THE PHYSICAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH

1.0 THE FIGURE OF THE EARTH

Figure of the Earth is a term of art in geodesy that refers to the size and shape used to
model Earth. The models for the figure of the Earth vary in the way they are used, in their
complexity, and in the accuracy with which they represent the size and shape of the Earth.
a) Sphere - The simplest model for the shape of the entire Earth is a sphere.
b) Ellipsoid of revolution - Since the Earth is flattened at the poles and bulges at
the Equator, geodesy represents the figure of the Earth as an oblate spheroid. A spheroid
describing the figure of the Earth or other celestial body is called a reference ellipsoid.
The reference ellipsoid for Earth is called an Earth ellipsoid.
c) Geoid - it is the "mathematical figure of the Earth", a smooth but irregular surface whose
shape results from the uneven distribution of mass within and on the surface of Earth

2.0 THE EARTH’S GRAVITY FIELD

The gravity of Earth is the net acceleration that is imparted to objects due to the combined effect
of gravitation (from mass distribution within Earth) and the centrifugal force (from the Earth's
rotation). Therefore, earth’s gravity can be classified into two:
a) Terrestrial gravitation - It is generally understood as the field generated by the masses
of the terrestrial body.
b) Gravity - gravitation plus centrifugal acceleration, where tidal and atmospheric effects
are treated as corrections.

3.0 THE EARTH’S INTERNAL STRUCTURE

Structure of earth’s interior is fundamentally divided into three layers – crust, mantle and core.
a)Crust
 It is the outermost solid part of the earth, normally about 8-40 kms thick.
 It is brittle in nature.
 Nearly 1% of the earth’s volume and 0.5% of earth’s mass are made of the crust.
 The thickness of the crust under the oceanic and continental areas are different. Oceanic
crust is thinner (about 5kms) as compared to the continental crust (about 30kms).
 Major constituent elements of crust are Silica (Si) and Aluminum (Al) and thus, it is often
termed as SIAL (Sometimes SIAL is used to refer Lithosphere, which is the region
comprising the crust and uppermost solid mantle, also).
 The mean density of the materials in the crust is 3g/cm3.
 The discontinuity between the hydrosphere and crust is termed as the Conrad
Discontinuity.
b) Mantle
 The portion of the interior beyond the crust is called as the mantle.
 The discontinuity between the crust and mantle is called as the Mohorovich
Discontinuity or Moho discontinuity.
 The mantle is about 2900kms in thickness.
 Nearly 84% of the earth’s volume and 67% of the earth’s mass is occupied by the mantle.
 The major constituent elements of the mantle are Silicon and Magnesium and hence it is
also termed as SIMA.
 The density of the layer is higher than the crust and varies from 3.3 – 5.4g/cm3.
 The uppermost solid part of the mantle and the entire crust constitute the Lithosphere.
 The asthenosphere (in between 80-200km) is a highly viscous, mechanically weak and
ductile, deforming region of the upper mantle which lies just below the lithosphere.
 The asthenosphere is the main source of magma and it is the layer over which the
lithospheric plates/ continental plates move (plate tectonics).
 The discontinuity between the upper mantle and the lower mantle is known as Repetti
Discontinuity.
 The portion of the mantle which is just below the lithosphere and asthenosphere, but
above the core is called as Mesosphere.
 c)Core
 It is the innermost layer surrounding the earth’s center.
 The core is separated from the mantle by Guttenberg’s Discontinuity.
 It is composed mainly of iron (Fe) and nickel (Ni) and hence it is also called as NIFE.
 The core constitutes nearly 15% of earth’s volume and 32.5% of earth’s mass.
 The core is the densest layer of the earth with its density ranges between 9.5-14.5g/cm3.
 The Core consists of two sub-layers: the inner core and the outer core.
 The inner core is in solid state and the outer core is in the liquid state (or semi-liquid).
 The discontinuity between the upper core and the lower core is called as Lehmann
Discontinuity.
 Barysphere is sometimes used to refer the core of the earth or sometimes the whole
interior.

4.0 ROCKS AND MINERALS

 A mineral is a naturally occurring, solid crystalline substance, generally inorganic, with
specific chemical composition. Common minerals include quartz, feldspar, mica,
amphibole, olivine, and calcite.
 Minerals are the building blocks of rocks, which can be made up of varying assemblages
of minerals. Common rocks include granite, basalt, limestone, and sandstone.
 The Rock Cycle is a group of changes. Igneous rock can change into sedimentary rock or
into metamorphic rock. Sedimentary rock can change into metamorphic rock or into
igneous rock. Metamorphic rock can change into igneous or sedimentary rock.
 Igneous rock forms when magma cools and makes crystals. Magma is a hot liquid made
of melted minerals. The minerals can form crystals when they cool. Igneous rock can
form underground, where the magma cools slowly. Or, igneous rock can form above
ground, where the magma cools quickly. On Earth's surface, wind and water can break
rock into pieces. They can also carry rock pieces to another place. Usually, the rock
pieces, called sediments, drop from the wind or water to make a layer. The layer can be
buried under other layers of sediments. With heat and pressure emanating from inside the
earth, sedimentary rocks undergo metamorphosis. The rock cycle continues and never
stops.
 a) Igneous Rocks

Igneous rocks form by crystallization from magma, a mass of melted rock that originates
deep in the crust or upper mantle. There are two types of igneous rocks;

 Intrusive Igneous Rocks - also known as plutonic rocks, they are formed by slowly
crystallizing magmas that have intruded rock masses deep in the interior of the earth.
They can be recognized by their interlocking large crystals, which grew slowly as the
magma gradually cooled. An example is Granite.
 Extrusive Igneous Rocks – also known as volcanic rocks, they form from rapidly
cooled magmas that erupt at the surface. They are easily recognized by their glassy or
fine-grained texture. An example is Basalt.

b) Sedimentary Rocks

Sedimentary rocks are formed from particles of sand, shells, pebbles, and other fragments of
material. Together, all these particles are called sediment. Weathering and erosion produce two
types of sediments;

 Clastic sediments – are physically deposited sedimentary particles, such as grains of

quartz derived from a weathered granite.
 Chemical and Biochemical sediments – are new chemical substances that form by
precipitation when some of a rock’s components dissolve during weathering and are
carried in river waters to the sea.

Lithification is the process that converts sediments into solid rock, and it occurs in one of two
ways;
  By Compaction, as grains are squeezed together by the weight of overlying sediment
into a mass denser than the original.
 By Cementation, as minerals precipitate around deposited particles and bind them
together.

c) Metamorphic Rocks

These are rocks produced when high temperatures and pressures deep in the Earth cause any
kind of rock-igneous, sedimentary or other metamorphic rock-to change its mineralogy, texture
or chemical composition while maintaining its solid form. There are two types of metamorphism;

 Regional Metamorphism, where high pressures and temperatures extend over large
regions.
 Contact Metamorphism, where high temperatures are restricted to smaller areas, such
as the rocks near and in contact with an intrusion.

5.0 The Geologic Time Scale

The geologic time scale is a relative-age calendar of Earth’s geologic history. It is divided, in
order of decreasing length, into four major time units: eons, eras, periods and epochs.

 Eons - Eons are the largest intervals of geologic time and are hundreds of millions of
years in duration. It includes Archean, Proterozoic and Phanerozoic Eons.
 Eras - Eons are divided into smaller time intervals known as eras. Phanerozoic is divided
into three eras: Cenozoic, Mesozoic and Paleozoic. Very significant events in Earth's
history are used to determine the boundaries of the eras.
 Periods - Eras are subdivided into periods. The events that bound the periods are
widespread in their extent but are not as significant as those which bound the eras. For
instance, the Paleozoic is subdivided into the Permian, Pennsylvanian, Mississippian,
Devonian, Silurian, Ordovician and Cambrian periods.
 Epochs - Finer subdivisions of time are possible, and the periods of the Cenozoic are
frequently subdivided into epochs. Subdivision of periods into epochs can be done only
for the most recent portion of the geologic time scale. This is because older rocks have
been buried deeply, intensely deformed and severely modified by long-term earth
processes. As a result, the history contained within these rocks cannot be as clearly
interpreted.

6.0 Rock Deformation

Rocks which seem strong and rigid could also be distorted into folds by tectonic forces or broken
along faults. The tectonic forces can be of three types;

 Tensional stress (or extensional stress), which stretches rock;

 Compressional stress, which squeezes rock; and
 Shear stress, which result in slippage and translation.
When a rock is subjected to increasing stress, it passes through 3 successive stages of
deformation;

 Elastic Deformation -- wherein the strain is reversible.

 Ductile Deformation -- wherein the strain is irreversible.
 Fracture - irreversible strain wherein the material breaks.