TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ

Fundamentals of Fracture
TJ TJ Mechanics
TJ TJ TJ

Materials and Metallurgy (ME-209)

TJ TJ
Week 8 TJ TJ

TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ
Dr. Tariq Jamil
TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ

E-mail: tariqjamil@neduet.edu.pk
TJ TJ TJ TJ
Office: DICE Energy Lab, MED, NEDUET

1
 Materials and Metallurgy (ME-209)
(According to Course Outline)
TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ

Mechanical properties of materials: fundamentals of fracture mechanics,

TJ
importance of fractureTJ TJ
mechanics, material characterization TJ surfaces,
of fracture TJ
stress distribution around a crack, fatigue testing, S-N curves, creep deformation
behavior,
TJ ASTM standards forTJ all mechanical tests TJ TJ

TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ

TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ

TJ TJ TJ TJ

2
 Books / Resource Material
TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ

• Text book: “Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction” by

David G. Rethwisch, 7th Edition
TJ William D. Callister and TJ TJ TJ TJ
• Chapter# 8 “Failure”

TJ TJ TJ TJ
• Reference book: Principles of Material Sciences & Engineering by
William F. Smith, rd
TJ TJ3 Edition TJ TJ TJ

• Online resources (Lectures and resource material on Google

TJ classroom, YouTube, Wikipedia)
TJ TJ TJ TJ

TJ TJ TJ TJ

3
 Outline
TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ
• How do cracks that lead to failure form?
• How is fracture resistance
TJ TJ
quantified? How
TJ
do the fracture resistances
TJ
of TJ
the different material classes compare?
• How do we estimate the stress to fracture?
TJ TJ TJ TJ
• How do loading rate, loading history, and temperature affect the failure
TJ behavior of TJ
materials? TJ TJ TJ

TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ

TJ TJ TJ TJ
Ship-cyclic loading Computer chip-cyclic Hip implant-cyclic
from waves. thermal loading. loading from walking.
Adapted from chapter-opening photograph, Adapted from Fig. 22.30(b), Callister 7e. Adapted from Fig. 22.26(b),
Chapter 8, Callister & Rethwisch 8e. (by (Fig. 22.30(b) is courtesy of National Callister 7e.
Neil Boenzi, The New York Times.) Semiconductor Corporation.) 4
 Failure of Engineering Materials
TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ

• Undesirable Events for several reasons

TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ
• Human lives are put in jeopardy
• Economic losses
TJ TJ TJ TJ
• Interference with the availability of products and services
TJ • Usual causesTJ TJ TJ TJ

• Improper materials selection

TJ • Material processing
TJ TJ
(impurities, defects) TJ TJ

• Inadequate design of the component

TJ TJ TJ TJ
• Misuse

5
 Fracture Mechanisms
TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ

• Ductile fracture
TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ
• Accompanied by significant plastic deformation

TJ TJ TJ TJ
• Brittle fracture
TJ • Little or no
TJ plastic deformation
TJ TJ TJ

• Catastrophic
TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ

TJ TJ TJ TJ

6
 Ductile vs Brittle Failure
TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ

TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ

TJ TJ TJ TJ

TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ

TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ

TJ TJ TJ TJ

7
 Ductile vs Brittle Failure
TJ • Classification:
TJ TJ TJ TJ
Fracture Very Moderately
Brittle
TJ TJ behavior: Ductile
TJ Ductile TJ TJ

TJ TJ TJ TJ

TJ TJ Adapted from Fig. 8.1, TJ TJ TJ

Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ

TJ %AR TJ
or %EL Large Moderate
TJ Small TJ
• Ductile fracture is Ductile: Brittle:
usually more desirable Warning before No
than brittle fracture! fracture warning
8
 Examples
TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ

• Very Ductile
TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ
• pure gold and lead at room temperature, and
• other metals, polymers, and inorganic glasses at elevated
TJ TJ TJ TJ
temperatures.
TJ • neck downTJ to a point fracture,
TJshowing virtually 100%
TJ TJ
reduction in area.

TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ

TJ TJ TJ TJ

9
Example: Pipe Failures
• Ductile failure:
-- one piece
-- large deformation

• Brittle failure:
-- many pieces
-- small deformations

Figures from V.J. Colangelo and F.A.

Heiser, Analysis of Metallurgical Failures
(2nd ed.), Fig. 4.1(a) and (b), p. 66 John
Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1987. Used with
permission.

10
Moderately Ductile
• Failure Stages:
Failure
void void growth shearing
necking fracture
nucleation and coalescence at surface
s

• Resulting 50
50mm
mm irregular and fibrous
appearance
fracture
surfaces
(steel)
100 mm
particles From V.J. Colangelo and F.A. Heiser, Fracture surface of tire cord wire
serve as void Analysis of Metallurgical Failures (2nd loaded in tension. Courtesy of F.
ed.), Fig. 11.28, p. 294, John Wiley and Roehrig, CC Technologies, Dublin,
nucleation Sons, Inc., 1987. (Orig. source: P. OH. Used with permission.
sites. Thornton, J. Mater. Sci., Vol. 6, 1971, pp. 11
347-56.)
 Moderately Ductile vs. Brittle Failure
TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ

TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ

TJ TJ TJ TJ

TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ

TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ
cup-and-cone fracture brittle fracture

TJ TJ TJ 8e.
Adapted from Fig. 8.3, Callister & Rethwisch TJ

12
 Fractographs provide valuable information in the
analyses of fracture, such as the fracture mode,
Ductile Failure the stress state, and the site of crack initiation.
TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ

TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ

TJ TJ TJ TJ

TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ

TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ

(a) Scanning electron

TJ fractograph showingTJ spherical (b) Scanning
TJ electron fractograph showing
TJ
dimples characteristic of ductile fracture resulting parabolic-shaped dimples characteristic of ductile
from uniaxial tensile loads. 3300x fracture resulting from shear loading. 5000x

(From R.W. Hertzberg, Deformation and Fracture Mechanics of Engineering Materials,

3rd edition. Copyright © 1989 by John Wiley & Sons, New York. Reprinted by 13
permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.)
 Brittle Failure
TJ TJ of materials that failed
Fracture surfaces TJin a brittle manner will TJ TJ
have their own distinctive
patterns; any signs of gross plastic deformation will be absent. For example, in some steel
pieces, a series of V-shaped “chevron” markings may form near the center of the fracture
TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ
cross section that point back toward the crack initiation site (Figure 8.5a). Other brittle
fracture surfaces contain lines or ridges that radiate from the origin of the crack in a
fanlikeTJ
pattern (Figure 8.5b). Often,
TJ both of these marking TJ patterns will be sufficiently
TJ
coarse to be discerned with the naked eye. For very hard and fine-grained metals, there
TJ will be no discernible
TJ fracture pattern. Brittle
TJ fracture in amorphous
TJ materials, such as TJ
ceramic glasses, yields a relatively shiny and smooth surface.

TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ

TJ TJ TJ TJ
2x
1x
Arrows indicate point at which failure originated
Adapted from Fig. 8.5(a), Callister & Rethwisch 8e. Adapted from Fig. 8.5(b), Callister & Rethwisch 8e. 14
 Trans- vs. Inter-granular
fracture.
TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ

TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ

On left
TJ TJ TJ TJ
Scanning electron fractograph of ductile
cast iron showing a trans granular fracture
TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ
surface

TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ
On right
Scanning electron fractograph showing an
intergranular fracture surface. 50.
TJ TJ TJ TJ

15
Brittle Fracture Surfaces
• Intergranular
(between grains)
4 mm
1 mm
(Orig. source: K. Friedrick, Fracture 1977, Vol.
3, ICF4, Waterloo, CA, 1977, p. 1119.)
• Transgranular
304 S. Steel (through grains)
(metal) 316 S. Steel
Reprinted w/permission (metal)
from "Metals Handbook", Reprinted w/ permission
9th ed, Fig. 633, p. 650. from "Metals Handbook",
Copyright 1985, ASM 9th ed, Fig. 650, p. 357.
International, Materials Copyright 1985, ASM
Park, OH. (Micrograph by International, Materials
J.R. Keiser and A.R. Park, OH. (Micrograph by
Olsen, Oak Ridge D.R. Diercks, Argonne
National Lab.)
160 mm
National Lab.)
Polypropylene Al Oxide
(polymer) (ceramic)
Reprinted w/ permission Reprinted w/ permission
from R.W. Hertzberg, from "Failure Analysis of
"Defor-mation and Brittle Materials", p. 78.
Fracture Mechanics of Copyright 1990, The
Engineering Materials", American Ceramic
(4th ed.) Fig. 7.35(d), p. Society, Westerville, OH.
303, John Wiley and (Micrograph by R.M.
Sons, Inc., 1996. Gruver and H. Kirchner.)
3 mm
16
Ideal vs Real Materials
• Stress-strain behavior (Room T):
s perfect mat’l-no flaws
E/10 TSengineering << TS perfect
materials materials
carefully produced glass fiber

E/100 typical ceramic typical strengthened metal

typical polymer
0.1 e
• DaVinci (500 yrs ago!) observed... Reprinted w/
permission from R.W.
Hertzberg,
-- the longer the wire, the "Deformation and
smaller the load for failure. Fracture Mechanics
of Engineering
• Reasons: Materials", (4th ed.)
Fig. 7.4. John Wiley
-- flaws cause premature failure. and Sons, Inc., 1996.

-- larger samples contain longer flaws!

17
 Flaws are Stress Concentrators!
TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ
• Griffith Crack
TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ
1/ 2
a
 
s m = 2soTJ = K t so
 t 
TJ TJ TJ

TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ

t where
TJ TJ TJ
t = radius of curvature
TJ TJ
so = applied stress
TJ TJ sm = stress
TJ at crack tip TJ

Adapted from Fig. 8.8(a), Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

18
 Concentration of Stress at Crack Tip
TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ

TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ

TJ TJ TJ TJ

TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ

TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ
Adapted from Fig. 8.8(b),
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
TJ TJ TJ TJ

19
 Engineering Fracture Design
TJ • Avoid
TJ sharp corners!
TJ TJ TJ
s smax
Stress Conc. Factor, K t = TJs0
TJ TJ TJ TJ
w
smax
2.5
TJ TJ TJ TJ
r, h
TJ TJ TJ
fillet 2.0 increasing w/hTJ TJ

radius
TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ
1.5
TJ TJ TJ TJ
1.0 r/h
0 0.5 1.0
Adapted from Fig. 8.2W(c), Callister 6e. sharper fillet radius
(Fig. 8.2W(c) is from G.H. Neugebauer, 20
Prod. Eng. (NY), Vol. 14, pp. 82-87 1943.)
 Crack Propagation
TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ
Cracks having sharp tips propagate easier than cracks
having blunt tips
TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ
• A plastic material deforms at a crack tip, which
“blunts” the crack.
TJ TJ TJ deformed TJ

TJ TJ TJ
region
TJ TJ
brittle ductile

TJ TJ
Energy balance on the crack TJ TJ TJ

• Elastic strain energy-

TJ • energy stored
TJ TJ
in material as it is elastically deformed TJ
• this energy is released when the crack propagates
• creation of new surfaces requires energy
21
 Criterion for Crack Propagation
TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ

Crack propagates if crack-tip stress (sm) exceeds a critical stress (sc)

TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ
1/ 2
 2E s 
TJ i.e., sm >TJsc sc =  TJ  TJ
 a 
TJ where TJ TJ TJ TJ
– E = modulus of elasticity
TJ
– s = specific surface
TJ
energy TJ TJ TJ
– a = one half length of internal crack

TJ
For ductile TJ
materials => replace s with s + p TJ TJ

where p is plastic deformation energy

22
 Fracture Toughness Ranges fracture toughness is a property which describes
the ability of a material to resist fracture
Graphite/
Metals/ Composites/
Ceramics/ Polymers
Alloys fibers The linear-elastic fracture toughness of a material
TJ TJ
Semicond TJ TJ TJ
100 is determined from the stress intensity factor K
C-C(|| fibers) 1
70 Steels at which a thin crack in the material begins to
60 Ti alloys grow.
TJ50 TJ TJ TJ TJ
40
Al alloys
30 Mg alloys
K Ic (MPa · m 0.5 )

20 TJ TJ TJ TJ
Al/Al oxide(sf) 2

Y2 O 3 /ZrO 2 (p) 4
TJ TJ C/C( fibers) TJ1 TJ TJ
10
Al oxid/SiC(w) 3 Based on data in Table B.5, Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
Diamond Si nitr/SiC(w) 5
7 Al oxid/ZrO 2 (p) 4 Composite reinforcement geometry is: f = fibers; sf = short fibers; w = whiskers; p =
6 Si carbide Glass/SiC(w) 6
TJ 5 Al oxide TJ
PET TJ Addition data as noted (vol. fraction TJ
particles. of reinforcement): TJ
4 Si nitride
PP 1. (55vol%) ASM Handbook, Vol. 21, ASM Int., Materials Park, OH (2001) p. 606.
3 PVC 2. (55 vol%) Courtesy J. Cornie, MMC, Inc., Waltham, MA.
3. (30 vol%) P.F. Becher et al., Fracture Mechanics of Ceramics, Vol. 7, Plenum Press (1986). pp. 61-73.
2 TJ PC TJ TJ TJ
4. Courtesy CoorsTek, Golden, CO.
5. (30 vol%) S.T. Buljan et al., "Development of Ceramic Matrix Composites for Application in Technology
for Advanced Engines Program", ORNL/Sub/85-22011/2, ORNL, 1992.
1 <100>
Si crystal PS Glass 6 6. (20vol%) F.D. Gace et al., Ceram. Eng. Sci. Proc., Vol. 7 (1986) pp. 978-82.
<111>
0.7 Glass -soda
0.6 Polyester 23
Concrete
0.5
 Fracture Crack Separation Modes
TJ TJ TJ TJ Kc is fracture toughness TJ
Y is a dimensionless parameter or function that
depends on both crack and specimen sizes and
geometries, as well as the manner of load
TJ TJ TJ TJ
application. TJ

Mathematical expressions for Y have been

determined for a variety of crack-specimen
TJ TJ TJ TJ are often relatively
geometries; these expressions
complex.

TJ TJ TJ TJ For plain Strain problem Y = 1. TJ

TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ

Mode I: Opening Mode III: Out-of-plane shear

TJ TJ TJ TJ

plane strain fracture

toughness Mode II: In-plane shear or in combination 24
Design Against Crack Growth
• Crack growth condition:
K ≥ Kc = Ys a
• Largest, most highly stressed cracks grow first!
--Scenario 1: Max. flaw --Scenario 2: Design stress
size dictates design stress. dictates max. flaw size.
2
Kc 1  K c 
sdesign  amax 
Y amax   Ysdesign 
amax
s
fracture fracture
no no
fracture amax fracture s 25
Design Example: Aircraft Wing
• Material has KIc = 26 MPa-m0.5
• Two designs to consider...
Design A Design B
--largest flaw is 9 mm --use same material
--failure stress = 112 MPa --largest flaw is 4 mm
K Ic --failure stress = ?
• Use... sc =
Y amax
• Key point: Y and KIc are the same for both designs. KIc
= s a = constant
Y 
112 MPa 9 mm 4 mm

--Result:
(s c amax ) = (s
A c amax ) B

Answer: (sc )B = 168 MPa 26

 The plane strain fracture toughness is a fundamental material property
that depends on many factors, the most influential of which are
temperature, strain rate, and microstructure.
TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ

TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ
• diminishes with increasing strain rate
and decreasing temperature.
TJ TJ TJ TJ
• normally increases with reduction in
TJ TJ TJ TJ size as composition and other
grain TJ
microstructural variables are maintained
constant.
TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ

TJ TJ TJ TJ

27
 List of Several Common Nondestructive
TJ
Testing (NDT)
TJ
Techniques
TJ TJ TJ

TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ

TJ TJ TJ TJ

TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ

TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ

TJ TJ TJ TJ

28
 (Izod)
(Charpy)
Impact Testing
TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ
Two standardized tests, the Charpy and Izod, were
designed and are still used to measure the impact
energy, sometimes also termed
TJ TJ notch toughness. TJ TJ TJ

TJ TJ TJ TJ

TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ
• Impact loading:
-- severe testing case
TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ
-- makes material more brittle
-- decreases toughness
TJ TJ TJ TJ

final height initial height

Adapted from Fig. 8.12(b), Callister & Rethwisch 8e. (Fig.
8.12(b) is adapted from H.W. Hayden, W.G. Moffatt, and J.
Wulff, The Structure and Properties of Materials, Vol. III, 29
Mechanical Behavior, John Wiley and Sons, Inc. (1965) p. 13.)
Influence of Temperature on Impact Energy
• Ductile-to-Brittle Transition Temperature (DBTT)...

FCC metals (e.g., Cu, Ni), HCP metals

Impact Energy

BCC metals (e.g., iron at T < 914ºC)

polymers
Brittle More Ductile

High strength materials ( s y > E/150)

Temperature Adapted from Fig. 8.15,

Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
Ductile-to-brittle
transition temperature

30
 Influence of Carbon Content on the Charpy V-notch
TJ
Energy vsTJTemperature Behavior
TJ
for Steel
TJ TJ

TJ TJ TJ • decreasing theTJ
average grain size results in TJ
a lowering of the transition temperature.
Hence, refining the grain size both
TJ TJ TJ strengthens and toughens TJsteels.

TJ TJ TJ TJ
• increasing the carbon content, TJ
while
increasing the strength of steels, also
raises the CVN transition of steels
TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ

TJ TJ TJ TJ

31
Design Strategy:
Stay Above The DBTT!
• Pre-WWII: The Titanic
Reprinted w/ permission from R.W. Hertzberg,
"Deformation and Fracture Mechanics of Engineering
Materials", (4th ed.) Fig. 7.1(a), p. 262, John Wiley and
Sons, Inc., 1996. (Orig. source: Dr. Robert D. Ballard,
The Discovery of the Titanic.)
• Problem: Steels were used having DBTT’s just below
room temperature.
• WWII: Liberty ships
Reprinted w/ permission from R.W. Hertzberg,
"Deformation and Fracture Mechanics of Engineering
Materials", (4th ed.) Fig. 7.1(b), p. 262, John Wiley and
Sons, Inc., 1996. (Orig. source: Earl R. Parker,
"Behavior of Engineering Structures", Nat. Acad. Sci.,
Nat. Res. Council, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., NY,
1957.)
32
 Fatigue
TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ
• Fatigue = failure under applied cyclic stress.
specimen compression on top Adapted fromTJ Fig. 8.18,
TJ TJ TJ TJ
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
motor (Fig. 8.18 is from Materials
bearing bearing counter
Science in Engineering, 4/E
by Carl. A. Keyser, Pearson
TJ TJ flex coupling TJ Education, Inc., Upper TJ
tension on bottom Saddle River, NJ.)

TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ
• Stress varies with time. s
smax
-- key parameters are S, sm, and
TJ TJ sm S TJ
cyclingTJfrequency TJ
smin time
TJ TJ TJ TJ
• Key points: Fatigue... e.g., bridges, aircraft, and machine components
--can cause part failure, even though smax < sy.
--responsible for ~ 90% of mechanical engineering failures.
33
 Types of Fatigue Behavior

S = stress amplitude
• Fatigue limit, Sfat: case for
--no fatigue if S < Sfat unsafe steel (typ.) fatigue limit (also
Sfat sometimes the
For many steels, fatigue limits range between 35% endurance limit)
and 60% of the tensile strength. safe Adapted from Fig.
8.19(a), Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.

10 3 10 5 10 7 10 9
N = Cycles to failure

S = stress amplitude
• For some materials, case for
there is no fatigue unsafe Al (typ.)
limit!
Most nonferrous alloys (e.g., safe Adapted from Fig.
aluminum, copper, magnesium) 8.19(b), Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.
10 3 10 5 10 7 10 9 34
N = Cycles to failure
 With loading
increasing the mean stress level leads
Improving Fatigue Life to a decrease in fatigue life.

S = stress amplitude
Adapted from
TJ TJ TJ TJ Fig. 8.24, Callister &
TJ
Rethwisch 8e.

near zero or compressive sm

1. Impose compressive
TJ TJ TJ TJ
moderate tensile sm TJ
Larger tensile sm
surface stresses N = Cycles to failure
(to suppress surface
TJ from growing)
cracks TJ TJ TJ

TJ --Method
TJ 1: shot peening TJ --Method 2: carburizing
TJ TJ
shot
C-rich gas
put
surface
TJ TJ into TJ TJ TJ
compression

TJ TJ TJ TJ
2. Remove stress bad better
concentrators. Adapted from
Fig. 8.25, Callister &
bad better Rethwisch 8e.
35
 Creep Sample deformation at a constant stress (s) vs. time
TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ
s
s,e
TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ

TJ TJ t TJ TJ
0
TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ

TJ
Primary Creep:TJ
slope (creep rate) TJ TJ TJ
decreases with time.
TJSecondary Creep: steady-state
TJ TJ TJ
i.e., constant slope (De/Dt).
Adapted from Fig. 8.28,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
Tertiary Creep: slope (creep rate)
increases with time, i.e. acceleration of rate. 36
Creep: Temperature Dependence
• Occurs at elevated temperature, T > 0.4 Tm (in K)

tertiary

primary
secondary
where Tm is the
absolute melting
elastic
temperature

Adapted from Fig. 8.29,

Callister & Rethwisch 8e. 37
Secondary Creep
• Strain rate is constant at a given T, s
-- strain hardening is balanced by recovery
stress exponent (material parameter)

es = K 2sn exp − c 

Q
activation energy for creep
strain rate  RT  (material parameter) Constant T
material const. applied stress
Adapted from
Strain rate 200 Fig. 8.31, Callister 7e.
427ºC
Stress (MPa)
(Fig. 8.31 is from Metals
increases with 100 Handbook: Properties
538ºC
increasing T, s
and Selection:
Stainless Steels, Tool
40 Materials, and Special
Purpose Metals, Vol. 3,
20 9th ed., D. Benjamin
649ºC (Senior Ed.), American
10 Society for Metals,
1980, p. 131.)
10 -2 10 -1 1
Steady state creep rate es (%/1000hr) 38
 Prediction of Creep Rupture Lifetime
TJ • Estimate
TJ rupture time TJ TJ TJ
S-590 Iron, T = 800ºC, s = 20,000 psi

TJ TJ 100 Time
TJ to rupture, tr TJ TJ

T (20 + log t r ) = L

Stress (103 psi)

TJ TJ TJ TJ
20
temperature function of
TJ TJ TJ TJ applied stress TJ
10
time to failure (rupture)

TJ data for TJ TJ TJ TJ
S-590 Iron

TJ 12 16 20 24
TJ
28
1 + log t r ) = 24 x103
(1073 K )(20 TJ TJ
Logarithm stress versus the Larson–
Miller parameter for an S-590 iron.
103 L (K-h)
Adapted from Fig. 8.32, Callister & Rethwisch
8e. (Fig. 8.32 is from F.R. Larson and J. Ans: tr = 233 hr 39
Miller, Trans. ASME, 74, 765 (1952).)
 Estimate the rupture time for
S-590 Iron, T = 750ºC, s = 20,000 psi
• Solution:

Time to rupture, tr 100

Stress (103 psi)

T (20 + log t r ) = L
20
temperature function of
applied stress 10
time to failure (rupture)
data for

(1023 K )(20 + log t r ) = 24 x10 3 S-590 Iron

1
12 16 20 24 28
103 L (K-h)
Ans: tr = 2890 hr Adapted from Fig. 8.32, Callister & Rethwisch
8e. (Fig. 8.32 is from F.R. Larson and J.
Miller, Trans. ASME, 74, 765 (1952).)
40 40
SUMMARY
• Engineering materials not as strong as predicted by theory
• Flaws act as stress concentrators that cause failure at
stresses lower than theoretical values.
• Sharp corners produce large stress concentrations
and premature failure.
• Failure type depends on T and s :
-For simple fracture (noncyclic s and T < 0.4Tm), failure stress
decreases with:
- increased maximum flaw size,
- decreased T,
- increased rate of loading.
- For fatigue (cyclic s):
- cycles to fail decreases as Ds increases.
- For creep (T > 0.4Tm):
- time to rupture decreases as s or T increases. 41
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