oiled
at 13.8 RCF with 30 s of cooling time. The two highest scores
in flavor were 6.40 ⫾ 1.50 and 6.20 ⫾ 1.56 for the blanched
samples also de-oiled at 13.8 RCF for 0 s of cooling, and
samples with no-pretreatment and de-oiled at 13.8 RCF for
60 s of cooling, respectively. The two highest scores in overall
quality were 6.57 ⫾ 1.36 and 6.55 ⫾ 1.36 for the samples
soaked in 3% NaCl solution and de-oiled at 8.1 RCF for 0 s of
cooling, and the samples blanched and de-oiled at 8.1 RCF for
0 s of cooling.
In summary, according to the consumer panelists, blanch-
ing and de-oiling without cooling enhanced the texture and
overall quality of the chips, soaking and de-oiling improved
the color, flavor and the overall quality, and none of the two
pretreatments influence the odor attributes of the chips.
CONCLUSIONS
Higher frying temperature, higher centrifuge speed and less
cooling time resulted in the lowest oil uptake in potato chips.
Pretreatments improved oil uptake of the chips. The chips
blanched in hot water (85C) had an average decrease of 22%
in oil uptake, and the chips soaked in a 3% NaCl solution typi-
cally resulted in 55% reduction of oil uptake compared with
the nonpretreated samples. Thus, in terms of oil uptake, the
best process was pretreating the samples with 3% NaCl at 25C
for 5 min, frying them at 165C and de-oiling at 13.8 RCF.
Though blanching in hot water or soaking in the 3%NaCl
solution prior to frying increased the hardness of the chips,
neither the frying temperature nor the pretreatments had a
significant (P > 0.05) effect over the final texture of the potato
chips. Pretreatments significantly (P < 0.05) influenced the
lightness and yellowness of the final products. Blanching in
hot water or soaking in 3% NaCl decreased the yellowness of
the final products, compared with the nonpretreated samples.
According to the consumer panelists, blanching and de-oiling
without cooling enhanced the texture and overall quality of
the chip, soaking and de-oiling improved the color, flavor, and
the overall quality, and the two pretreatments did not influ-
ence the odor of the chips.
T. KIM and R.G. MOREIRA DE-OILING AND FRYING

FIG. 2. COMPARISON OF POTATO CHIPS

FRIED AT 165C, 0 S COOLING TIME,
WITHOUT DE-OILING, AND WITH THE
FOLLOWING PRETREATMENTS: (A) NO
PRETREATMENT, (B) BLANCHED IN HOT
WATER AT 85C FOR 3.5 MIN AND (C)
SOAKED IN 3% NACL SOLUTION FOR 5 MIN
No pretreated potato chips, 0 s cooling time,
without de-oiling and fried at the following
temperatures: (D) 145C, (E) 165C and (F)
185C.

TABLE 3. EFFECT OF FRYING TEMPERATURE

Toil (C) CS (RCF) L* a* b*
ON COLOR (L*, A* AND B*) FOR POTATO
x55.99 ⫾ 3.93 x-1.77 ⫾ 0.72 16.40 ⫾ 0.61a
a,d a,b
CHIPS SUBJECTED TO VARYING CENTRIFUGE 145 0.0 x

x60.66 ⫾ 3.13 x-2.21 ⫾ 0.32 14.86 ⫾ 1.28b

b a
SPEED (WITHOUT PRETREATMENT AND 0 S 145 8.1 x

x60.15 ⫾ 2.39 x-1.76 ⫾ 0.38 x16.50 ⫾ 1.23

b a,b a
COOLING TIME) 145 13.8
x55.66 ⫾ 2.87 x-1.64 ⫾ 0.85 y18.11 ⫾ 2.14
a a,b,d a
165 0.0
y65.11 ⫾ 2.88 x-2.34 ⫾ 0.30 y17.71 ⫾ 1.7
b a a
165 8.1
165 13.8 y 65.23 ⫾ 2.84 b
x-1.95 ⫾ 0.49 a,d
y18.84 ⫾ 1.7
a

y51.73 ⫾ 3.9 y-0.00 ⫾ 1.22 y19.50 ⫾ 2.73

a a,b,c a
185 0.0
y62.92 ⫾ 2.61 y-1.07 ⫾ 1.24 z22.91 ⫾ 0.85
b a b
185 8.1
z62.98 ⫾ 1.26 y0.38 ⫾ 1.20 z22.83 ⫾ 1.87
b c b
185 13.8

Tests were performed in triplicate.

a–d means between rows with different superscript letters are significantly different (P < 0.05).
x–z means between rows with different subscript letters are significantly different (P < 0.05).
Toil, oil temperature; CS, centrifuge speed; RCF, relative centrifugal force.

Journal of Food Process Engineering •• (2012) ••–•• © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. 7
DE-OILING AND FRYING T. KIM and R.G. MOREIRA

TABLE 4. SENSORY ATTRIBUTES OF POTATO CHIPS FRIED AT 165C AND PROCESSED UNDER DIFFERENT PRETREATMENTS, CENTRIFUGE SPEEDS AND
COOLING TIMES

CS (RCF) CT (s) Color Odor Texture Flavor Overall

A 0 0 a 6.50 ⫾ 1.43 a
a6.64 ⫾ 0.97 a,b
a5.70 ⫾ 1.75 a,b
a,b 4.60 ⫾ 2.23 a
a 5.17 ⫾ 1.75a
a6.40 ⫾ 1.43 a6.00 ⫾ 1.24 a6.19 ⫾ 1.52 a5.67 ⫾ 0.36 a5.70 ⫾ 1.86
a b b,c a,b a,b
8.1 0
8.1 30 a 6.64 ⫾ 0.90 a
a6.17 ⫾ 1.13 a
a5.80 ⫾ 1.58 a,b
a 5.30 ⫾ 1.86 a
a 5.67 ⫾ 1.64 a

a6.20 ⫾ 1.38 a6.17 ⫾ 1.13 a6.50 ⫾ 1.52 a6.03 ⫾ 1.54 a6.10 ⫾ 1.47
a a,b a a a
8.1 60
a6.47 ⫾ 0.87 a5.97 ⫾ 1.08 a6.07 ⫾ 1.86 a5.87 ⫾ 1.67 a6.00 ⫾ 1.48
a a,b a,b,c a,b a
13.8 0
a6.63 ⫾ 1.35 a6.77 ⫾ 1.23 a5.83 ⫾ 2.03 a5.60 ⫾ 2.08 a5.67 ⫾ 1.83
a a,b b,c a,b a,b
13.8 30
a6.57 ⫾ 1.31 a6.57 ⫾ 1.17 a6.07 ⫾ 1.79 a6.20 ⫾ 1.56 a6.17 ⫾ 1.42
a c c b b
13.8 60
B 0 0 a 4.37 ⫾ 1.72 a,b
a5.38 ⫾ 0.87 a
a5.03 ⫾ 1.83 a,b
a 4.37 ⫾ 2.11 a
a 4.47 ⫾ 1.87 a

a6.70 ⫾ 1.55 a6.23 ⫾ 1.56 a6.70 ⫾ 0.75 a6.10 ⫾ 1.70 a6.55 ⫾ 1.36
a a,b a,b a,b a
8.1 0
a6.30 ⫾ 1.19 a6.17 ⫾ 1.34 b6.10 ⫾ 1.54 a5.80 ⫾ 1.60 a6.03 ⫾ 1.49
a,b a,b b a,b a
8.1 30
8.1 60 a 5.33 ⫾ 1.97 a,b
a5.78 ⫾ 1.33 a
a5.50 ⫾ 1.69 a
a 4.47 ⫾ 2.05 b
a 4.83 ⫾ 1.97 a

a6.37 ⫾ 1.62 a6.13 ⫾ 1.18 a6.44 ⫾ 0.72 a5.50 ⫾ 2.26 a6.05 ⫾ 1.67
a,b a,b a,b a a
13.8 0
a5.83 ⫾ 1.55 a6.03 ⫾ 1.28 b6.82 ⫾ 0.89 a5.37 ⫾ 1.92 a5.80 ⫾ 1.70
b a,b a a,b a
13.8 30
b5.63 ⫾ 1.74 b5.83 ⫾ 1.53 b5.87 ⫾ 1.69 b4.83 ⫾ 1.90 b5.27 ⫾ 1.71
a,b a,b a a,b a
13.8 60
b5.37 ⫾ 1.99 a5.87 ⫾ 1.59 a5.53 ⫾ 1.89 b5.47 ⫾ 1.77 a5.43 ⫾ 1.80
a,b a a a,b a,b
C 0 0
8.1 0 a 6.77 ⫾ 1.26 b,c
a6.23 ⫾ 1.36
a
a5.97 ⫾ 1.83
a
a 5.80 ⫾ 1.78 a,b
a6.26 ⫾ 0.69
a,b

b6.17 ⫾ 1.73 a6.50 ⫾ 1.45 a6.58 ⫾ 1.38 a6.07 ⫾ 1.53 a6.62 ⫾ 0.90
b,c a a a,b a,b
8.1 30
a5.50 ⫾ 1.52 a6.00 ⫾ 1.06 a6.43 ⫾ 0.38 a5.64 ⫾ 0.88 a5.73 ⫾ 0.91
c a,b a b b
8.1 60
a7.09 ⫾ 0.10 a6.37 ⫾ 0.98 a6.37 ⫾ 1.64 a6.40 ⫾ 1.50 a6.57 ⫾ 1.36
a,d a a a,b a,b
13.8 0
b5.90 ⫾ 1.49 b5.93 ⫾ 1.18 b6.13 ⫾ 1.61 b5.43 ⫾ 1.82 b5.77 ⫾ 1.41
d b a a a
13.8 30
b5.40 ⫾ 1.69 c5.68 ⫾ 0.78 b5.99 ⫾ 1.63 b5.57 ⫾ 1.67 b5.53 ⫾ 1.71
a,d b a a,b a
13.8 60

Tests were performed in triplicate.

a–c means within a column with different superscript letters are significantly different (P < 0.05).
a–c means within a column with different subscript letters are significantly different (P < 0.05).
A, no pretreatment; B, blanched in hot water at 85C for 3.5 min; C, soaked in 3% NaCl solution at 2C for 5 min; CS, centrifuge speed; RCF, relative
centrifuge speed; CT, cooling time.

CALIFANO, A.N. and CALVELO, A. 1987. Adjustment of surface

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