Q3757 Mosselmanal2004 Sustainable River Fairway

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Sustainable river fairway maintenance and improvement
Technical Report · December 2004

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.1.3728.5606
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Sustainable river fairway maintenance and Q3757.00 December, 2004
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Contents
1 Introduction .................................................................................................... 1— 1
1.1 Background.......................................................................................... 1— 1
1.2 Scope and objectives ............................................................................ 1— 3
1.3 Organization of the project ................................................................... 1— 3
1.4 Acknowledgements .............................................................................. 1— 3
2 Rivers Rhine, Elbe and Danube in Germany................................................. 2— 1
2.1 Approach of literature survey ............................................................... 2— 1
2.2 Setting ................................................................................................. 2— 1
2.2.1 River Rhine ............................................................................. 2— 1
2.2.2 River Elbe ............................................................................... 2— 3
2.2.3 River Danube .......................................................................... 2— 4
2.3 Responsible organizations .................................................................... 2— 5
2.4 Present practice, issues and research..................................................... 2— 7
2.4.1 River Rhine ............................................................................. 2— 7
2.4.2 River Elbe ............................................................................... 2— 8
2.4.3 River Danube ........................................................................ 2— 10
2.5 Conclusions ....................................................................................... 2— 10
3 Mississippi River............................................................................................. 3— 1
3.2 Setting ................................................................................................. 3— 1
3.4.1 DOTS and DOER programmes ................................................ 3— 7
WL | Delft Hydraulics i
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3.4.2 Developments at districts......................................................... 3— 8
3.4.3 Draft USACE proposal for Upper Mississippi and Illinois

Rivers.................................................................................... 3— 12
3.5 Conclusions ....................................................................................... 3— 13
4 River Danube downstream of Germany ........................................................ 4— 1
4.2 Setting ................................................................................................. 4— 1
4.5 Conclusions ......................................................................................... 4— 6
5 Rivers in China ............................................................................................... 5— 1
5.2 Setting ................................................................................................. 5— 1
5.5 Conclusions ......................................................................................... 5— 4
6 Analysis and evaluation.................................................................................. 6— 1
6.1 Measures to reduce the required dredging in river bends....................... 6— 1
6.1.1 Modification of factors that tilt the cross-sectional profile ........ 6— 1
6.1.2 De-tilting of cross-sectional profile by structural measures....... 6— 2
6.1.3 De-tilting of cross-sectional profile by recurrent measures ....... 6— 3
6.2 Measures to arrest overall bed degradation ........................................... 6— 3
6.2.1 Modification of factors that lower the longitudinal profile........ 6— 3
6.2.2 Maintaining of longitudinal profile by structural measures ....... 6— 5
6.2.3 Maintaining of longitudinal profile by recurrent measures........ 6— 5
WL | Delft Hydraulics ii
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7 Conclusions and recommendations................................................................ 7— 1
8 References ....................................................................................................... 8— 1
WL | Delft Hydraulics iii

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1 Introduction
1.1 Background
The river Waal is the main branch of the Rhine delta in the Netherlands and one of the
busiest shipping routes in the world, connecting the sea port of Rotterdam with major urban
and industrial areas in Germany. The total freight between Rotterdam and Duisburg
amounted to 165 million metric tons in 1996. About every three minutes, a ship passes the
border near Lobith, 24 hours a day and 7 days a week. Considering forecasts of further
traffic growth, the Toekomstvisie Hoofdtransportas Waal concluded in 1993 that safe, fast
and efficient navigation in 2010 would require enlargement of the navigation channel from
its present 150 m × 2.5 m to a profile of 170 m × 2.8 m at OLR, i.e. at the low-water level
that is exceeded during 95% of the time. The OLR criterion has been established
internationally in 1947 and corresponds to a Rhine discharge of 1020 m3/s at Lobith.
Alternative strategies to achieve this enlargement of the navigaton channel were elaborated
in the Waal Programme. In 1996, Rijkswaterstaat-DON selected a preferred strategy,
composed of groyne extensions, maintenance dredging and, above all, structural measures in
river bends. The latter comprised bottom groynes, fixed layers and bottom vanes (Figure
1.1).
Figure 1.1: Bottom vanes to correct the cross-sectional profile in bends of the river Waal.
Subsequently, the bottom groynes were realized in the bend at Erlecom and fixed layers
were constructed in the outer bend pools of the bends at Nijmegen and St Andries.
WL | Delft Hydraulics 1— 1
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However, hesitation arose for the implementation of bottom vanes in the bends at Hulhuizen
and Haalderen, because a pilot field application in the bend of the river IJssel at Fortmond
had not been successful (Asmerom & Jörissen, 2003; Vrijburcht, 2003), despite extensive
testing of bottom vanes in the laboratory. The precise causes of the lack of success were the
object of debate. The principle of bottom vanes is that they generate spiral flows that
transport bed sediments from the inner to the outer bend. A good functioning requires that
the angle between the approaching flow and the vanes is about 15° to 20°. On the one hand,
measurements revealed that the vanes had not been placed in the proper direction. On the
other hand, navigation and vortex shedding at nearby groynes disturb the design flow
direction and the effect of these disturbances on the functioning of bottom vanes had never
been tested in the laboratory. Hesitation arose also because the shipping sector feared that
ships touching the bottom vanes might be cut open by the sheet piles of these vanes.
Rijkswaterstaat tried to find out more about experiences with bottom vanes in navigation
channels by contacting Professor Odgaard of the University of Iowa. However, Professor
Odgaard replied that he had no information about such experiences. Although he had
reviewed several designs by consulting companies for vane systems in navigation channels,
he had no information that those systems had actually been installed. Considering all these
uncertainties, Rijkswaterstaat abandoned the plans to implement bottom vanes in the Waal
bends at Hulhuizen and Haalderen. As budget constraints did not permit more expensive
alternatives, it was decided to maintain dredging as the main solution for these bends.
However, structural measures on a smaller scale to reduce the required amount of dredging
remained an option meriting further research.
Meanwhile another issue of fairway maintenance and improvement had gained importance.
The original time horizon of the Waal programme was the year 2010. As this year is coming
near, Rijkswaterstaat intends to extend the horizon by 50 years for reasons of fairway
sustainability. The ongoing overall bed degradation of the river Waal then arises as a
problem, because the fixed layers in the outer-bend pools will not follow the degradation
and hence become high obstacles. Finding ways to stop this process is becoming imperative
and merits further research as well. The bed degradation results from a deficit in the
sediment supply from upstream, from excessive dredging in the past and from a retarded
adaptation to river training works and an inland shift of the erosion base (river mouth), but
the relative contribution of each of these causes is still unknown. The Waal is in this respect
a particular case of a much wider problem, because most rivers in Europe and the USA
exhibit overall bed degradation due to dams, torrent control works, aggregate mining, river
training, lateral embankments, shortening of river courses, afforestation, vegetation
encroachment and cessation of wood cutting and grazing (Marston et al, 1995; Kondolf,
1997; Bravard et al, 1999; Liébault & Piégay, 2002; Surian & Rinaldi, 2003).
Thus two key issues arise for sustainable fairway maintenance and improvement in the river
Waal:
• finding sustainable small-scale measures to reduce the required dredging in river bends,
with particular reference to the bends at Hulhuizen and Haalderen;
• finding sustainable measures to arrest the overall bed degradation (incision, down-
cutting, entrenchment).
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Here ‘small-scale’refers to horizontal dimensions that are substantially smaller than the size
of a bend.
It is against this background that Rijkswaterstaat-DON has commissioned WL | Delft

Hydraulics to carry out a literature survey on experiences with such measures on busy
fluvial shipping routes elsewhere in the world.
1.2 Scope and objectives

The literature survey regards sustainable fairway maintenance and improvement in rivers
with busy navigation traffic. For this, the following target river systems have been selected
in close consultation with Rijkswaterstaat-DON: rivers in Germany, the Mississippi River,
the river Danube downstream of Germany and rivers in China. The emphasis lies on
sustainable small-scale measures to reduce the required dredging in bends and sustainable
measures to arrest overall bed degradation
The survey aims at answering the following questions:
1. Which organizations are responsible for river fairway and improvement?

2. Which measures to reduce the required dredging in bends and to arrest overall bed
degradation have been studied?
3. Which conclusions have been drawn on the feasibility of the measures proposed in the
studies?
4. Which proposed measures have been implemented?
5. What are the experiences from the implementations?
A more general analysis has been added to enhance the conclusions and recommendations
from the literature survey.
1.3 Organization of the project

The literature survey has been carried out by WL | Delft Hydraulics in the period between
June 22 and October 1, 2004. The project team consisted of Messrs Erik Mosselman, Dirk
Schwanenberg, Kees Sloff, Frans van der Knaap and Peter Kerssens. Erik Mosselman was
the project leader.
Messrs Roelof Smedes (Directie Oost-Nederland) and Ferdinand Bockhoudt (Bouwdienst)

supported the project on behalf of Rijkswaterstaat.
The project is known at Rijkswaterstaat under contract number 86040179 and at WL | Delft
Hydraulics under project number Q3757.
1.4 Acknowledgements
The kind assistance of the following persons is gratefully acknowledged:
Messrs A. Schmidt, T. Wenka, P. Faulhaber, M. Alexy, B. Henschel and J. Kellermann:

Bundesanstalt für Wasserbau (BAW), Karlsruhe, Germany.
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Mr D. Abel: Wasser- und Schifffahrtsamt Duisburg-Rhein, Außenstelle Wesel, Germany.
Mr. Vollmer: Bundesanstalt für Gewässerkunde (BfG), Germany.
Mr Eddy Langendoen: USDA-ARS National Sedimentation Laboratory, University, MS,

USA.
Messrs James Clausner, Tom Pokrefke and Steve Scott: Coastal and Hydraulics Laboratory
of USACE-ERDC, Vicksburg, MS, USA.
Staff of Royal Dutch Embassy in Beijing, China.
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2 Rivers Rhine, Elbe and Danube in Germany
2.1 Approach of literature survey

The literature survey on fairway maintenance and improvement in Germany has been
carried out by Mr Dirk Schwanenberg. Interviews and internet websites were additional
sources of information. On August 23, 2004, Mr Schwanenberg has spoken with Messrs A.
Schmidt, T. Wenka, P. Faulhaber, M. Alexy, B. Henschel and J. Kellermann of the
Bundesanstalt für Wasserbau (BAW) in Karlsruhe. On September 3, 2004, he has spoken
with D. Abel of the Wasser- und Schifffahrtsamt Duisburg-Rhein, Außenstelle Wesel.
Furthermore he has had a conversation by telephone with Mr Vollmer of the Bundesanstalt
für Gewässerkunde (BfG) on August 16, 2004. Table 2.1 shows the internet resources used.
Table 2.1: Internet resources for rivers in Germany.
Internet address Description

www.bafg.de Bundesanstalt für Gewässerkunde (BfG)
www.baw.de Bundesanstalt für Wasserbau (BAW)
www.donauforum.de Donauforum
www.wsv.de Wasser- und schifffahrtsverwaltung des Bundes (WSV)
2.2 Setting
2.2.1 River Rhine
The river Rhine, locally known as Rhein, is Germany’ s largest river and by far the most
important one for navigation. In the context of this study it is useful to distinguish between
an upper reach from the Bodensee to Iffezheim and a lower reach from Iffezheim to the
German-Dutch border (Figures 2.1 and 2.2). The upper part has been canalized by means of
several dams after 1919, when the Treaty of Versailles granted France the right to regulate
the upper Rhine from Basel to Straßburg for hydropower. During the construction of the
dams, the river bed was already observed to erode downstream of the most downstream
dam, whereas the sediment transport through the reservoirs upstream of the dams nearly
came to a stop. In 1969, the Federal Republic of Germany and France agreed to build two
additional dams in Gambsheim and Iffezheim, downstream of the existing dams, and to
investigate how to arrest further bed erosion downstream. The investigation led to the
decision in 1975 to build another dam in Neuburgweier. However, as additional studies
concluded that this dam would shift the bed erosion problems further downstream rather
than solving them, it was decided in 1982 to postpone its construction in favour of a
sediment management strategy that consisted of an artificial sediment supply of about
170,000 m3/a downstream of Iffezheim (BMV, 1997). Boettcher (2001) concludes that this
river bed nourishment is an adequate measure to stop bed erosion and will be continued.
Gölz & Trompeter (2001) and Gölz (2002) present detailed information about the
monitoring of the artificial sediment supply.
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Figure 2.1: Map of river Rhine.
Besides the reach immediately downstream of Iffezheim, several other reaches of the free-
flowing Rhine between Iffezheim and the German-Dutch border exhibit a sediment deficit
resulting in bed erosion. The river reach near Wesel is an example. The total sediment deficit
is estimated to amount to 430,000 m3/a (BMV, 1997). Contrarily, a locally less steep reach
between Mainz and Bingen (Rheingau) exhibits an annual sedimentation of about
60,000 m3.
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Figure 2.2: Longitudinal profile of river Rhine (BMV, 1997).
2.2.2 River Elbe
The river Elbe had already been trained for navigation at the end of the 19th century. In
Germany, the river has only one weir, located at Geesthacht (near Hamburg). This weir
separates the inland part or “Binnenelbe”from the coastal part of the river. The part of the
Binnenelbe upstream of Wittenberg is called “Oberelbe”, the part downstream of Wittenberg
“Mittelelbe”. The present conditions of the Mittelelbe have been influenced strongly by the
fact that it formed part of the border between the Federal Republic of Germany and the
German Democratic Republic between World War II and 1989. In this period, navigation on
the Mittelelbe was insignificant and maintenance virtually absent. After the unification of
Germany, the following main issues appeared on the agenda of the federal Wasser- und
Schifffahrtsverwaltung (WSV) (Gabriel & Kühne, 2003):
• Handling of bed erosion in the 100 km long “Erosionsstrecke”of the Oberelbe between
Mühlberg and Wittenberg (Figures 2.3 and 2.4);
• Repair of damaged and destroyed hydraulic structures such as groynes and longitudinal
training dikes;
• Training of the “Reststrecke”of the Mittelelbe between Hitzacker and Dömnitz;
• Improvement of the navigability of a river reach in the surroundings of Magdeburg.
The agenda changed, however, after an extreme flood event in the river Elbe and its
catchment in August 2002 (Schmidt, 2003). In a “5-Punkte-Programm der Bundes-
regierung”(Bund, 2002), the federal government demanded to review all existing plans for
maintenance and further regulation of the German rivers, with particular reference to the
river Elbe. As a result, all activities including groyne repairs and sediment management
were stopped.
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Giving priority to its ecology, it was decided that the river would not be improved any
further for navigation, conserving the state of 2002. As a consequence, WSV activities for
the Elbe focus on sediment management only.
Figure 2.3: German Elbe with “Erosionsstrecke”(Gabriel & Kühne, 2001).
Figure 2.4: Bed erosion during 1888–1996 in “Erosionsstrecke”of river Elbe (Gabriel & Kühne, 2001).
2.2.3 River Danube
In Germany, navigation on the Danube, locally known as “Donau”, is closely related to the
Rhein-Main-Donau-Kanal, which connects the Danube to the Rhine. The part relevant for
navigation is therefore the reach between the mouth of this canal and the German-Austrian
border. This part has been canalized by dams, with the exception of the reach Straubing-
Vilshofen where three projected dams have never been constructed (Figure 2.5).
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Further improvement of this reach for navigation is the object of discussions between the
Federal Republic of Germany, the Free State of Bavaria and other stakeholders. These
discussions come down to the question whether the three projected dams can be replaced by
two dams, a single dam or even no dam at all. Besides economical arguments, ecological
arguments are gaining importance.
The river Isar joins the Danube about half-way in the free-flowing reach Straubing-
Vilshofen. Its sediment is much coarser than the Danube sediment and, as a result, the river
bed of the Danube is much coarser downstream of the mouth of the Isar than upstream.
Kirchdörfer (1999) presents a brief history of navigation and hydraulic engineering

measures in the Danube.
Figure 2.5: German Danube from Main-Donau-Kanal to German-Austrian border (Kirchdörfer, 1999).
2.3 Responsible organizations

Wasser- und Schifffahrtsverwaltung des Bundes (WSV) is the key organization for
maintaining the larger German waterways. As a federal organization, it deals with the
Bundeswasserstraßen or federal waterways: coastal waterways as well as inland waterways
such as the rivers Rhine, Elbe, Mosel and Danube and different canals. It employs about
15,000 persons and is part of the Bundesministerium für Verkehr-, Bau- und
Wohnungswesen (Federal Ministry for Transportation). WSV is subdivided into several
Wasser- und Schifffahrtsdirektionen (WSD), which are further subdivided into several
Wasser- und Schifffahrtsämter (WSA). Four Oberbehörden support the organization with
specialist knowledge, thus having a role comparable to the one of RIZA in the Netherlands.
The two most relevant Oberbehörden for inland rivers are Bundesanstalt für Wasserbau
(BAW) and Bundesanstalt für Gewässerkunde (BfG). Figure 2.6 gives an overview.
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Wasser- und Schifffahrtsverwaltung (WSV)
7 Wasser- und Schifffahrts- Oberbehörden:

direktionen (WSD): Bundesanstalt für Wasserbau (BAW)
Nord (Kiel), Nordwest (Aurich), Bundesanstalt für Gewässerkunde (BfG)
Mitte (Hannover), West (Münster), ...
Südwest (Mainz), Süd (Würzburg),
Ost (Berlin)
39 Wasser- und Schifffahrtsämter (WSA),

7 Wasserstraßenneubauämter
Figure 2.6: Organization of Wasser- und Schifffahrtsverwaltung (WSV).
The different WSAs are charged with the task of ensuring the navigability of the rivers.
They monitor the water depth and take measures if the water depth has fallen below a
critical value. The frequency of monitoring depends on the local situation and may vary
from weekly to annual intervals. Recurrent measures such as dredging are implemented
more or less autonomously by WSA, whereas structural measures require co-ordination. If a
WSA needs technical advice related to sediment management, hydraulic engineering or
other specific topics, it contacts BAW or BfG.
Bundesanstalt für Wasserbau (BAW) is a federal research and consulting institute

responsible for hydraulic engineering, geotechnical engineering, civil engineering and IT,
covering the needs of its sole client WSV. The institute has about 450 employees and an
annual budget of about 36.3 million Euro (2001). It has offices in Karlsruhe (headquarters,
responsible for the inland systems), Hamburg (Außenstelle Küste, responsible for the coastal
areas) and Ilmenau (responsible for IT management).
Bundesanstalt für Gewässerkunde (BfG) is a federal institution comparable to BAW, with

responsibilities in the fields of hydrology, water management, water quality and aquatic
ecology.
The river Rhine between Iffezheim and the German-Dutch border is maintained by WSA
Freiburg, WSA Bingen, WSA Köln and WSA Duisburg/Rhein. The WSAs at Freiburg and
Bingen fall under WSD Südwest, whereas the WSAs at Köln (Cologne) and Duisburg fall
under WSD West. Außenstelle Wesel of WSA Duisburg/Rhein has the responsibility for
sediment management and hydraulic measures for both WSA Köln and WSA
Duisburg/Rhein. This regards about 200 km of the Niederrhein, which is the part of the
Rhine immediately upstream of the Netherlands.
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2.4 Present practice, issues and research
2.4.1 River Rhine
Sediment management strategies apply in particular to the free-flowing Rhine downstream

of the dam at Iffezheim. Dredging is needed locally for navigability, but the main issue is
the overall erosion of the river bed. An important step towards a consistent sediment
management strategy along the German Rhine was the formation of the Arbeitsgruppe
“Rheinsohlenerosion”, a group of relevant personnel from WSV including WSD Südwest,
WSD West, WSA Bingen, WSA Duisburg/Rhein, BfG and BAW. The Arbeitsgruppe
produced a key report (BMV, 1997), presenting:
• an inventory of the present situation, with a detailed overview of the global and local
characteristics of the river reach between Iffezheim and Emmerich;
• procedures for analyzing and evaluating bed conditions and river morphology;
• measures to mitigate bed erosion and aggradation;
• a discussion of a cost-benefit analysis to select the most appropriate measures.
One of the main tangible results from BMV (1997) was the extension of the artificial
sediment supply to erosion sections other than the reach immediately downstream of
Iffezheim. Seven locations were selected for the implementation of river bed nourishment in
the subsequent twelve years (WSD Südwest & WSD West, 1999). The first sediments were
supplied in 2000 with pilot nourishments in Rhens (Rhein-km 581.5 – 582.0) and Wesel
(Rhein-km 816.8 –817.9). These measures were monitored by intensive field investigations
(Abel, 2001; Schmidt, 2001) along with one-dimensional numerical modelling. Applications
of two- or three-dimensional models in this context have been planned for the near future
(Wenka, 2001). A 40,000 metric tons tracer sediment supply in Wesel has been monitored
from 2000 to 2002. In total about 700,000 to 800,000 metric tons of sediment have been
supplied till summer 2004 in the 200 km long reach under the responsibility of Außenstelle
Wesel. The material consisted of gravel, if available, and other types of rock. Its grain
characteristics were taken as close as possible to those of the natural sediment.
The modelling of the effects of river bed nourishments requires thorough knowledge on
transport processes of graded sediment. On December 11 and 12, 2003, a workshop on this
topic was held in Darmstadt under the auspices of the International Commission for the
Hydrology of the Rhine basin (KHR). During this workshop, Mr Emiel van Velzen of the
Dutch organization RIZA proposed a closer co-operation with BAW and BfG in research on
river morphology. Currently, RIZA has mainly contacts with BfG, whereas river
morphology, including physical and mathematical modelling, is an area covered primarily
by BAW.
Besides overall bed erosion, local sedimentation needs to be addressed as well. Shoals are a
problem for navigation in particular in the reach Mainz-Weisenau (Rhein-km 494.3), where
the imbalance between 190,000 m3/a upstream sediment input and 130,000 m3/a
downstream sediment output produces an annual sediment accumulation of 60,000 m3
(BMV, 1997; Schmidt, 2001). Moreover, this reach is prone to the formation of high dunes
that re-appear quickly after dredging.
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These problems are countered by a sediment trap that has been implemented at the upstream
side of the reach between Mainz and Bingen (Rheingau) in 1989 (BfG, 1989). It can be seen
as a form of “preventive dredging”, as its effect on navigability is not immediate but
supposed to develop in time. The sediment trap has been emptied 13 times in the period
1989-97 and 4 times in the period 1997-2001. The total volume dredged amounted to
960,000 m3 in the first period and 340,000 m3 in the second period, which corresponds to an
average dredging volume of about 110,000 m3/a. The sediment trap was found to reduce the
aggradation and the formation of bed forms in the reach Mainz-Weisenau. Rather, this reach
even tended to erode. The sand trap thus improved the navigability substantially.
Preventive dredging is not applied at other locations where shoals hinder navigation. The
selection of either dredging or structural measures at those locations depends mainly on
considerations of navigation safety and cost-benefit ratio. The standard over-depth for
dredging is about 0.3 m.
Baur, Havinga & Abel (2002), Baur & Jagers (2002) and Baur (2003a, 2003b) used a two-
dimensional morphological model to assess the effects of various sediment management
strategies in a 40 km long consecutive reach of the Rhine in both Germany and the
Netherlands.
2.4.2 River Elbe
Two types of sediment management measures have been applied in the river Elbe: artificial
sediment supply (Faulhaber & Riehl, 2001) and sediment re-arrangement (Faulhaber, 2003).
The sediment supply took place in the Erosionsstrecke in the years 1996-99, but the amount
was less than the required amount of 50,000 to 80,000 metric tons per year. Faulhaber &
Riehl (2001) argue that reliable conclusions about the effectiveness of this measure can only
be drawn about 10 years after the river bed nourishment.
Sediment re-arrangement is a local dredging-and-dumping strategy to improve the

navigability at local shoals. This kind of dredging and dumping plays only a minor role in
the Oberelbe where the river bed is stable and the sediment transport rates are low. The
volumes that have been dredged and dumped at a single location are smaller than 8,000
metric tons per year.
The sediment transport rates of the sandy Mittelelbe are higher. Here the volumes of
dredging and dumping at a single location may increase up to 160,000 metric tons per year,
reflecting the effect of the ban on structural measures. WSV and BAW have conducted
physical model tests and site experiments to develop a strategy of preventive dredging
similar to the dredging of the sand trap in the Rhine near Mainz. The main idea was to
dredge the river bed upstream of the shallow reach under falling water levels, so that the
resulting area of lower bed levels migrated into the shallow reach during the low-water
period (Figure 2.7). The success of the strategy was concluded to depend on the
predictability of the low-water periods. As these periods are difficult to predict for the Elbe,
no strategy of preventive dredging will be applied.
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Figure 2.7: Site experiment of preventive dredging in the river Elbe (Faulhaber, 2003)
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2.4.3 River Danube
Local dredging for navigation does occur in the canalized Danube, although hardly any
sediments are transported in those reaches. Sediment transport is more significant in the
free-flowing reach Straubing –Vilshofen. Sediment management strategies for this reach are
evaluated primarily in the context of studies of the possibilities to reduce the number of
dams that are still to be constructed. The strategies address local dredging and dumping at
local shoals as well as measures to mitigate the overall degradation of the river bed.
Structural measures, studied to improve navigability, include groynes, longitudinal training
dikes, rock fills of deep outer-bend pools (Nestmann & Ross, 1999) and bed protection
layers. The rock fills of outer-bend pools increase the navigation width by inducing an
erosion of the point bar in the same manner as the fixed layers at Nijmegen and St Andries
in the Netherlands. Furthermore, they prevent the river from reaching the underlying fine
and highly erodible Tertiary sediments. Kirchdörfer (1999) gives an overview of the state of
the investigations in 1999, including how they are organized and who is participating.
Neuner & Strobl (2001) summarize several BAW investigations regarding bed erosion
control and sediment management strategies (Söhngen & Stumpf, 1998; Söhngen et al,
2000a-d; Söhngen & Kellermann, 2000a-b) as well as investigations by Hunziker & Zarn
(2001,2003).
The sediments for river bed nourishment are dumped in the upper part of the degrading
reach and dredged again at the downstream end. In principle, their grain size distribution is
taken equal to that of the river bed, but 10% of the supplied sediment is replaced by coarser
material to correct for abrasion losses. The sediments dumped near the mouth of the Isar are
thus much coarser than the sediments dumped near Straubing. For technical reasons, river
bed nourishment is not possible during floods. The sediments are stored beforehand in
deposits that are activated during floods.
A supply of sediments coarser than the sediments of the river bed has been found to reduce
the required amount of sediment supply, but to increase the required keel clearance for
navigation. Similarly, riprap bed protection layers to adjust the cross-sectional shapes of the
river (Hochschopf, 1999) have been found to increase the required keel clearance to such an
extent that it cancels the gain in water depth (Jurisch & Orlovius, 1999).
2.5 Conclusions
Incision or overall bed degradation is a common problem in all three rivers. It appears to a
minor extent in the Danube, to a larger extent in the River Elbe and plays a major role along
the free-flowing Rhine from Iffezheim to the Dutch border. Germany has substantial
experience with the countermeasure of artificial sediment supply. This seems to be an
appropriate measure for the river Waal as well.
An innovative method to improve navigability is “preventive dredging”, which consists of

dredging a sediment trap at the upstream side of a reach with shoals between Mainz and
Bingen. The sediment trap reduces the overall aggradation of the reach and, moreover,
suppresses the formation of bed forms in this reach. Bed forms, however, are not a problem
on the smooth point bar in the Waal bend at Hulhuizen. The method hence does not seem to
hold promises for this bend.
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3 Mississippi River

The literature survey on fairway maintenance and improvement on the Mississippi River has
been carried out by Mr Kees Sloff. Internet websites were additional sources of information.
Mr Sloff corresponded by e-mail with Mr Eddy Langendoen of USDA-ARS National
Sedimentation Laboratory, who also contacted Mr Steve Scott of the Coastal and Hydraulics
Laboratory of USACE-ERDC in Vicksburg for further information in this context. Mr Sloff
contacted the DOER programme manager Mr James Clausner of the Coastal and Hydraulics
Laboratory of USACE-ERDC in Vicksburg, who involved Mr Tom Pokrefke in providing
information.
Table 3.1: Internet resources for Mississippi River.
Internet address Description

www.usace.army.mil General homepage U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
www.wes.army.mil/el/dots/dots.html Homepage DOTS programme
www.wes.army.mil/el/dots/doer/doer.html Homepage DOER programme
www.erdc.usace.army.mil Homepage U.S. Army Engineer Research and Development
Center (ERDC), Vicksburg (with access to Coastal and
Hydraulics Laboratory information on dredging and
navigation)
www.wes.army.mil/el/e2d2/index.html Environmental effects of dredging and disposal, with rich
literature database
www.usace.army.mil/publications/eng- Layout and design of shallow-draft waterways
manuals/em1110-2-1611/toc.htm
https://rsm.saj.usace.army.mil/docs/ Memorandum of agreement for co-operation between USACE
Consolidated%20Cluster%20Coordinators.pdf and Rijkswaterstaat
www.mvp.usace.army.mil USACE St. Paul District
www.mvr.usace.army.mil USACE Rock Island District
www.mvs.usace.army.mil USACE St. Louis District
www.mvm.usace.army.mil USACE Memphis District
www.mvk.usace.army.mil USACE Vicksburg District
www.mvn.usace.army.mil USACE New Orleans District
3.2 Setting
The river is divided into the Upper Mississippi, from its source to the Ohio River at Cairo,
Illinois, and the Lower Mississippi, from the Ohio River to its mouth near New Orleans
(Figures 3.1 and 3.2). The Upper Mississippi is further divided into three sections:
1. the headwaters, from the source to St. Anthony Falls;

2. a series of man-made lakes between Minneapolis and St. Louis;
3. the middle Mississippi, a relatively free-flowing river downstream of the confluence
with the Missouri River at St. Louis.
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Figure 3.1: Mississippi River catchment.
The floodplains of the Lower Mississippi are on average 8 km wide and confined by
embankments. The average discharge is on the order of 17,000 m3/s with extreme peak
discharges on the order of 60,000 m3/s. Discharges below 1,100 m3/s are considered to be
low, whereas discharges above 30,000 m3/s are considered to represent floods. The bed
consists largely of sand with a diameter on the order of 0.4 mm. Annual sediment transports
are about 180 million tons per year.
A large part of the Mississippi has been changed in the last centuries due to human
interventions, although natural changes have played a role as well. The river has been
shortened considerably by artificial bend cut-offs, mainly realized in the period 1933-42.
The construction of dams in the Upper Mississippi have decreased the sediment supply.
Many river engineering works, such as dikes, bend cut-offs and bank protection works, have
been implemented for flood protection as well as navigation. Biedenharn et al (2000)
demonstrate that the bed of the upper reaches degrades as a result of these interventions,
whereas the lower reaches exhibit aggradation. This clearly differs from the trend in the late
1800s and early 1900s for which thalweg data suggest that the Mississippi was aggrading
throughout most of its length (Kesel et al, 1992).
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The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) began as early as 1829 removing snags,
closing off secondary channels and excavating rocks and sand bars. In 1878, Congress
authorized the Corps to establish a 4½ ft (1.4 m) deep channel, to be obtained by groynes,
wing dams, bank revetments, channel constriction, closure of secondary channels and
dredging.
Figure 3.2: Mississippi River (source: The National Atlas of the United States of America, US Geological
Survey).
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Figure 3.3: Multiple-barge tow on Mississippi (source: USACE St. Louis District).
Figure 3.4: Groynes placed in the Mississippi River in the 1950s (source: USACE St. Louis District).
The Rivers and Harbors Act of 1930 authorized the 9 ft channel project, which called for a
navigation channel 9 ft (2.7 m) deep and 400 ft (122 m) wide to accommodate multiple-
barge tows for commercial barge traffic. This was achieved by a series of locks and dams in
the reach upstream of the Missouri River confluence at St. Louis (mostly built in the 1930s)
and by dredging and other measures in the other reaches. The dams make the river deeper
and wider but are not intended for flood control.
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During periods of high flow, their gates are completely open. Below St. Louis, the
Mississippi is free-flowing, setting aside the numerous levees and river training structures.
Recent plans envisage to increase the navigable depth from 9 ft (2.7 m) to 12 ft (3.7 m) in
Little Rock District, but without significant increase of maintenance dredging. This is
achieved by increasing the height of groynes.
Dredging is the single most important cost item on the USACE budget. The annual dredging
volume amounts to almost 200 million m3, at a cost of 923 million US$ in 2002. Dredging
in the upper Mississippi regards primarily the maintaining of a 9 ft (2.7 m) deep channel. It
is usually started as soon as the depth falls below 10.5 ft (3.2 m), creating depths of 11 to
13 ft (3.4 to 4.0 m).
Pinter et al (2004) examine 43 sites in the St. Louis district where recurrent shoaling has
made the dredging volumes exceptionally high. They identify the following locations to be
particularly prone to this recurrent shoaling:
• Flow divisions, primarily at channel bifurcations where the flow separates in two or
more significant branches, but also at the heads of chutes, i.e. side channels that convey
water during floods;
• Tributary junctions, where dredging is usually needed just at the confluence (tributary
mouth bar) or just downstream of the confluence (separation-zone bar along the bank
and possibly a post-confluence mid-channel bar below the confluence scour hole);
• Thalweg crossings, where aggradation occurs in particular during floods;
• Meander bends;
• Long straight sections, where alternate bars and other types of shoals develop;
• Vicinity of large structures, for instance in areas of diverging flows just below
constrictions.
Figure 3.5: Sand bar on the Mississippi River (source: USACE St. Louis District).
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Figure 3.6: Barges grounded on a Mississippi sand bar (source: USACE St. Louis District).
Maintenance dredging is an increasingly unattractive means of maintaining a navigation

channel due to the rising costs of dredging, strict regulation of spoil disposal and rapid
exhaustion of acceptable disposal sites. Nonetheless, large-scale dredging continues on the
Mississippi and other inland waterways in the USA. Apparently, past canalization,
constriction and other engineering modifications have reduced the dredging needs, but the
most persistent shoaling processes and locations still require that large volumes of sediment
be removed on a regular basis. Additional structural measures have been proposed to reduce
dredging, but such solutions are shown to be either ineffective or to carry serious side-
effects that would adversely impact the ecology, flood response or other aspects of the river.
It is in this perspective that Pinter et al (2004) find that only localized structural solutions
appear to be feasible and that a certain amount of dredging remains necessary as an
alternative to more intensive engineering of the river.

The task of maintaining a navigation channel on the Mississippi is the responsibility of the
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE). The Corps is subdivided into districts responsible
for specific geographical areas. The districts along the Mississippi comprise St. Paul, Rock
Island, St. Louis, Memphis, Vicksburg and New Orleans. They are the executive bodies for
dredging and river training. Various USACE Engineering Research and Design Centers
(ERDCs) support the districts with specialist knowledge, for instance for impact assessment
or the evaluation of alternative plans. Four ERDC laboratories, including the pertinent
Coastal and Hydraulics Laboratory, are located at the site of the Waterways Experiment
Station in Vicksburg.
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In 2004, USACE and Rijkswaterstaat have established a memorandum of agreement for co-
operation. The overall co-ordinators are Messrs P.G. Bourget (USACE, Alexandria, Virginia)
and D. de Bruin (Rijkswaterstaat, The Hague). USACE-ERDC Coastal and Hydraulics
Laboratory in Vicksburg is involved in this co-operation through Mr James Clausner. Dutch
co-ordinators for relevant clusters are:
• Mr Gijs Hoffmans (Rijkswaterstaat-DWW) for Cluster 1 “Flood control and flood

management”;
• Mr Maarten Reinking (Rijkswaterstaat-Directorate North Sea) for Cluster 4 “Issues
related to dredging”;
• Mr Jolco Brolsma (Rijkswaterstaat-AVV) for Cluster 6 “Shipping and transport”.
3.4.1 DOTS and DOER programmes
The emphasis of present developments at USACE is on:
• environmental aspects of dredging and river management;

• technical developments which improve the efficiency of dredging;
• technical developments which reduce environmental impacts, e.g. methods to reduce
turbidity.
These aspects are addressed in the Dredging Operations Technical Support programme
(DOTS), a long-term programme of environmental and technical support to USACE
dredging operations with the following sub-programmes: Long term Effects of Dredging
Operations (LEDO), Dredging Research Program (DRP) and Dredging Operations and
Environmental Research (DOER). Several technical reports, engineering manuals and
publications can be found on the Internet.
The DOER programme is designed to balance operational and

environmental initiatives and to meet complex economic,
engineering, and environmental challenges of dredging and disposal
in support of navigation. Its results are expected to provide dredging
project managers with technology for cost-effective operation,
evaluation of risks associated with management alternatives and
environmental compliance. Essentially it aims at reducing dredging
costs, while meeting the high environmental demands.
The DOER programme contains the following relevant focus areas:
• Dredging material management, aiming at developing dredged-material handling,

transport and placement options which are operationally efficient, environmentally
sound and cost-effective. This includes, for instance, tools for improved design and
construction of Confined Disposal Facilities (CDF): engineered structures designed to
provide required storage volume for dredged materials and to meet required effluent
solids standards specified in state water quality certificates (Figure 3.7).
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If properly designed, constructed and operated, the CDF will retain the dredged material
solids within its diked confines while allowing the carrier water to be released from the
containment area with no more sediment in suspension than allowed under the state
water quality certification;
Figure 3.7: Schematic profile of Confined Disposal Facility (CDF) design features (source: USACE).
• Resource protection, dealing with environmental windows that represent environmental

and biota-based seasonal restrictions. Changes to environmental windows, based on
scientific approaches, could result in considerable savings, while ensuring the protection
of aquatic species and habitats;
• Innovative technologies, comprising dredging tools, hardware and software to increase
efficiency, precision and effectiveness of the dredging process. Data management is
improved by developing a Silent Inspector (SI) system and a Dredging Operations
Decision Support System (DODSS). Research on fluid mud aims at improving
technologies for quantifying fluid mud volumes and providing a technical basis for
implementing the navigable depth concept. McLellan and Hopman (2000) report the
innovative technology of using submerged dikes to control sedimentation. The dikes are
constructed using geocontainers and geobags, filled with coarse river sand and placed
on the sides of the channel bottom in order to prevent sedimentation by concentrating
the flow in a narrower channel. Submerged dikes have been applied in this way in the
Red Eye River (Lower Mississippi, New Orleans District);
• Risk-based approach for environmental and economical management.
3.4.2 Developments at districts
USACE St. Louis District has investigated several regulating works for river fairway
maintenance and improvement. These regulating works include bendway weirs (Figure 3.8),
notched dikes (Figure 3.9), stepped-up dikes (Figure 3.9), chevron dikes (flow-dividing
dikes, Figure 3.10) and off-bankline revetments (Figure 3.10). Bottom vanes in bends have
been studied as well, but model tests did not show a significant effect on the point bar,
despite sedimentation in the outer-bend pool. In the model tests, bendway weirs were found
to be more effective.
Application of bendway weirs at Dogtooth Bend has widened the navigation channel by an
average of 60 m. Moreover, it reduced the outer-bend flow velocities by redirecting the
currents away from the outer bank, thus providing a protection against bank erosion. Many
towboat pilots have declared considerable improvement in navigability through Dogtooth
Bend after the construction of the bendway weirs.
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There is also an indirect environmental benefit as no dikes have to be built across the point
bars, so that those point bars remain isolated and undisturbed.
Figure 3.8: Effect of revetted banks and submerged bendway weirs (source: USACE St. Louis District).
Figure 3.9: Notched dikes (left) and stepped-up dikes (right) applied in the Mississippi (source: USACE St.
Louis District).
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Notched dikes and stepped-up dikes are used to increase river habitat diversity. Chevron
dikes have the additional purpose of creating beneficial uses of dredged material. They are
placed on the shallow side of the river channel, pointing upstream. When dredging is needed
to improve the main navigation channel, dredged sediments are deposed behind the chevron
dike. The resulting small islands encourage the development of diverse primary river
ecosystem habitats. In addition, various micro-organisms cling to the underwater rock
structures, providing a food source for fish.
Figure 3.10: Chevron dikes (left) and off-bankline revetments (right) applied in the Mississippi (source:
USACE St. Louis District).
Off-bankline revetments are another way to create new habitats, for instance by placing a
parallel structure of stone off the bankline. Application is possible in areas where the caving
river bank is on the shallow side of the river. The structures thus reduce bank erosion and
maintain diverse habitats.
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In some areas, the revetments are notched allowing fish to move between the fast and slow
waters easily. The areas between the revetments and the bankline are considered to be prime
fishing locations by both commercial and recreational fishermen.
USACE St. Louis District has also developed a new technology of “Micro Modelling”,
which stands for physical modelling on an extremely small scale, so that the whole model
has the size of a table. The technology relies on lightweight plastic granular sediment,
miniature, galvanized steel mesh structures, polystyrene and acrylic river model boundaries,
oil-based clay for removable boundaries and highly accurate measurement devices. Table
3.2 lists some of the case studies where Micro Modelling has been applied.
Table 3.2: Case studies using Micro Modelling by USACE St. Louis District.
Location Horizontal scale Vertical scale Distortion Specific weight of

ratio sediment (-)
Buffalo Island 1 : 6 000 1 : 600 10 1.40
Herculaneum 1 : 7 200 1 : 1 200 6 1.47
Morgan City 1 : 7 200 1 : 1 200 6 1.40
Santa Fe Chute 1 : 7 200 1 : 1 200 6 1.23
White River Mountain 1 : 12 000 1 : 1 200 10 1.23
The district claims that the micro models performed beyond all expectations, breaking
existing paradigms despite initial disbelief and pessimism. The district substantiates its
claim by Figure 3.11. However, a close inspection of this figure reveals that the micro model
prediction is quite different from the real river. Hence there seems to be no basis to abandon
the common wisdom that rivers cannot be reproduced simply at just any scale. The reasons
behind this common wisdom are that different processes dominate at different scales and
that, for the processes that are significant at all the scales considered, different conflicting
scale conditions need to be satisfied. Three main scale conditions hold for the physical
modelling of a mobile-bed topography consisting of pools, channels and bars. The
roughness condition must be satisfied for proper representation of patterns of gradually-
varied flow. As the Chézy coefficient for the hydraulic roughness of sand-bed rivers is
usually much smaller in the physical model than in the field, the model needs to be distorted
by reducing horizontal lengths more than vertical ones. The Shields condition must be
satisfied for proper representation of the sediment transport. This can be attained by using
light-weight sediment (as in Table 3.2) or by tilting the model. The pattern condition must
be satisfied for proper representation of bar patterns. It essentially states that the model must
be undistorted and hence it inherently conflicts with the roughness condition.
A point in defence of Micro Modelling is that, for the same reasons, large physical scale
models are not free from scale effects either. The differences between traditional physical
modelling and Micro Modelling are only gradual. The differences with numerical
modelling, however, are more fundamental. In general, two-dimensional numerical models
reproduce morphological patterns of channels and bars better than physical scale models do.
In Europe those numerical models are in a more advanced state of development than in
America (Langendoen, 2001; Duc et al, 2004).
Nonetheless, as demonstrated by the district, Micro Modelling has definitely a great

potential in the communication with stakeholders.
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Figure 3.11: Micro model prediction (top) and real river (bottom) (source: USACE St. Louis District).
USACE Memphis District focuses its river channel improvement activities primarily on
stabilizing the banks of the Mississippi to a desirable alignment and obtaining the most
efficient flow characteristics for flood control and navigation by means of revetments, dikes
and dredging. In wide reaches of the river, dikes are used to contract the channel width so as
to produce a single efficient channel for navigation and to ensure the flood carrying capacity
of the river. Chutes and secondary channels are closed for the same purpose. Improvement
dredging is employed to assist the river in removing natural obstructions which deflect the
current into undesirable patterns of flow and to assist in developing an efficient channel.
3.4.3 Draft USACE proposal for Upper Mississippi and Illinois Rivers
The U. S. Army Corps of Engineers released for public review and comment a draft
proposal (USACE, 2004) outlining its preferred plan for future ecosystem restoration and
navigation efficiency improvements to the Upper Mississippi and Illinois Rivers. It is
intended to extend several locks on the Upper Mississippi River in order to relieve
increasing waterway congestion, particularly for grain moving to New Orleans for export.
The preferred plan will include a 5.3 billion US$ first-cost long-term framework for
ecosystem restoration and a 2.4 billion US$ first-cost long-term framework for navigation
efficiency improvements.
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The plan, if approved, will be implemented in a phased manner with future checkpoints for
the Administration and the Congress. The proposed alternatives to improve navigability
include congestion fees at locks, on-board technical installations to reduce locking times,
lock extensions and traffic management. For ecosystem restoration the alternatives include
measures such as island building, fish passages, floodplain restoration, water level
management in areas of backwater from navigation dams, backwater restoration, side
channel restoration, alteration of river training structures, bankline protection and changed
dam operation to save species. These measures are partly considered as mitigation measures,
recommended to offset the incremental effects of additional navigation.
3.5 Conclusions
River fairway maintenance and improvement is a significant area of research by the U.S.
Army Corps of Engineers (USACE). The research programmes reflect that environment has
become a main issue in the Corps’ s operation and maintenance of the waterways.
Environment poses a large pressure on the costs of maintenance dredging and current
research therefore seeks an optimum balance between navigation needs and environmental
sustainability. This means that more environment-friendly techniques and approaches for
dredging are developed, for instance techniques with less spill. Regulating structures such as
groynes are used to reduce the need for dredging. Attempts to choose these structures such
that they have a positive environmental impact, for instance by creating new habitats, have
led to developing bendway weirs, notched dikes, stepped-up dikes, chevron dikes and off-
bankline revetments.
The regulating structures to reduce the need for dredging in bends are applied to the full
bend in a similar manner as for bend correction under the Waal Programme in the
Netherlands. Structural bend correction measures on a smaller scale are not an issue. Hence
no suitable small-scale measures are found for bends in the river Waal.
Incision or overall river bed degradation occurs in the upper reaches of the Mississippi,
contrasting an overall aggradation trend in the late 1800s and early 1900s. However, finding
suitable countermeasures does not seem to be an area of research by USACE.
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4 River Danube downstream of Germany

The literature survey on fairway maintenance and improvement on the Danube downstream
of Germany has been carried out by Mr Frans van der Knaap with assistance from Mr Chris
Stolker. A search of suitable information on the internet, using English search terms, has
remained without success, presumably because such information, if any, is only available in
the languages of the riparian countries. Therefore the survey has been limited to a study of
work by Stere & Chirila (1991), Delft Hydraulics et al (1993, 1994), University of Vienna
(1997) and Frederic R. Harris B.V. et al (1999). As a consequence, only selected reaches of
the Danube in Hungary and Rumania have been covered.
4.2 Setting
Its 2,850 kilometres make the Danube the second longest river of Europe after the Volga. It
flows through ten riparian countries: Germany, Austria, Slovakia, Hungary, Croatia, Serbia
and Montenegro, Bulgaria, Rumania, Moldova and the Ukraine (Figure 4.1). It has been an
important commercial fairway for a long time, albeit less important than the Rhine due to its
lack of large industrial centres. Further improvement of the navigability of the Danube is
often identified as a condition for further economical development of the neighbouring
areas.
Chapter 2 of this report deals with the German part of the Danube. Delft Hydraulics et al
(1993, 1994) deal with the Hungarian part between Szap and Budapest, with a subdivision
between the reach bordering Slovakia, upstream of the mouth of the river Ipoly, and a non-
border reach downstream. The Rumanian reaches that are shared with Serbia and
Montenegro (formerly Yugoslavia) and Bulgaria are studied by the University of Vienna
(1997). Stere & Chirila (1991) and Frederic R. Harris B.V. et al (1999) deal with the lower
Rumanian reaches downstream of Iron Gate dam II, where the Danube has an unstable
braided character with several branches, vegetated islands, moving sand bars and eroding
banks. Here dredging often aims at modifying the discharge distribution at channel
bifurcations. The reaches below Iron Gate dam II are confined by flood protection dikes
with heights of 2 to 4.5 m above local bank levels. The construction of the Iron Gate dams
has set off erosion downstream and the resulting bed degradation is expected to continue
while progressing further downstream. This evolution manifests itself in the downward shift
of the discharge rating curves during the period 1965-93 (Frederic R. Harris B.V. et al,
1999). The section between Silistra and Giurgeni (rkm 375-239) comprises the most
important bottlenecks for navigation (Figure 4.2). The Lower Old Danube is deteriorating as
a result of a natural short-cut process via the shorter Bala branch which started to flow
around 1920.
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Figure 4.1: Course of river Danube.
Figure 4.2: Danube between Silistra and Giurgeni.

Frederic R. Harris B.V. et al (1999) give some information about the responsible
organizations for the lower reaches of the Danube. In Bulgary, dredging is related to
aggregate mining and not to fairway maintenance or improvement. The responsible
organization in Rumania is the Lower Danube Fluvial Administration (AFDJ). Before the
start of the low water period, AFDJ investigates which navigation bottlenecks have to be
removed. The dredging works usually start early July.
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They are carried out with one dredger per bottleneck location and take up to four months.
The dredged material is transported with self-propelled split-hopper barges, which dispose
the dredged material some 3-5 km downstream of the dredging location. Navigation
hindrance is limited as much as possible, but if required, dredging activities are interrupted.

Stere & Chirila (1991) deal with the navigation bottlenecks between Silistra and Giurgeni.
Their work can be seen as a precursor of the study by Frederic R. Harris B.V. et al (1999)
for the same reaches of the Danube. Dredging is optimized by using graphs that relate the
required dredging to a probability that navigation is possible on days defined as “navigable”.
Figure 4.3 shows an example of how navigability and dredged volumes depend on the
probability that a water depth of 6 m is available for navigation (“insurance”). This
probability is denoted by ‘A’in the figure. For instance, a reduction of the probability or
insurance from 95% to 85% implies that the actual number of navigable days decreases by
about 5 (left panel a), whereas the required amount of dredging decreases by 3.4 million m3
(right panel b). As fairway maintenance and improvement based on dredging alone is not an
economical long-term solution, various combinations of dredging with structural solutions
have been investigated. Figure 4.4 shows the cumulative amounts of required dredging as a
function of river chainage. It leads to the conclusion that a bottom sill at the entrance of the
Bala branch substantially decreases the required dredging.
Figure 4.3: Dredged volumes and duration curves of the reference levels for dredging: (a) duration curves for
minimum levels, (b) dredging volumes necessary on the sections Calarasi-Cernavoda-Hirsova at
different insurance levels.
Delft Hydraulics et al (1993, 1994) have studied the feasibility of measures to improve the
natural ecosystems and the navigability of the reaches Szap –Ipoly Mouth (rkm 1811-1708)
and Ipoly Mouth –Budapest (rkm 1708-1640). They propose re-alignments of the navigable
channel, dredging of bottlenecks and constrictions of the river bed by means of groynes,
bottom sills or longitudinal dikes. Bottlenecks are found at transitions between wide and
narrow reaches. River bends do not pose particular problems. The primary purpose of the
constrictions is an increase in water level rather than bed erosion. For this purpose, increases
of hydraulic roughness and river sinuosity are proposed as well.
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Overall river bed degradation is a concern in the reach Szap –Ipoly Mouth where excessive
sand mining by dredging has reduced bed levels and water levels by 0.5 to 1.5 m.
Maintenance dredging is proposed to be stopped to attenuate the ongoing bed degradation.
The river does not incise, however, in the stable reach Ipoly Mouth – Budapest. Delft
Hydraulics et al (1993, 1994) deal with dredging and river training in a traditional manner,
without innovative ideas for sustainable river fairway management and improvement. It
remains unclear whether any of the proposed measures have been implemented.
Figure 4.4: Comparison of the estimated dredging volumes of different combinations of measures for
navigation of 3000-ton barges.
University of Vienna (1997) summarizes information on sand and gravel mining, dredging
and river training in the Rumanian reaches that are shared with former Yugoslavia (now
Serbia and Montenegro) and Bulgaria. The study reveals a general deficiency in monitoring,
research and management of dredging activities, as well as a lack of information about the
consequences of dredging.
Frederic R. Harris B.V. et al (1999) study measures to improve navigation on the Danube
between Bazias, slightly below Iron Gate dam II, and Giurgeni (rkm 1073-239). They
address in particular the deterioration of the Lower Old Danube due to the natural short-cut
via the shorter Bala branch. A volume of about 700,000 m3/a has been dredged between the
Bala branch offtake and Giurgeni in the period 1980-90 to meet nautical requirements. This
maintenance dredging has been decreased considerably after 1990 due to budget constraints.
Figure 4.5 shows that this has led to a further decrease in the discharges of the Lower Old
Danube. In 1995, a low sill had been constructed at the entrance of the Bala branch, but the
river bed protection behind this sill had not been completed due to budget constraints. The
resulting scour necessitates restoration works at much higher costs than budgetted originally.
Frederic R. Harris et al (1999) propose a 5.15 m higher sill at the entrance along with
guiding walls (Figure 4.6).
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Figure 4.5: Evolution of Lower Old Danube discharges in relation to the intensity of maintenance dredging.
Figure 4.6: Sills and guiding walls at Bala branch entrance (Frederic R. Harris B.V et al, 1999).
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4.5 Conclusions
Improvement of the navigability of the Danube downstream of Germany is often identified
as a condition for further economical development of the neighbouring areas. Shoals form
bottlenecks for navigation at several locations, in particular in the braided lower reaches
downstream of Iron Gate II. Dredging and river training are being applied, but the present
practice and research does not seem to offer innovative ideas for sustainable river fairway
management and improvement in the Netherlands.
Incision or overall river bed degradation occurs in the reach Szap – Ipoly Mouth, in the
reaches downstream of the Iron Gate dams.
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5 Rivers in China

The literature survey on fairway maintenance and improvement in China has been carried
out by Mr Peter Kerssens. He has attempted to discuss this topic with representatives of the
Ministry of Communications in Beijing during one of his missions to China. The Royal
Netherlands Embassy had managed to arrange a meeting for him at the ministry on Monday
30th of August, 2004, but unfortunately Mr Kerssens had already commitments on that day
in the North East of the country, far from Beijing. As it was not possible to arrange a
meeting on another day, his sources of information had to remain limited to literature and
discussions with Chinese counterparts in other projects.
5.2 Setting
China’ s major inland waterways are the Yangtze system and its associated canal system, the
Pearl River, the Pearl Estuary, the SongHua (HeilongJiang) and LiaoHe systems and a series
of artificial canals such as the Grand Canal for North-South connections. Since a few
decades, the Yellow River does not play a significant role anymore as inland waterway,
except for some local traffic. This can be ascribed partly to its enormous sediment loads and
the associated sedimentation problems, but it is also due to the water abstractions that make
that the downstream reach is dry during a substantial part of the year.
River regulation has always been an important task of the Chinese government to protect its
population from flooding. More than 4,000 years ago, Da Yu managed to control flooding of
the Yellow River, which was rewarded by making him emperor of the country. Infrastructure
for navigation was seen as a separate task, primarily for strategic reasons. The east-west
running major rivers were connected through an extensive system of canals to allow fast
travelling to far corners of the empire and to optimize the distribution of rice, wheat and
military pays. The construction of the Grand Canal was started about 1,400 years ago. It has
been extended in phases and now stands as the longest canal in the world, connecting
Beijing to Hangzhou. Similar important canals were constructed during later dynasties and
even in the time of the communist People’ s Republic of China, the latter also for water
supply and agriculture, with evocative names such as Red Flag Canal and People’ s Victory
Canal.
Matelas & Nordin (1980) present the geography, the hydrology, the discharge conveyance
and several hydrometric characteristics of the Chinese rivers. Historical information is given
by Ringers (1947), Kuo Ching-Hui (1958), Liu Chang-Ming & Shu Li-Kung (1958),
Scheuerlein (1981), Dijk (1984), Li HaoLin et al (1988), Tang Yin-An & Zhou Zhong-Lie
(1989) and Yan Kai (1989).
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Furthermore, PKK Consultant & Travers Morgan (1995), ADB & WL | Delft Hydraulics
(1995), World Bank (1997) and Louis Berger et al (1997) deal with aspects of inland
waterway transport such as overall demand, itineraries, amounts of freight, modal split,
development of inland waterway transport, fairway capacity, required improvements, etc.
Figure 5.1: Map of rivers in China.

In China, the Ministry of Water Resources is responsible for water resources management
and the Ministry of Communications for inland waterway transport. Both ministries apply
dredging and river training, but for different purposes. On a national level, these two
ministries rarely co-operate, but the co-operation is better between different responsible
organizations on the lower administrative levels of provinces, cities and districts. The reason
for this is that a local administration can more easily enforce a co-operation, but also that
technical staff on the local level has sometimes been placed in a single support office or
technical service.
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In prominent national projects, such as the Three Gorges Project, the interests of navigation,
flood protection and hydropower are all taken into account. Nonetheless, such projects are
carried out under the responsibility of a single ministry, with the support of higher political
powers such as the State Development and Reform Commission and the National People’ s
Congress.
The Dutch Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management has a tradition of
co-operation with the Chinese Ministry of Water Resources (Anonymous, 1992, 1999). To a
lesser extent, there have been contacts with the Ministry of Communications as well, but
primarily for transport and telecommunications, including the execution of joint projects
(State Planning Commission & Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Watermanagement,
1998; Erasmus Universiteit, 1996).

Both dredging and river training are used to improve the navigability and the flood
discharge capacity of rivers in China (Li HaoLin et al, 1988; Wang Yi-Lang et al 1989; Chen
Guo-Zhen, 1989; Yan Kai, 1989; Tang Yin-An & Zhou Zhong-Lie, 1989; Wang ShuCheng,
2002). Generally, it seems to be on an ad hoc basis that rivers are dredged to eliminate local
bottlenecks for navigation or flood discharge conveyance. The effect can only be temporary.
One of the most important works in this context is the dredging of the navigation channel in
the mouth of the Yangtze to give ocean ships access to the port of Shanghai. As this 12.2 m
(40 feet) deep channel could only be maintained by additional training works, longitudinal
dikes have been constructed along the Yangtze South Channel over a distance of about 35 to
40 km. Nonetheless, frequent dredging remains necessary to maintain the channel. This
project is carried out entirely under the responsibility of the Ministry of Communications,
although the Shanghai Water Authority, which operates under the Ministry of Water
Resources, is involved in the planning to a certain extent.
Dredging and training works are also combined in other cases, such as the access of
Wenzhou harbour in Zhejiang province (Li HaoLin et al, 1988). It remains unclear, however,
whether this leads to sustainable situations or a continuing series of ad hoc dredging at local
bottlenecks. Lu WangCheng (1995) shows that the Ministry of Communications has an
active dredging policy to maintain a navigable fairway on the middle Yangtze. He adds that
the original policy assumed explicitly combinations of dredging and river re-alignment,
which implies river training. Specific projects on the middle Yangtze are generally executed
under the responsibility of provincial or local Bureaus of Communications.
An overview of projects by one of the largest dredging companies of China shows that most
dredging is carried out in the estuaries and ports of the eastern coast of China (Shanghai
Dredging Corporation, 2002).
Finally, the Hundred Dredgers Project is worth mentioning. This is a co-operation project
between the People’ s Republic of China and the Netherlands, in which a hundred dredgers
are designed jointly and subsequently manufactured partly in the Netherlands and partly in
China (Qi et al, 1999). As this co-operation falls under the Ministry of Water Resources,
dredging in this context is primarily related to flood discharge conveyance.
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5.5 Conclusions
Dredging, river training and combinations of those are important activities in China, but in
general they seem to be implemented on an ad hoc basis only. They do not seem to offer
innovative ideas for sustainable fairway maintenance and improvement in the Netherlands.
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6 Analysis and evaluation
6.1 Measures to reduce the required dredging in river

bends
6.1.1 Modification of factors that tilt the cross-sectional profile
Theoretically, a first approximation of the cross-sectional profile is given by the

axisymmetric solution of the two-dimensional, depth-averaged equations for river
morphology:
τy
iy = f ( θ ) (6.1)
τx
where
f(θ) = function for effect of gravity pull along transverse bed slopes (-)
iy = transverse bed slope (-)
θ = Shields parameter (-)
τx = longitudinal bed shear stress, related to primary flow (Pa)
τy = transverse bed shear stress, related to secondary flow (spiral flow) (Pa)
Talmon et al (1995) give the following expression for f(θ):
0.3
D
f ( θ ) = 9   θ0.5 (6.2)
h
where
D = representative sediment grain size (m)

h = water depth (m)
Furthermore, the following standard definitions hold:
τ x = ρghix = ρg θ∆D
(6.3)
where
g = acceleration due to gravity (m/s 2)

ix = longitudinal river gradient (longitudinal bed slope) (-)
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∆ = relative mass density of sediment under water (-)

ρ = mass density of water (kg/m3)
Substitution of Equations (6.2) and (6.3) into Equation (6.1) yields the following relation for
the cross-sectional tilting in river bends:
9τ y
iy = (6.4)
ρgh i ∆ 0.5 D 0.2
0.8 0.5
x
In this relation, ρ and g are parameters that cannot be altered. Furthermore, it is not
desirable to change h and ix to solve local problems as they represent overall features of the
navigation channel and the longitudinal profile. Possibly feasible ways to reduce the
transverse bed slope are hence:
• Attenuation of the bend-induced spiral flow (τy);

• Replacement of bed sediment by denser material (∆);
• Replacement of bed sediment by coarser material (D).
The bend-induced spiral flow may be attenuated by re-aligning the river bends, but such a
costly intervention is beyond the scope of the present literature survey. The bend-induced
spiral flow may also be attenuated by the generation of counter-rotating spiral flows using
bottom vanes or floating surface vanes.
Locally, the point bar may be higher due to dynamic “overdeepening” (Struiksma et al,
1985; Parker & Johanneson, 1989). Overdeepening is known to occur in the river Waal and
can be suppressed by decreasing the value of the interaction parameter, IP, defined as:
2
2 g B
IP = 2 2   f ( θ ) (6.5)
π C h
where
B = low-water river width (m)

C = Chézy coefficient for hydraulic roughness (m1/2/s)
IP = interaction parameter (-)
In this relation, C is a parameter that is difficult to control. Furthermore, it is not desirable to

decrease the width-to-depth ratio, B/h, because that would imply an overall shallowing of
the navigation channel. Thus only reduction of f(θ) remains an option. The elaboration of
Equation (6.1) has shown that this can be translated into the measure of replacing bed
sediment by coarser or denser material.
6.1.2 De-tilting of cross-sectional profile by structural measures
Structural measures to correct the cross-sectional profile in river bends have been
implemented in the Waal, in the German Danube and in the Mississippi. These measures
include bottom groynes, fixed layers, bottom vanes and bendway weirs.
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However, they are applied to the full bend and hence they do not classify as small-scale
measures in the sense of this literature survey. Small-scale measures in river bends may be
useful in particular in case of persistent local, non-migrating shoals on top of the point bars.
The prevention of such local shoals requires a diagnosis similar to the ones carried out
recently for the river IJssel (Sloff et al, 2002). They may be suppressed by local adaptation
of river training structures, which may include rock fills in the local scour holes attached to
those structures. However, such local shoals do not occur on the smooth point bar in the
Waal bend at Hulhuizen.
6.1.3 De-tilting of cross-sectional profile by recurrent measures
Dredging and dumping are classical recurrent measures to correct the cross-sectional profile
in river bends. Innovative alternatives might be the application of floating surface screens
and a deliberate use of propeller race and sailing itinerary of the ships that are plying on the
river.
6.2 Measures to arrest overall bed degradation
6.2.1 Modification of factors that lower the longitudinal profile
The lowering of the longitudinal profile of a river can be understood as a decrease in the
longitudinal river gradient. A mathematical relation for this gradient can be derived from
three fundamental equations for a trained river in regime: the continuity equation, the
momentum equation and the sediment balance (Jansen et al, 1979). The continuity equation
represents conservation of water mass and expresses for a river in regime that the amount of
water flowing through each cross-section is equal to the discharge of the river:
Q = B⋅h⋅u (6.6)
where
u = depth-averaged flow velocity (m/s)

Q = river discharge (m3/s)
The momentum equation for a river in regime expresses that the water does not accelerate or
decelerate because the hydraulic resistance is exactly equal to the driving component of
gravity:
u = C h ⋅ ix (6.7)
The sediment balance represents conservation of sediment mass. For a river in regime, it
expresses that the sediment transporting capacity equals the total sediment load:
m
Qs = B un
∆ Dpq (6.8)
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where
m = empirical coefficient in sediment transport formula (s n-1·mp-n-2)

n = empirical exponent of u in sediment transport formula (-)
p = empirical exponent of ∆ in sediment transport formula (-)
q = empirical exponent of D in sediment transport formula (-)
Qs = total sediment load (m3/s)
The exponents p and q satisfy p ≥ 1 and q ≥ 1. It can be demonstrated theoretically that the
exponent of u should always satisfy n ≥ 3 (e.g. Sloff & Mosselman, 1998, § 3.6).
The fundamental Equations (6.6) to (6.8) can be combined into
n/3
m  2 Q 
Qs = B p q C ⋅h ⋅i  (6.9)
∆ D  B⋅h 
as well as
n
m  Q 
Qs = B p q   (6.10)
∆ D  B⋅h 
Furthermore, the following geometrical relation holds:
zb ( x ) = z w ( 0 ) − h ( 0 ) + ix ⋅ x (6.11)
where
x = distance along river to erosion base in river mouth (m)

zb = river bed level (m + datum)
zw = water level (m + datum)
Combination of Equations (6.9) to (6.11) yields the following longitudinal profile of the
river bed:
3/ n
m Q n  Qs ∆ p D q   B1−3/ n 
zb ( x ) = zw ( 0 ) − +   2 ⋅ x (6.12)
Qs ∆ p D q B n −1  m   CQ 
This means that overall bed degradation can be arrested by increasing B, ∆, D, Qs, x or zw(0),
or by decreasing C or Q. Increasing B is not desirable because that would induce an overall
shallowing of the navigation channel. A change in zw(0) is not effective as it does not affect
the longitudinal river gradient. Furthermore, C is a parameter that is difficult to control.
Thus the following options to arrest overall bed degradation remain:
• Replacement of bed sediment by denser material (∆);

• Replacement of bed sediment by coarser material (D);
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• River bed nourishment by artificial sediment supply (Qs);

• Decrease of river discharges (Q);
• Increase of sinuosity and hence increase of the length of the river (x).
River bed nourishment is the solution that has been selected in Germany. In the Netherlands,
sediment from the intensively dredged lower reaches might be transported upstream by
ships. A four-barge push tow could transport about 7000 m3 of sediment at a time. If the
supplied sediments are coarser or denser than the sediments of the river bed, the amount of
required sediment supply will eventually decrease. It should be noted, however, that the
latter development into a more sustainable situation may require a very long time. A supply
of a 1 m thick layer of sediments to 100 km of the 250 m wide river Waal corresponds to a
volume of 25 million m3.
The finding for the German Danube that a supply of sediments coarser than the sediment of
the river bed increases the required keel clearance is not necessarily valid for the river Waal
as well, because the grain sizes in the Waal are generally smaller. This still requires a closer
investigation. Furthermore, optimum implementation of river bed nourishment with
different materials will require research on processes of mixing and sorting (e.g.
Schwerdtfeger, 2004).
Interestingly, Subsection 6.1.1 has shown that a supply of coarser or denser sediments also
improves the navigability of river bends.
6.2.2 Maintaining of longitudinal profile by structural measures
Canalization of the river by means of dams, weirs or sills prevents overall bed degradation,
although it may enhance the erosion downstream of the canalized reach. This solution has
been applied to the Rhein upstream of Iffezheim, to the Elbe near Geesthacht, to the German
Danube upstream of Straubing and downstream of Vilshofen and to the Upper Mississippi.
The busy navigation traffic on the river Waal makes that canalization is not a desirable
option.
6.2.3 Maintaining of longitudinal profile by recurrent measures
The longitudinal profile can be maintained by recurrent artificial sediment supply. This has
been discussed in Subsection 6.2.1.
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7 Conclusions and recommendations

Innovative research for sustainable river fairway maintenance and improvement has been
found in Germany and in the USA, but not in other riparian countries of the Danube or in
China. However, none of the cases investigated provides information for sustainable small-
scale measures to reduce the required dredging in bends of the river Waal. The method of
“preventive dredging” developed for the Rhine in Germany may have advantages for
reaches with bed forms such as dunes, but bed forms are not a problem on the smooth point
bar of the Waal bend at Hulhuizen. Furthermore, innovative river training structures
developed for the Mississippi are applied to the full bend and hence do not classify as small-
scale measures in the sense of the present literature survey.
River bed nourishment by artificial sediment supply is found to be an appropriate measure

to arrest overall bed degradation. Germany has substantial experience with it. If the supplied
sediments are coarser than the sediments of the river bed, the amount of required sediment
supply will eventually decrease. Sediments with higher mass densities or additives to
increase cohesion may have similar effects as coarser sediments. A theoretical analysis
shows that this also improves the navigability of river bends. It is recommended to adopt
this measure under the reservation that it requires further research on grain mixing and
sorting processes, impact assessment and practical aspects of optimum application. For such
research, close co-operation with German organizations is recommended.
Recurrent measures offer other avenues for sustainable maintenance and improvement of the
fairway in river bends. Here innovative alternatives to dredging are possibly the application
of floating screens and the use of the ships that are plying on the river. Present ideas include
the frequent acquisition of bed level data by sonar mounted on commercial ships and a
deliberate use of propeller race and sailing itinerary. It is recommended to develop further
ideas in this direction in close co-operation with the shipping sector.
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Sustainable river fairway maintenance and improvement

Technical Report · December 2004

Erik Mosselman Dirk Schwanenberg

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

1.2 Scope and objectives ............................................................................ 1— 3

1.3 Organization of the project ................................................................... 1— 3

1.4 Acknowledgements .............................................................................. 1— 3

2 Rivers Rhine, Elbe and Danube in Germany................................................. 2— 1

2.1 Approach of literature survey ............................................................... 2— 1

2.2 Setting ................................................................................................. 2— 1

2.2.1 River Rhine ............................................................................. 2— 1

2.2.2 River Elbe ............................................................................... 2— 3

2.2.3 River Danube .......................................................................... 2— 4

2.3 Responsible organizations .................................................................... 2— 5

2.4 Present practice, issues and research..................................................... 2— 7

2.4.1 River Rhine ............................................................................. 2— 7

2.4.2 River Elbe ............................................................................... 2— 8

2.4.3 River Danube ........................................................................ 2— 10

2.5 Conclusions ....................................................................................... 2— 10

3.1 Approach of literature survey ............................................................... 3— 1

3.2 Setting ................................................................................................. 3— 1

3.3 Responsible organizations .................................................................... 3— 6

3.4 Present practice, issues and research..................................................... 3— 7

3.4.1 DOTS and DOER programmes ................................................ 3— 7

3.4.2 Developments at districts......................................................... 3— 8

3.4.3 Draft USACE proposal for Upper Mississippi and Illinois

3.5 Conclusions ....................................................................................... 3— 13

4 River Danube downstream of Germany ........................................................ 4— 1

4.1 Approach of literature survey ............................................................... 4— 1

4.2 Setting ................................................................................................. 4— 1

4.3 Responsible organizations .................................................................... 4— 2

4.4 Present practice, issues and research..................................................... 4— 3

4.5 Conclusions ......................................................................................... 4— 6

5 Rivers in China ............................................................................................... 5— 1

5.1 Approach of literature survey ............................................................... 5— 1

5.2 Setting ................................................................................................. 5— 1

5.3 Responsible organizations .................................................................... 5— 2

5.4 Present practice, issues and research..................................................... 5— 3

5.5 Conclusions ......................................................................................... 5— 4

6 Analysis and evaluation.................................................................................. 6— 1

6.1 Measures to reduce the required dredging in river bends....................... 6— 1

6.1.1 Modification of factors that tilt the cross-sectional profile ........ 6— 1

6.1.2 De-tilting of cross-sectional profile by structural measures....... 6— 2

6.1.3 De-tilting of cross-sectional profile by recurrent measures ....... 6— 3

6.2 Measures to arrest overall bed degradation ........................................... 6— 3

6.2.1 Modification of factors that lower the longitudinal profile........ 6— 3

6.2.2 Maintaining of longitudinal profile by structural measures ....... 6— 5

6.2.3 Maintaining of longitudinal profile by recurrent measures........ 6— 5

7 Conclusions and recommendations................................................................ 7— 1

WL | Delft Hydraulics iii

It is against this background that Rijkswaterstaat-DON has commissioned WL | Delft

1.2 Scope and objectives

The survey aims at answering the following questions:

1. Which organizations are responsible for river fairway and improvement?

1.3 Organization of the project

Messrs Roelof Smedes (Directie Oost-Nederland) and Ferdinand Bockhoudt (Bouwdienst)

Messrs A. Schmidt, T. Wenka, P. Faulhaber, M. Alexy, B. Henschel and J. Kellermann:

Mr D. Abel: Wasser- und Schifffahrtsamt Duisburg-Rhein, Außenstelle Wesel, Germany.

Mr. Vollmer: Bundesanstalt für Gewässerkunde (BfG), Germany.

Mr Eddy Langendoen: USDA-ARS National Sedimentation Laboratory, University, MS,

Staff of Royal Dutch Embassy in Beijing, China.