MATH-002 Formula Sheet Aijaz Ahmad

4.1-2 Exponential functions

The general form of an exponential function is 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑏 𝑥 , where 𝑏 > 0 and 𝑏 ≠ 1.

Domain: (−∞, +∞) Range: (0, +∞) 𝒚-intercept: (0,1) asymptote: 𝑥-axis

Case I (𝟎 < 𝒃 < 𝟏) Case II (𝒃 > 𝟏)

Decreasing Increasing

Properties:

 𝑏0 = 1
1
 𝑏 −𝑥 = 𝑏𝑥

 𝑏 𝑥 ∙ 𝑏 𝑦 = 𝑏 𝑥+𝑦

𝑏𝑥
 = 𝑏 𝑥−𝑦
𝑏𝑦

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4.3-5 Logarithmic functions

The general form of a logarithmic function is 𝑓(𝑥) = log 𝑏 𝑥, where 𝑏 > 0 and 𝑏 ≠ 1.

Domain: (0, +∞) Range: (−∞, +∞) 𝒙-intercept: (1,0) asymptote: 𝑦-axis

Case I (𝟎 < 𝒃 < 𝟏) Case II (𝒃 > 𝟏)

Decreasing Increasing

Relation between logarithmic and exponential functions:

𝑦 = log 𝑏 𝑥 ⇔ 𝑏𝑦 = 𝑥
Exponential form ⇔ Logarithmic form
This means that both functions are inverse of each other.

 log 𝑏 𝑥 = 𝑦 ⇒ 𝑥 = 𝑏 𝑦 (From logarithmic to exponential form)

 log 𝑏 𝑥 = 𝑦 ⇒ 𝑥 = 𝑏 𝑦 (From exponential to logarithmic form)

Remember:

 log10 𝑥 = log 𝑥 (𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛 𝐿𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑚)

 log 𝑒 𝑥 = ln 𝑥 (𝑁𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝐿𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑚)

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Properties of Logarithms:

 log 𝑏 0 = 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑

 log 𝑏 1 = 0

 log 𝑏 𝑏 = 1

 log 𝑏 𝑏 𝑥 = 𝑥

Laws of Logarithms:

 log 𝑏 (𝑥 ∙ 𝑦) = log 𝑏 𝑥 + log 𝑏 𝑦

(Caution: log 𝑏 (𝑥 + 𝑦) ≠ log 𝑏 𝑥 ∙ log 𝑏 𝑦)

 log 𝑏 (𝑥/𝑦) = log 𝑏 𝑥 − log 𝑏 𝑦

(Caution: log 𝑏 (𝑥 − 𝑦) ≠ log 𝑏 𝑥 / log 𝑏 𝑦)

 log 𝑏 (𝑥 𝑟 ) = 𝑟 ∙ log 𝑏 𝑥

(Caution: (log 𝑏 𝑥)𝑟 ≠ 𝑟 ∙ log 𝑏 𝑥)

Note:

log 𝑏 (𝑥 2 ) = 2 ∙ log 𝑏 𝑥 = log 𝑏 𝑥 + log 𝑏 𝑥 Whereas (𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑥)2 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑥 ∙ 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑥

Change of base formula:

log 𝑎 ln 𝑎
log 𝑏 𝑎 = 𝑜𝑟
log 𝑏 ln 𝑏

Some useful results:

1
 log 𝑏 𝑎 = log
𝑎𝑏

 log 1⁄ 𝑥 = − log 𝑏 𝑥
𝑏

1⁄
 log 𝑏𝑛 𝑥 = log 𝑏 𝑥 𝑛

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5.1 Angle Measure

 An angle is the rotation of a ray from one position (initial side) to another position

(terminal side).

 Starting side is called the initial side and the ending side is called the terminal side.

 An angle is in standard position if its vertex is at origin and initial side is along positive

𝒙-axis.

 If the rotation is anti-clockwise then it’s a positive angle and if the rotation is clockwise

then it is a negative angle.

Measurement of angles:

 1 rotation (one complete circle) = 360° = 2𝜋 radians.

𝜋
 𝜃° = 𝜃 × 180 radians (𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛)

180 °
 𝜃 radians = (𝜃 × ) (𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛)
𝜋

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Types of angles:

 Zero angle 𝜃 = 0° = 0 radians.

𝜋
 Right-angle 𝜃 = 90° = 2 radians.

 Straight-angle 𝜃 = 180° = 𝜋 radians.

𝜋
 Acute angle 0° < 𝜃 < 90° or 0 < 𝜃 < 2 .

𝜋
 Obtuse angle 90° < 𝜃 < 180° or < 𝜃 < 𝜋.
2

 Quadrantal angles are all those angles that are along 𝑥-axis or 𝑦-axis
𝜋
i.e. 𝜃 = 𝑘 ∙ 90° or 𝜃 = 𝑘 ∙ 2 where 𝑘 is any integer.

 Any two angles 𝛼 and 𝛽 are called complementary angles if 𝛼 + 𝛽 =

𝜋
90° = 2 radians.

 Any two angles 𝛼 and 𝛽 are called supplementary angles if 𝛼 + 𝛽 =

180° = 𝜋 radians.

Co-terminal angles:

Any two angles in standard position are co-terminal if their terminal sides coincides (matches)

each other.

 If 𝛼 is any angle measure in degrees then 𝛼́ , the co-terminal angle is

given by the formula 𝜶́ = 𝜶 + 𝒌 ∙ 𝟑𝟔𝟎° where 𝑘 is any non-zero integer.

 If 𝛼 is any angle measure in radians then 𝛼́ , the co-terminal angle is

given by the formula 𝜶́ = 𝜶 + 𝒌 ∙ 𝟐𝝅 where 𝑘 is any non-zero integer.

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Length of a circular arc:

𝑠 = 𝑟 ∙ 𝜃 where 𝑠 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ, 𝑟 = 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 and 𝜃 = 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 subtended by the arc.

Area of a circular sector:

1
𝐴 = 2 ∙ 𝑟 2 ∙ 𝜃 where 𝐴 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑟 = 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 and 𝜃 = 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑜𝑛.

Linear and Angular Speed:

Angular and linear speeds of a point moving along a circular path are given by following formulas:

𝜃 𝑠
Angular speed: 𝜔= Linear speed: 𝑣=𝑡
𝑡

Relation between linear and angular speed: 𝑣 = 𝑟∙𝜔

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5.2 Trigonometry of Right Triangles

perpendicular

base
Trigonometry ratios:

Let 𝑝 = 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟, 𝑏 = 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 and ℎ = ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒, then:

𝑝 1 ℎ
sin 𝜃 = csc 𝜃 = =
ℎ sin 𝜃 𝑝

𝑏 1 ℎ
cos 𝜃 = sec 𝜃 = =
ℎ cos 𝜃 𝑏

sin 𝜃 𝑝 1 𝑏
tan 𝜃 = = cot 𝜃 = =
cos 𝜃 𝑏 tan 𝜃 𝑝

Special Triangles:

𝜃 0° 30° 45° 60° 90°

1⁄ √2⁄ √3⁄
sin 𝜃 0 2 2 2 1

√3⁄ √2⁄ 1⁄
cos 𝜃 1 2 2 2 0

1⁄
tan 𝜃 0 √3 1 √3 ∞

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sin 𝜃 0
0

-1

cos 𝜃 -1 1

−∞ ∞

tan 𝜃 0 0

∞ −∞

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5.3 Trigonometric Functions of Angles

𝑦 1 𝑟
sin 𝜃 = csc 𝜃 = =
𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑦

𝑥 1 𝑟
cos 𝜃 = sec 𝜃 = =
𝑟 cos 𝜃 𝑥

sin 𝜃 𝑦 1 𝑥
tan 𝜃 = = cot 𝜃 = =
cos 𝜃 𝑥 tan 𝜃 𝑦

Where 𝑟 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2

Sign rules for trigonometric functions:

Reference Angle:

Smallest positive angle with 𝑥-axis is called a reference angle.

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 Quadrant I 𝜃̅ = 𝜃

 Quadrant II 𝜃̅ = 180° − 𝜃 = 𝜋 − 𝜃

 Quadrant III 𝜃̅ = 𝜃 − 180° = 𝜃 − 𝜋

 Quadrant IV 𝜃̅ = 360° − 𝜃 = 2𝜋 − 𝜃

Co-function Identities:

sin(90° − 𝜃) = cos 𝜃 cos(90° − 𝜃) = sin 𝜃 tan(90° − 𝜃) = cot 𝜃

csc(90° − 𝜃) = sec 𝜃 sec(90° − 𝜃) = csc 𝜃 cot(90° − 𝜃) = tan 𝜃

Trigonometric Identities:

Pythagorean Identities:

 sin2 𝜃 + cos2 𝜃 = 1

 1 + tan2 𝜃 = sec 2 𝜃

 1 + cot 2 𝜃 = csc 2 𝜃

Areas of Triangles:

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6.2 Trigonometric Functions of Real Numbers

Consider a circle of radius 1 then 𝑠 = 𝑟 ∙ 𝜃 ⇒ 𝑡 = 1 ∙ 𝜃 = 𝜃, therefore:

1 1
sin 𝑡 = 𝑦 csc 𝑡 = =
sin 𝑡 𝑦

1 1
cos 𝑡 = 𝑥 sec 𝑡 = =
cos 𝑡 𝑥

sin 𝑡 𝑦 1 𝑥
tan 𝑡 = = cot 𝑡 = =
cos 𝑡 𝑥 tan 𝑡 𝑦

Hence the coordinates of any point 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) on the circle are given by: (cos 𝑡 , sin 𝑡) where 𝑡 is the

angle subtended by the ray ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑂𝑃.

Note:

 We use reference angles to find the trigonometric functions for any real number 𝑡.

 sin 𝜃 and tan 𝜃 are odd functions whereas cos 𝜃 is an even function. i.e. sin(−𝜃) =

− sin(𝜃), tan(−𝜃) = − tan(𝜃) and cos(−𝜃) = cos(𝜃).

6.3-4 Trigonometric Graphs

All trigonometric functions are periodic i.e. their values (and hence their graphs) repeat after

certain intervals called periods. sin 𝜃, cos 𝜃, sec 𝜃 and csc 𝜃 have periods of 2𝜋 whereas tan 𝜃

and cot 𝜃 have period 𝜋.

 sin(𝜃 + 2𝜋) = sin 𝜃, cos(𝜃 + 2𝜋) = cos 𝜃, tan(𝜃 + 𝜋) = tan 𝜃

 csc(𝜃 + 2𝜋) = csc 𝜃, sec(𝜃 + 2𝜋) = sec 𝜃, cot(𝜃 + 𝜋) = cot 𝜃

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Transformation of trigonometric functions:

Consider the following two functions:

𝑦 = 𝑎 sin 𝑘(𝑥 − 𝑏) + 𝑐 and 𝑦 = 𝑎 cos 𝑘(𝑥 − 𝑏) + 𝑐

These two functions have following transformations:

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2𝜋
Amplitude = |𝑎|, Period = , Horizontal shift = 𝑏, Vertical shift = 𝑐
𝑘

2𝜋
 An interval on which it completes one period = [𝑏, 𝑏 + ]
𝑘

Graphs of 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜽 and 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝜽:

Consider the following two functions:

𝑦 = 𝑎 tan 𝑘(𝑥 − 𝑏) + 𝑐 and 𝑦 = 𝑎 cot 𝑘(𝑥 − 𝑏) + 𝑐

These two functions have following transformations:

𝜋
Period = 𝑘 , Horizontal shift = 𝑏, Vertical shift = 𝑐

𝜋 𝜋
 An interval on which 𝑦 = 𝑎 tan 𝑘(𝑥 − 𝑏) + 𝑐 completes one period = [𝑏 − 2𝑘 , 𝑏 + 2𝑘]

𝜋
 An interval on which 𝑦 = 𝑎 cot 𝑘(𝑥 − 𝑏) + 𝑐 completes one period = [𝑏, 𝑏 + 𝑘 ]

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Graphs of 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝜽 and 𝐜𝐬𝐜 𝜽:

Consider the following two functions:

𝑦 = 𝑎 sec 𝑘(𝑥 − 𝑏) + 𝑐 and 𝑦 = 𝑎 csc 𝑘(𝑥 − 𝑏) + 𝑐

These two functions have following transformations:

2𝜋
Period = , Horizontal shift = 𝑏, Vertical shift = 𝑐
𝑘

2𝜋
 An interval on which it completes one period = [𝑏, 𝑏 + 𝑘
]

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5.4, 6.5 Inverse Trigonometric Functions and Right Triangles

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Important results:

 sin−1(−𝑥) = − sin−1(𝑥) because sin−1(−𝑥) ∈ Q-IV

 cos−1 (−𝑥) = 𝜋 − cos −1 (𝑥) because cos−1 (−𝑥) ∈ Q-II 𝑥෤ = 𝑥

𝑥 = 𝜋 − 𝑥෤
𝑥෤ is a reference
𝑥෤ is a reference
 tan−1(−𝑥) = − tan−1(𝑥) because tan−1(−𝑥) ∈ Q-IV angel
angel

𝑥 = 𝜋 + 𝑥෤
 cot −1 (−𝑥) = 𝜋 − cot −1 (𝑥) because cot −1(−𝑥) ∈ Q-II
𝑥෤ is a reference
angel
 csc −1 (−𝑥)
= 𝜋 + csc −1 (𝑥)
because ccs −1 (−𝑥)
∈ Q-III

 sec −1(−𝑥) = 𝜋 + sec −1 (𝑥) because sec −1(−𝑥) ∈ Q-III

Important identities:

1
 cot −1 (𝑥) = tan−1 (𝑥) where 𝑥 > 0.

1
 cs𝑐 −1 (𝑥) = sin−1 (𝑥) where 𝑥 > 0.

1
 se𝑐 −1(𝑥) = cos −1 (𝑥) where 𝑥 > 0.

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7.1 Trigonometry Identities

7.2 Addition and Subtraction Formulas

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7.3 Double Angle and Half Angle Formulas

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9.1 Vectors

 A vector (as shown in the adjacent figure) is a line segment with a direction.

 Vectors are usually represented by bold letters (𝑖. 𝑒. 𝒖 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝐴𝐵 ). Point 𝐴 is called the initial

point and point 𝐵 is called the terminal point of the vector denoted by ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 .

 The length or magnitude of the vector is given by |𝐴𝐵

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |.

 Two vector are equal if they have same magnitude as well as direction.

 Zero vector is a vector with no direction and zero magnitude.

 Unit vector is a vector whose magnitude is one.

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Addition of vectors:

Multiplication of a vector by a scalar:

Difference of two vectors:

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Vectors in the coordinate plane:

 Let 𝒗 = 〈𝒂𝟏 , 𝒂𝟐 〉 be a vector in 𝑥𝑦 −plane.

 𝒂𝟏 is the horizontal component and 𝒂𝟐 is the vertical component

of the vector.

Component form of a Vector:

If 𝒗 is a vector in the plane with initial point 𝑃(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 )

and terminal point 𝑄(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) then;

𝒗 = 〈𝑥2 − 𝑥1 , 𝑦2 − 𝑦1 〉

Magnitude of a Vector:

The magnitude or length of a vector 𝒗 = 〈𝑎, 𝑏〉 is |𝒗| = √𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 .

Algebraic Operations on Vectors:

Let 𝒖 = 〈𝑎1 , 𝑏1 〉 and 𝒗 = 〈𝑎2 , 𝑏2 〉 be any two vectors and 𝑐 is a real number then

 𝒖 + 𝒗 = 〈𝑎1 , 𝑏1 〉 + 〈𝑎2 , 𝑏2 〉 = 〈𝑎1 + 𝑎2 , 𝑏1 + 𝑏2 〉

 𝒖 − 𝒗 = 〈𝑎1 , 𝑏1 〉 − 〈𝑎2 , 𝑏2 〉 = 〈𝑎1 − 𝑎2 , 𝑏1 − 𝑏2 〉

 𝑐𝒖 = 𝑐〈𝑎1 , 𝑏1 〉 = 〈𝑐𝑎1 , 𝑐𝑏1 〉

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Properties of Vectors:

Let 𝒖, 𝒗 and 𝒘 be any two vectors and 𝑐, 𝑑 are real numbers

Vector addition Multiplication by a scalar

 𝒖+𝒗=𝒗+𝒖  𝑐(𝒖 + 𝒗) = 𝑐𝒖 + 𝑐𝒗

 𝒖 + (𝒗 + 𝒘) = (𝒖 + 𝒗) + 𝒘  (𝑐 + 𝑑)𝒖 = 𝑐𝒖 + 𝑑𝒖

 𝒖+𝟎=𝒖  (𝑐𝑑)𝒖 = 𝑐(𝑑𝒖) = 𝑑(𝑐𝒖)

 𝒖 + (−𝒖) = 𝟎  1(𝒖) = 𝒖

Length of a vector  0(𝒖) = 𝟎

 |𝑐𝒖| = |𝑐||𝒖|  𝑐(𝟎) = 𝟎

Unit vector:

𝟑 𝟒
 A unit vector is a vector with magnitude 1. e.g. 𝒗 = 〈𝟓 , 𝟓〉

 Two useful unit vectors are 𝒊 = 〈𝟏 , 𝟎〉 (along 𝑥-axis) and 𝒋 = 〈𝟎 , 𝟏〉

(along 𝑦-axis)
𝒗
 ̂ = |𝒗|
Unit vector in the direction of any vector 𝒗 is given by 𝒗

Vectors in terms of 𝒊 and 𝒋:

The vector 𝒖 = 〈𝑎, 𝑏〉 can be expressed in terms of 𝒊 and 𝒋 as:

𝒖 = 〈𝑎, 𝑏〉 = 𝑎 𝒊 + 𝑏 𝒋 = |𝒖| cos 𝜃 𝒊 + |𝒖| sin 𝜃 𝒋

𝑏
Where the reference angle 𝜃̃ of the anlge 𝜃 is given by 𝜃̃ = tan−1 |𝑎|

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9.2 The Dot Product

Dot Product:

Let 𝒖 = 〈𝑎1 , 𝑏1 〉 and 𝒗 = 〈𝑎2 , 𝑏2 〉 be any two vectors then their dot product is defined by

𝒖 ∙ 𝒗 = 𝑎1 𝑎2 + 𝑏1 𝑏2

Properties of the Dot Product:

 𝒖∙𝒗=𝒗∙𝒖

 (𝑐𝒖) ∙ 𝒗 = 𝑐(𝒗 ∙ 𝒖) = 𝒖 ∙ (𝑐𝒗)

 (𝒖 + 𝒗) ∙ 𝒘 = 𝒖 ∙ 𝒘 + 𝒗 ∙ 𝒘

 |𝒖|𝟐 = 𝒖 ∙ 𝒖

The Dot Product Theorem:

Let 𝜃 be the angle between two nonzero vectors 𝒖 and 𝒗, then

𝒖 ∙ 𝒗 = |𝒖||𝒗| 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽

Angle between two vectors:

Let 𝜃 be the angle between two nonzero vectors 𝒖 and 𝒗, then

𝒖∙𝒗 𝑎1 𝑎2 + 𝑏1 𝑏2
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 = =
|𝒖||𝒗| √𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 ∙ √𝑎2 + 𝑏 2
1 1 2 2

Orthogonal vectors:

Two nonzero vectors 𝒖 and 𝒗 are orthogonal (perpendicular) if and only if 𝒖 ∙ 𝒗 = 0

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The component of 𝒖 along 𝒗:

The component of 𝒖 along 𝒗 (also called the component of 𝒖 in the direction of 𝒗 or the scalar

projection of 𝒖 onto 𝒗) is defined to be |𝒖| 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 where  is the angle between 𝒖 and 𝒗.

𝒖∙𝒗
comp𝒗 𝒖 = |𝒖| 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 =
|𝒗|

The vector projection of 𝒖 onto 𝒗:

The projection of 𝒖 onto 𝒗 is the vector proj𝒗 𝒖 given by

𝒖∙𝒗
proj𝒗 𝒖 = ( )𝒗
|𝒗|𝟐

If the vector 𝒖 is resolved into 𝒖𝟏 and 𝒖𝟐 , where 𝒖𝟏 is parallel to 𝒗 and 𝒖𝟐 is orthogonal to 𝒗,

then

𝒖𝟏 = proj𝒗 𝒖 and 𝒖𝟐 = 𝒖 − proj𝒗 𝒖

Work:

The work 𝑾 done by a force 𝑭 in moving along a vector 𝑫 is 𝑾 = 𝑭 ∙ 𝑫

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11.4 Determinants

𝑎 𝑏 𝑎 𝑏
 Determinant of a 2 × 2 matrix 𝐴 = [ ] is det(𝐴) = |𝐴| = | | = 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐.
𝑐 𝑑 𝑐 𝑑

 The minor 𝑀𝑖𝑗 of the element 𝑎𝑖𝑗 is the determinant of the matrix obtained by deleting

𝑖th row and 𝑗th column of 𝐴.

 The cofactor 𝐴𝑖𝑗 of the element 𝑎𝑖𝑗 is 𝐴𝑖𝑗 = (−1)𝑖+𝑗 𝑀𝑖𝑗 .

 The inverse of a square matrix 𝐴 exist if and only if det(𝐴) ≠ 0.

 If matrix 𝐵 is obtained from matrix 𝐴 by adding a multiple of one row/column another

row/column then det(𝐴) = det(𝐵).

Properties of Determinants:

 If all the rows of a matrix are interchanged with its columns then the resulting

determinant will remain same.

 If any two rows or columns of a matrix are interchanged then the sing of its determinant

will be changed.

 If any two rows/columns of a matrix are equal then its determinant will be zero.

 If all elements in any row/column of a matrix are zero then its determinant will be zero.

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 If matrix 𝐵 is obtained from matrix 𝐴 by multiplying one row/column by a real number 𝑘

then, det(𝐵) = 𝑘 ∙ det(𝐴).

 If a row/column of a square matrix 𝐴 is a multiple of another row/column then det(𝐴) =

0.

 If 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] is an 𝑛 × 𝑛 triangular matrix, then |𝐴| = 𝑎11 𝑎22 𝑎33 ⋯ 𝑎𝑛𝑛

 Let 𝐴 and 𝐵 be two square matrix then det(𝐴 ∙ 𝐵) = det(𝐴) ∙ det(𝐵)

1
 det(𝐴−1 ) = det(𝐴)

12.1 Parabola

𝑥 2 = 4𝑝𝑦 𝑦 2 = 4𝑝𝑥

Vertex 𝑉 = (0,0) Focus 𝐹 = (0, 𝑝) Vertex 𝑉 = (0,0) Focus 𝐹 = (𝑝, 0)

Directrix 𝑦 = −𝑝 Directrix 𝑥 = −𝑝

𝑝>0

𝑝<0

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12.2 Ellipse

𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑦2 𝑥2
+ =1 + =1
𝑎2 𝑏 2 𝑎2 𝑏 2

Vertices (±𝑎, 0) (0, ±𝑎)

Foci (±𝑐, 0) (0, ±𝑐)

Major Axis (2𝑎) Horizontal Vertical

Minor Axis (2𝑏) Vertical Horizontal

 𝑎>𝑏
 𝑐 2 = 𝑎2 − 𝑏 2
 Major Axis length = 2𝑎
 Minor Axis length = 2𝑏

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12.3 Hyperbola
𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑦2 𝑥2
− =1 − =1
𝑎2 𝑏 2 𝑎2 𝑏 2

Vertices (±𝑎, 0) (0, ±𝑎)

Foci (±𝑐, 0) (0, ±𝑐)

Transverse Axis (2𝑎) Horizontal Vertical

𝑏 𝑎
Asymptotes 𝑦=± 𝑥 𝑦=± 𝑥
𝑎 𝑏

 𝑐 2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2
 Transverse Axis length = 2𝑎
𝑐
 𝑒=𝑎>1

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