DESIGN OF DC MACHINES

Introduction to Design of DC Machines

 The aim in designing the dc machine is to obtain the complete dimensions of various parts of
the machine as listed below, to furnish these data to the manufacture.
1. Main dimension of the armature structure.
2. Design details of the armature winding.
3. Main dimensions of the field system.
4. Design details of the field windings.
5. Design details of commutator and brushes.
6. Design details of interpoles and its winding.
7. Performance characteristics i.e. iron losses, copper losses in armature winding, copper
losses in field winding, mechanical losses, efficiency, maximum efficiency.

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 DESIGN OF DC MACHINES

 In order to determine the design information's, for the DC machine, designer needs the
followings:
1. Details specification of the DC machine.
2. Limiting value of preformation characteristics like iron losses, copper losses, efficiency.
3. Design equations, based on which design procedure is to be initiated.
4. Information for proper choice of various design parameters.
5. Information regarding availability of material for various parts.
 The design of DC machine is carried out based on given specifications, using available materials
economically and to achieve the following:
1. low cost
2. reduced size and
3. better operational performance.

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Specifications of DC Machines
 Important specifications needed to initiate the design of DC machines are given below (input
design data's):
1. Type of excitation
2. Rated output power
3. Rayed voltage
4. Speed
5. type of enclosure
6. Type of duty (short time, intermittent, continuous)
7. Field excitation voltage
8. Maximum temperature rise.

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Equation for Armature Design (Output Equation)
 Output equation express the relationship between the output of the machine and the main
dimension of the armature in terms of specific magnetic and electric loading.
 To define the terms specific magnetic and electric loadings before the derivation of output
equation.

Specific Magnetic Loading

 Specific magnetic loading is define as the ratio of total flux around the air gap to the air gap area.
 It is equal to the average flux density in the air gap of the machine i.e.
p 
Average air gap flux density, Bav  
 DL  L
where,
P = number of poles in DC machine
ϕ = air gap flux per pole, wb
D = diameter of armature, m
L = gross length of armature, m
D

p

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Specific Electric Loading
 Specific electric loading is define as the total number of armature conductor on the armature per
unit circumference of armature i.e.

( I a / A) Z I a Z a
Specific electric loading, q 
D D
where,
Ia = current in armature winding
A = number of parallel path in armature winding
Ia / A = current in each parallel path or current in the conductor
Za = number of conductors in each parallel path, Za = Z/A

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Development of Output Equation
 Power developed by the armature,
Pa = EIa × 10 – 3 kW

P NZ P NZ a
 Induced emf, E  
60 A 60
 Power developed by the armature
P NZ a N
Pa   I a  103  ( P )  I a Z a   103
60 60
N 3 2 
 ( Bav DL)( Dq) 10   Bav q  D 2 LN 103
60  60 

 Thus, Pa
 C0 D 2 L
N
 1 P
 D2 L    a
 C0  N
 Co is called the coefficient and is given by,
2 
C0   Bav q  103  0.164 Bav q  103
 60 

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Relation between output and power developed for DC Generators

 Power developed by the armature,

Pa  Ea  I a  103  (V  I a Ra )( I L  I f )  (VI L  VI f  I a 2 Ra )
 ( Output  field copper loss  armature copper loss)

 The developed armature power Pa should be taken more than the output of the generator.
 These losses can be assumed 5 to 7% of the output.
 As such power developed by the armature, Pa can be taken approximately 1.05 to 1.07 times the
output of generator.

Relation between output and power developed for DC Motors

 Power developed by the armature,
Pa  Ea  I a  10 3  (V  I a Ra )( I L  I f )  (VI L  VI f  I a 2 Ra )
 ( Output  field copper loss  armature copper loss)

 Constant losses may be assume 5 to 7% of the output.

 Thus, power developed by the armature, Pa can be taken approximately 1.05 to 1.07 times the
output of motor.

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Output Equation of DC machines
 Power developed by armature for a generator
Pa = output power + armature I2R loss + field I2R loss
= P + armature I2R loss + field I2R loss
= input power – friction, windage and iron loss
P
  ( friction, windage and iron loss)

 For a dc motor, power developed by armature is
P
  ( friction, windage and iron loss)

 For large machine, we can neglected the friction, windage and iron losses.

Pa  P /  for generators

Pa  P /  for motors.
 For small machine, the friction, windage and iron losses are not neglected.
P
 The output power = P and input power 


P  1 
 Total losses   P  P 
   
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Output Equation of DC machines

 The friction, windage and iron losses of a small motor may be taken as (1/3)rd of the total
losses.
1 1 
 Friction, windage and iron losses  P  
3   
 Hence power developed by armature of a motor,

Pa  P  (friction, windage and iron losses)

1  1  
 P  P 
3   
 1  2 
 P
 3 

 Similarly, for a small generator, power developed by armature is

Pa  P  (friction, windage and iron losses)

1  1  
 P  P 
3   
 2  
 P
 3 

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Output Coefficient
 From the output equation, it is clear that the output coefficient relates with the main dimension of
the armature.
 The volume of the active part of the machines is inversely proportional to the output coefficient.
 To reduced the size of the machine and ultimately the cost, output coefficient used for designing
the machine should be quite high.
 The output coefficient is directly proportionally to the specific electric and magnetic loading.
 The increased value of these will seriously affect the performance of the machine.
 The value of the output coefficient also depends upon the speed and on the ventilation system
used for the machine.
 The approximate values of output coefficient for different machines are as follows:
a) For large machines, 4.5 to 5.5
b) For medium machines, 3 to 4
c) For small machines, 1 to 3

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Specific Magnetic and Electric Loading
 Specific eclectic and magnetic loadings play an important role in the design of DC machine.
 The process of design is really initiated with the suitable assumptions of these values.
 Main dimensions of the armature are the design of other parts of the DC machine can basically
dependent upon the proper selection of these loadings.
 The average value of air gap flux density is limited mainly to prevent the maximum density in the
tooth from being excessive.
 The value of specific electric loading depends upon the ventilation system, armature reactance
and commutation. The value of specific electric loading for machines with inter-poles may be
taken much higher than the machines without inter-poles.
 To choice of higher specific loadings lead to the following advantages.

A. Advantage of higher specific electric and magnetic loading

1. Reduction in the volume of the machine.
2. Reduction in the size of the machine.
3. Lower cost of the materials required.
4. Reduced weight of the machine.
5. Lower overall cost of the machine.

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A. Disadvantages due to higher specific magnetic loading :
1. Increased iron losses.
2. Large requirement of mmf.
3. Higher field copper loss.
4. Higher tooth flux density.
5. Tendency of saturation of magnetic parts.
6. Increased no load current.
7. Higher temperature rise due to higher losses.
8. Increased noise.

B. Disadvantages due to higher specific electric loading :

1. Increased armature copper losses.
2. Increase reactance voltage.
3. Inferior communication.
4. Increased field excitation, causing more field copper losses.
5. Reduction in over load capacity.
6. Higher temperature rise cue to increased copper ss.

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 The approximate values of average flux density in the air-gap are given in Table-1:

Output (kW) Bav (Wb/m2) Output (kW) Bav (Wb/m2)

5 0.58 500 0.92

10 0.65 1000 0.96
50 0.78 1500 0.97
100 0.82 2000 0.98
200 0.87 5000 1.05
300 0.90 10000 1.15

 The approximate values of specific electric loading are given in Table-2:

Output (kW) Bav (Wb/m2) Output (kW) Bav (Wb/m2)

5 15000 500 36500

10 17500 1000 41000
50 25000 1500 420000
100 28000 2000 44000
200 32500 5000 48000
300 34000 10000 51000

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Main Dimension of The Armature
 The armature of DC machine is a cylindrical body.
 The main dimensions will be the output diameter, D and gross length L.
 The product, D2L of the armature can be found out using the output equation.
 The main dimension of the armature, such a relationship should be selected as to result in
minimum cost of active material and labour charges.
 To separate D and L from the product D2L, proper number of poles must be selected first for DC
machine.

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1. Selection of Number of Poles :
 Selection of number of poles has an important bearing on design of both magmatic and electric
circuits of DC machine.
 In DC machines wit a certain speed, the number of poles may differ from designer to designer.
 Proper choice of number of poles should be such as to produce a cheaper machine with good
performance and satisfying all limitations of the design.
 Following factors should be given due consideration, while selecting number of poles for DC
machine.

1. Frequency

2. Weight of iron parts

3. Overall size of the machine

4. Weight of copper

5. Commutator length

6. Labour charges

7. Flash-over between brushes

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2. Weight of iron parts
 The number of poles affects the weight of the various part of the magnetic circuits.
a. Yoke area :
 Thee total flux around the air gap remain constant
 For 2-pole machine , the flux per pole is ϕT/2, at the yoke this flux divides itself in two parts
and the yoke has carry a flux ϕT/4.
 For 4-pole machine , the flux per pole is ϕT/4, at the yoke this flux divides itself in two parts
and the yoke has carry a flux ϕT/8.
 The flux carried by yoke is inversely proportional to number of poles.
 By using greater number of poles, the area of cross-section of yoke is proportionality
decreased.

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 b. Armature core area :
 The flux per pole divides itself in two parts in the armature core.
 For 2-pole machine , the flux in the armature core is ϕT/4 while in case of a 4-pole machine it
is ϕT/8.
 The effect of using increased number of poles on the armature core area keeping in view the
increased iron losses caused by increased frequency.

 Considering the eddy current loss

 For 2 pole machine, eddy current loss in armature core
2 2 2
2  pn   T   2  n  T 2 n 2
 Bc f  Bc    
2 2
   
 2  4 A
 2  2  16 A2 2
 For 4 pole machine eddy current loss in armature core
2 2 2
2  pn   T   4  n  T 2 n 2
 Bc f  Bc    
2 2
   
 2   8 A4   2  16 A4 2
 For the same eddy current core loss A2 should be equal to A4.
 The cross sectional area of core is decreased for higher number of poles, the eddy current
loss in core would increase.

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  Considering the hysteresis loss :
 For 2 pole machine, hysteresis loss in armature core
2 2
 pn   T   T   n 
 Bc2 f  Bc2       n     
 2   4 A2   A2   16 
 For 4 pole machine eddy current loss in armature core
2 2 2
 pn      4 n   T   n 
 Bc2 f  Bc2     T         
 2  8 A
 4  2   A4   32 
 The hysteresis loss decreases with increase in number of poles.
 By increasing the number of poles the weight of iron in the armature core can be decreased.

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3. Weight of copper
a. Armature copper
 The portion of conductor embedded in slots is called the active copper or active portion of
conductor.
 The portion of conductor in the overhang is called inactive copper or inactive portion of
conductors.
 Lesser the ratio of inactive conductor material to active conductor material , the machine
is cheaper.
 Diameter of the machine remain constant and therefore the pole pitch various inversely
as the number of poles.
 Hence weight of inactive copper various inversely as the number of poles.
b. Field Copper
 The field mmf per pole variously as number of poles.
 The total weight of field copper decreases with increase in number of poles.
 The weight of copper of both armature and field windings decreases with increases in
number of poles.

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4. Length of Commutator
 The number of brush arms employed is equal to the number of poles in the each of machine with
lap wound armature.
 In machines with wave winding the number of brush arms required is 2.
 For lap winding machines,
2-Pole machine:
• The current per parallel path is, Iz = Ia/2.
• The current in each brush arm, Ib = 2 Iz = Ia.
4-Pole machine:
• The current per parallel path is Iz = Ia/4.
• The current in each brush arm, Ib = 2 Iz = Ia/2.
 The current is collected by each brush arm varies inversely as the number of poles.
 This means that the area of brushes in each arm decreases if the number of poles increases.
 The length of brushes required in each brush arm is reduced with increases in number of poles.
 This results in reduction in the length of the commutator and incidentally results in reduction of
overall length of machine.
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Advantage and disadvantage of higher number of poles:
 The following is the advantage and disadvantage of higher number of poles:
Advantage
1. Weight of iron parts in the magnetic circuit is reduced
2. Weight of copper in the machine is reduced
3. Overall length and diameter of the dc machine were reduced
4. Commutator length is reduced.
Disadvantage
1. Iron losses increase because of higher flux reversal.
2. Number of commutator segments is increased .
3. Tendency of flash over from brush to brush increases.

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Core Length
 Following factors should be considered when selecting a suitable value for core length:
1. Cost
2. Ventilation
1. Cost :
 The manufacturing costs of a machine with large core length are less.
 The ratio of inactive copper to active copper is small for grater length of core.
 The point of view of cost, it is desirable to have a large core length.
2. Ventilation:
 The ventilation of machine with large core length is difficult because the central portion of
the core tends to attain a high temperature rise.

3. Limiting value of Core-length:

 The emf induced in a conductor ez should not exceed 7.5/TcNc .
 The maximum voltage between adjacent segment at load is to be limited to 30 V.
 The voltage in a conductor at no load, ez = Bav L Va .

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Core Length
7.5
For limiting case: Bav LVa 
Tc N c
7.5
The maximum value of core length, L 
BavVaTc N c
where, Bav = average gap flux density, Va = peripheral speed of armature, Tc = turn per coil
Nc = number ofcoils between adjacent segments
For lap winding, Nc = 1 and Tc =1 .

Maximum permissible conductor emf at no load, ez = 7.5 V.

7.5
Maximum value of core length, L 
BavVa

For normal designs, Bav = 0.7 Wb/m2 and Va = 30 m/s.

7.5
Maximum permissible core length, L   0.36 m.
0.7  30

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Armature Diameter
Following factors should be considered when selecting a suitable value for armature diameter:
1. Peripheral speed
2. Pole pitch
1. Peripheral speed
 The peripheral speed is sometimes a limiting factor for the diameter.
 The peripheral speed lies between 15 to 50 m/s, the lower values corresponding to low speed
machines.
 The value of peripheral speed should not exceed 30 m/s.
2. Pole pitch
 The pole pitch obtained after selecting a suitable diameter.
 Following table gives the value of poles and corresponding pole pitch

Poles Pole pitch (mm)

2 Up to 240
4 Between 240 and 350
6 Between 350 and 450
Avove 6 Between 450 and 500

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Limiting value for armature diameter

 Output power, P  EI a 103 kW

Z
 Generating emf, E  ez 
a
Z I
 Now, power, P  ez   I a  103  ez  a  Z  103  ez  D ac  103
a a
P  103
 D
 ac ez
 Assume limiting values for ac = 40,000 and ez = 7.5 V.

P 103
 Minimum permissible armature diameter, D   0.001 P.
  40, 000  7.5

 For a 1000 kW machine will have a diameter not less than 0.001 x 1000 = 1 m,

 The maximum permissible output from machine of 1 m diameter is 1000 kW.

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Length of Air-Gap
The length of air gap can be fixed by considering the following factors:

1. Armature reaction

2. Circulating current

3. Pole face losses

4. Noise

5. Cooling

6. Mechanical considerations.

Estimate of Air Gap Length

 Mmf required for air gap of salient pole machines is : ATg = 800,000 Bg Kg lg. (1)

 Armature mmf per pole,

ac 
ATg 
 The value of air gap mmf is normally between
2 0.5 to 0.7 of armature mmf.

 The usual value is 0.55.

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 Air gap mmf,
ac 
ATg  (0.5 to 0.7) ATa  (0.5 to 0.7) (2)
2
 Equating (1) and (2), we have,
ac 
800,000 Bg K g lg  (0.5 to 0.7)
2
(0.5 to 0.7) ac 
 lg 
1600,000 Bg K g lg
 The air gap contraction factor Kg may be assume as 1.15.
 The value of air gap length lies between 0.01 to 0.015 of pole pitch.

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 Numerical Examples
Example -1: A 350 kW, 500 V, 450 rpm, 6 pole dc generator is built with an armature diameter of 0.87
m and a core length of 0.32 m. The lap wound armature has 660 conductors. Calculate the specific
electric and magnetic loading.

Solution : Armature current, I  350  1000  700 A

a
500
I a 700
Current in each conductor, Iz    116.6 A [ a  p for a lap winding ]
a 6
I z Z 116.6  660
Specific electric loading, ac    28200 ampere conductor per metre.
D   0.87

We know, emf, E   Zn p
a
Ea 500  6
Flux per pole,     0.101 Wb.
Znp  450 
660   6
 60 

p 6  0.101
Specific magnetic loading, Bac    0.693 Wb / m2 .
 DL   0.87  0.32

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Example -2: A 5 kW, 250 V, 4 pole, 1500 rpm dc shunt generator is designed to have a square pole face.
The loadings are :
average flux density = 0.42 Wb/m2 and
ampere conductor per metre = 15,000.
Find the main dimensions of the machine. Assume full load efficiency = 0.87 and ratio of pole arc to
pole pitch = 0.66.
5
Solution : Armature power, Pa   5.75 kW .
0.87
1500
Speed, n  25 rps
60
2 3 2 3
Output co-efficient, Co   Bav ac  10    0.42  15000  10  62.1
Pa 5.75
Now, D 2 L    3.7  103 m3 .
Co n 62.1  25

core length L
For a square pole face, 1 or 1
pole arc 
D D
 L  0.66   0.518 D
p 4
Now, D 2 L  D 2  0.518 D  0.518 D 3  3.7 103
 D  0.193 m

Armature diameter, D = 0.193 m and core length, L = 0.518 x 0.193 = 0.1 m.

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Example -3: Determine the main diamntions, number of poles and the length of air gap of a 600 kW,
500 V, 900 rpm dc generator . Assume average air gap flux density as 0.6 Wb/m2 and ampere
conductor per metre as 35,000. the ratio of pole arc to pole pitch is0.75 and the efficiency is 91%.
The design constraints are as follows: peripheral speed ≥ 40 m/s, frequency of flux reversals ≥ 50 Hz,
current per brush arm ≥ 400 A and armature mmf per pole ≥ 7500 A. The mmf required for air gap is
50% of armature mmf and gap contraction factor is 1.15.
Solution : Output co-efficient, Co   2 Bav ac 103   2  0.6  35000  103  207.

Power developed by armature, Pa  600 / 0.91  660 kW .

Speed, n = 900/60 = 15 rps.
Pa 600
Now, D2 L    0.2126 m3 .
Co n 207  15
Number of Poles:
The choice of number of poles for this size of machine line between 4, 6, or 8. comparing the results:
(i) Frequency: Frequency of flux reversals, f = pn/2 Hz.
The frequency is 30 Hz for 4 poles, 45 Hz for 6 poles and 60 Hz for 8 poles.
Therefore we cannot use 8 poles since the frequency exceeds the maximum allowable
limit of 50 Hz.

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(ii) Current per brush arm:
Neglecting the field current, armature current
600 1000
Ia   1200 A
500
2I
Current per brush arm, I b  a
p
The current per brush arm should not exceed about 400 A. This means that 4 poles cannot be used for
this machine.
Therefore, the number of poles is taken as 6.
2  1200 2 1200
For p  4, I b   600 A ; for p  6, I b   400 A.
4 6
Main Dimensions : L D
1  L  0.75   0.393D
 6

 D 2  0.393D  0.2126 or D  0.815 m.

Taking diameter, D = 0.815 m, length, L = 0.33 m.

Checks: (i) Peripheral speed, Va   Dn    0.8 1.5  37.7 m / s.

This is with specified limits.
 D   0.8
(ii) Armature mmf : Pole pitch,     0.42 m.
6 6
ac 
3500  0.42
Armature mmf per pole, ATa    7350 A.
2 2
This is within the specific limit.
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Length of Air Gap
Maximum flux density in the gap,
0.6
Bg   0.8 Wb / m 2 .
0.75
Mmf required for air gap,
ATg  800, 000  0.8 1.15  l g  736, 000 l g (1)
Also, air gap mmf per pole,
ATg  0.5 ATa  0.5  7350  3676 A. (2)
From Eqs. (1) and (2), we get

736, 000 l g  3675

3675
 lg   5 mm.
736, 000

Length of the air gap is 5 mm.

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Example - 4: Calculate the diameter and length of armature for a 7.5 kW, 4 pole, 100 rpm, 220 V a dc
shunt generator. Given: full load efficiency 83%, maximum gap flux density = 0.9 Wb/m2; specific
electric loading = 30,000 ampere conductors per metre; field form factor = 0.7. Asuume that the
maximum efficiency occurs at full load and th field current is 2.5% of rated current. The pole face is
square.
Solution : Power input,
Po 7500
Pi    9040 W .
 0.83

Total losses at full load = 9040 – 7500 = 1540 W.

Since the maximum efficiency occurs at full load, the constant losses and armature I2R loss are equal
at full load.

Constant losses = 1540/2 = 770 W.

Field current = 0.025 x 41.1 = 1.03 A.

Field copper loss = 220 x 1.03 = 227 W.

Friction and windage plus iron loss = 770 – 227 = 543 W.

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Power developed by armature,
Pa = 7.5 + 0.543 = 8.1 kW.
Average gap density,
Bav = Kf Bg = 0.7 x 0.9 = 0.63 Wb/m2.
Output coefficient,
C0 = π2 x 0.63 x 30,000 = 186.5
Speed, n = 1000/60 = 16.67 rps.
Pa 8.1
D2 L    2.6  103 m3 .
Co n 186.3  16.67
For a square pole face,
L D
1  L  0.7   0.55D (taking   K f )
 4
D 2 L  D 2  0.55 D  0.55  D3  2.6 103
 D  0.17
Diameter of the armature is D = 0.17 m and length is L = 0.09 m.

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Factors Affected to Choice of Average Air Gap Flux Density
 The factors affected the choice of average flux in the air gap in the DC machines are listed below:
1. Flux density in teeth
2. Frequency
3. Size of the machines
a) Flux density in teeth :
 If a high value of flux density is assumed for the air gap.
 The flux density in armature teeth also becomes high value.
 The value of the air gap density is chosen that the flux density at the rotor core teeth does
not exceed a value of 2.2 Wb/m2.
 Otherwise the mmf required for the teeth would become executively large
 Otherwise the field mmf will have to be made large and higher field copper loss and high
cost of copper.
 The iron losses in the teeth are determined by the flux density of the teeth.

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b) Frequency:
 When the machine rotates, the armature magnetic circuit alternatively comes under the
influence of north and south poles.
 The frequency of reversals is f = pn/2.
 The frequency of reversals is high, iron losses in armature core and teeth would be high.
 We should not use a high value of flux density in the air gap of machines which have a high
frequency.

c) Size of machines:
 It is possible to use increased value of flux density as the size of the machine increases.
 The diameter D of the machine is increased, the width of both tooth also increases,
permitting an increased value of gap flux density without causing saturation in the machine.

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