Available online at www.sciencedirect.

com

ScienceDirect
Procedia Engineering 145 (2016) 1029 – 1035

International Conference on Sustainable Design, Engineering and Construction

Non-Destructive Strength Evaluation of Fly ash Based Geopolymer Concrete Using Piezo Sensors

Talakokula. V*a, Vaibhavb and Bhalla. Sc

*a
Professor, ABES Engineering College, india
b
Ex-PG student, Gagotia’s Univeristy, India
c
Associate Professor, IIT Delhi, India

Abstract

In view of sustainable development in the construction industry, a new alternative to the ordinary Portland cement concrete has
been developed. Geopolymer concrete is a no Portland cement concrete synthesized by the polycondensation of silico-aluminate
structures when highly alkaline solutes such as sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide are incorporated with source materials
rich in SiO2 and Al2O3. Previous studies on the engineering properties and structural behaviour of Geopolymer concrete have shown
promising potential of this material. This paper presents a non-destructive strength evaluation of fly ash based Geopolymer concrete
using piezo sensors. Although direct strength tests, which are destructive in nature, are excellent for quality control during
construction, their main shortcoming is that the tested specimen may not truly represent the concrete in the actual structure. The
destructive tests reflect more the quality of the supplied materials rather than that of the constructed structure. Delays in obtaining
results, lack of reproducibility and high costs of tests are some other drawbacks. The Non-destructive methods, on the other hand,
aim to measure the strength of concrete in the actual structures. This paper presents a new approach for the non-destructive
evaluation of Geopolymer concrete, using the electro-mechanical impedance technique via Piezo sensors.

© 2016
© 2015TheTheAuthors.
Authors. Published
Published by by Elsevier
Elsevier Ltd.Ltd.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
Peer-review under responsibility of organizing committee of the International Conference on Sustainable Design, Engineering
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Peer-review under responsibility
and Construction 2015. of the organizing committee of ICSDEC 2016

Keywords: Geopolymer Concrete; Piezo Sensor; conductance,

1. Introduction

With the increase in infrastructure developments and increasing emphasis on the use of green materials, the
construction industry is in need of constant innovation and improvisation in both materials and technology. Ordinary
Portland cement (OPC) is conventionally used as a primary binder to produce concrete. The amount of carbon dioxide
released during the manufacture of OPC is a matter of great environmental concern in view of global warming and the
limited availability of energy resources. On the other hand FA, abundantly available by-product of coal fired thermal
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +91-9871857979; fax: +91 120 7135115.
E-mail address: hodcivil@abes.ac.in

1877-7058 © 2016 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Peer-review under responsibility of the organizing committee of ICSDEC 2016
doi:10.1016/j.proeng.2016.04.133
1030 V. Talakokula et al. / Procedia Engineering 145 (2016) 1029 – 1035

power plants poses great environmental problems in terms of its safe disposal. Hence using FA in production of
concrete would serve dual purpose in dealing with the OPC and FA disposal problems. During construction, it is often
necessary to test concrete structures after the concrete has hardened to determine whether the structure is suitable for
its designed use. Ideally such testing should be done without damaging the concrete i.e. nondestructively, various
nondestructive evaluation (NDE) methods and its application can be found in Malhotra [1] and Bungey [2]. Recently
the electro-mechanical impedance (EMI) technique using piezo sensors (PZT) has emerged as a potential NDE method
to monitor variations in the structural mechanical impedance caused due to changes in the structural parameters such
as damage [3-4] and corrosion [5-8]. The applicability of the EMI technique has been recently extended to monitor
the concrete curing and strength gain [9-12]. In this paper the applications of EMI technique in the area of strength
prediction is extended to Geopolymer concrete (GPC).

1.1 Geopolymer concrete

Geopolymer concrete (GPC) is a cement free concrete coined by Davidovits [13], obtained using low calcium based
FA through geopolymerization, which can be synthesized by polycondensation reaction of geopolymeric precursor
and alkali polysilicates. Geopolymerization is an innovative technology that can transform several alumino-silicate
materials into useful products called inorganic polymers. Geopolymerization involves a heterogeneous chemical
reaction between solid alumina silicate oxides and alkali metal silicate solutions at highly alkaline condition and mild
temperature yielding to amorphous to semi- crystalline polymeric structures. Materials rich in Si (fly-ash, slag, rice
husk) and materials rich in Al (clay like kaolin) are the primary requirements to undergo geopolymerization. The most
common alkaline activator used in geopolymerization is a combination of sodium hydroxide and sodium silicate.

1.2 Conventional NDE methods for concrete

The concrete technologists have special importance in strength determination through NDE because it’s elastic
behaviour and to some extent service behaviour can be predicted from its strength characteristics. Commonly used
NDE methods are the surface hardness method, the penetration technique, the pull-out test, the rebound hammer
method, the resonant frequency method and the ultrasonic pulse velocity test [1 and 2]. These methods indirectly
estimate the strength and hence they cannot be expected to yield absolute values of strength. The surface hardness
method, for example, is based on the principle that the strength of concrete is proportional to its surface hardness.
However, these strength prediction methods share many limitations. For example, the calibration charts of the surface
hardness method, the rebound method and the penetration technique are valid for the particular type of the cement,
aggregates used and the age and moisture content of the specimen. In addition, the results are not very reproducible.
The penetration and the pullout techniques cause a small amount of damage to the concrete surface, which must be
repaired. The resonant frequency method and the ultrasonic pulse velocity technique demand that the transducers must
be placed on the opposite faces of the component for accurate results. Very often, this is not possible and thus limits
the application of the two techniques [14]. In the next section EMI based strength evaluation is described which
overcomes the limitation of these techniques.

1.3 Concrete Strength evaluation using EMI Technique

The EMI based NDE techniques utilize small PZT sensors (shown in Fig. 1) attached to a structure as self-sensing
actuators to simultaneously excite the structure with high-frequency excitations, and monitor changes in the sensor
electrical impedance signature. On bonding the PZT sensor to the host structure, it essentially behaves as a thin plate
undergoing axial vibrations and interacting with the host structure, as shown in Fig. 2. These interactions are reflected
back in the form of electrical admittance consisting of conductance (real part) and suseptance (imaginary part).
Additionally, the self-sensing properties of the piezoelectricity allow one piece of material to sense the input voltage
and measure the output current. Because the PZT is bonded directly to the structure of interest, it has been shown that
the mechanical impedance of the structure is directly correlated with the electrical impedance of the PZT. The first
dynamic 1D model was developed by Liang et al [15] and later Bhalla and Soh [16] introduced a new concept called
‘effective impedance’ and modified the final coupled complex electro-mechanical interaction as
 V. Talakokula et al. / Procedia Engineering 145 (2016) 1029 – 1035 1031

I l2 ª T 2d 312 Y E 2d 312 Y E § Z a , eff ·§ tan kl ·º

G  Bj 4Zj «H 33   ¨ ¸¨
¸© kl ¸¹»
Y (1)
1X 1X ¨Z Z
V h «¬ © s , eff a , eff ¹ »¼

Alternating electric field

3(z) E3
2(y)
1(x)
PZT patch

h
Structural Impedance
l
Figure 2 Modelling of bonded PZT- structure
Figure 1 Geometric details of a typical PZT patch interactions (Bhalla and Soh, 2003) Geometric details
of a typical PZT patch (PI Ceramics, 2012)

Where (Zs, eff), is the short-circuited effective mechanical impedance of the structure, X the Poisson’s ratio. Any
damage to the structure (which changes the mass and stiffness characteristics of the structure) will cause the structural
parameters to change and will thus alter the structural impedance (Zs, eff), which in turn changes the admittance ( Y )
in the above equation, thus serving as an indicator of the state of health of the structure. The variation in the PZT
electrical impedance over a range of frequencies is analogous to that of the frequency response functions (FRF) of a
structure, which contains vital information regarding the health of the structure. The EMI technique has several
advantages over the conventional techniques, since it does not warrant any complex analytical/numerical modelling
of the monitored structure. It employs low-cost and low-power demanding PZT impedance sensors, which can be non-
intrusively bonded to the structure and can be interrogated without removal of finishes. Neither complex data
processing nor expensive hardware is necessary, and it also does not necessitate the structure to be placed out of
service. Several low cost variants have been proposed so as to increase its potential for real time in situ health
monitoring of large-scale, reinforced concrete structures at an economical cost without using additional bulky
equipments [17].

2 Concrete Strength Evaluation Using The EMI Technique

Three GPC cubes of M30 grade (as per the details provided in Table 1) 150 x 150 x 150 mm in size, were cast along
with 200-mm-long and 16-mm diameter rebars of Fe 415 grade (conforming to ‘IS 1786 [18]). The rebars were
thoroughly cleaned prior to bonding the PZT patch. A PZT patch measuring 10 x 10 x 0.3 mm and confirming to
grade PIC 151 [19] was bonded to each rebar at the mid length, where a small flat surface was achieved through
machining to allow for the bonding of the patch. A thin layer of epoxy was applied on the machined rebar surface and
then PZT was placed on it. The whole setup was kept undisturbed in this condition at room temperature for 24 h to
enable full curing of adhesive, after which wires were soldered to the electrodes of the PZT patch. The PZT patch was
then covered with an additional thin layer of epoxy adhesive as a protective measure, as shown in Fig. 3 (a and b).
The standard moulds were filled with concrete with the rebar in centre in three layers, taking particular care in pouring
the concrete to avoid damage to the sensor. The concrete was compacted carefully using table vibrator.

Table 1 Details of mix proportions

1032 V. Talakokula et al. / Procedia Engineering 145 (2016) 1029 – 1035

Characteristic compressive strength M 30

Maximum size of aggregate 20 mm
Specific gravity of FA 2.2
Specific gravity of fine aggregate 2.6
Specific gravity of coarse aggregate 2.6
Zone of sand Zone I
Specific gravity of NaOH 1.46
Specific gravity of sodium hydroxide 1.6

(a) (b)

Figure 3 Rebar Specimen (a) Finished machined surface for bonding the PZT (b) PZT bonded to the surface of bar

The wires soldered to the electrodes of the PZT patch were connected to impedance analyser, i.e. LCR meter [20]
and the baseline signatures were acquired immediately after casting. In this manner, the electromechanical admittance
signature consisting of real part (conductance G) and imaginary part (susceptance B) was acquired in a frequency
range of 100–400 kHz. A frequency interval of 100 Hz was used for each impedance measurement. All the tests were
performed under controlled laboratory conditions so that the temperature fluctuations could be ruled out. After data
acquisition, the specimens were placed in the oven for hot air curing at 50°C temperature. The signatures were acquired
at regular intervals during the curing process. The initial baseline signature comprising of conductance and
susceptance of a typical specimen are shown in Fig.4 (a and b). After the 2 day hot curing, the specimens were kept
outside at ambient temperature up to 15 days for ambient curing in room temperature.

Fig. 5 shows the conductance plots obtained from the PZT patches corresponding to different strengths with age of
the concrete. The strengths indicated on the figure were determined experimentally by subjecting the cubes to cyclic
loading on universal testing machine (UTM). It is apparent from the figure that the peak frequency gradually shifts to
the right as the strength of concrete increases. The same observation was reported by Soh and Bhalla [15] for their
experiments using EMI technique via piezo sensors for conventional concrete. They attributed the shifting of the peak
frequency to the additional stiffening action provided due to bonding with concrete.
 V. Talakokula et al. / Procedia Engineering 145 (2016) 1029 – 1035 1033

0.011
0.003

Susceptance (S)
0.0025 0.009
0.002
0.007
Conductance (S)

0.0015
0.001 0.005
0.0005
0 0.003
100 200 300 400 500 100 200 300 400
Frequency (KHz) Frequency (KHz)

(a) (b)
Figure 4 Baseline Admittance Signatures (a) Conductance (b) Susceptance

0.0049

0.0044 Strength=29MPa
Strength=27MPa
0.0039 Strength=22MPa
0.0034 Strength=39MPa
Strength=20MPa
G (S)

0.0029

0.0024 Strength=15MPa
0.0019

0.0014

0.0009

0.0004
140 150 160 170 180 190 200
Frequency (KHz)

Figure 5 Variation of conductance signatures for different strengths with age

To quantify the changes in the raw admittance signature in a preliminary manner, root mean square deviation (RMSD)
has been used. The RMSD metric is defined as [21]

¦ G G i i
0 2

RMSD 1 (2)
¦ 0 2
N
1
G i

where Gi is the conductance of the patch at any stage during the test and Gi0 is the baseline value (in pristine condition),
i representing the frequency index (50 to 400 kHz). Fig. 6 shows the variation of the RMSD index of a PZT patch
1034 V. Talakokula et al. / Procedia Engineering 145 (2016) 1029 – 1035

bonded to the rebar of a typical specimen with age, It can observed that the RMSD values increased with the age of
concrete.

Figure 6 Variation of RMSD during the curing period

Hence from the above results it can be concluded that the EMI technique could provide a useful tool for monitoring
of the strength of concrete in field structures. The variation of the peak of conductance (both frequency and magnitude)
and RMSD provides preliminary information about the strength. With knowledge of the time to initial set, contractors
will be able to plan measures to finish, texture, and saw cut concrete pavements on time to prevent setting occurring
before these activities. Another advantage of the EMI sensing technique is that online continuous monitoring can be
possible with this active sensing method. In other words, once the PZT patch and the controlling devices are initially
installed into the structure. This active sensing method does not need any human intervention afterward and can
acquire the signatures continuously. Moreover, if a wireless technology is combined with this technique, continuous
monitoring can be achieved remotely.

2. Conclusions

This paper has extended the application of EMI technique using PZT sensor for NDE of GPC strength. This technique
is superior to the existing strength prediction techniques such as UPV as it demands only one free surface of the
specimen against two in UPV. The significance of the proposed approach is that it is non-destructive in nature, simple
and fully autonomous. Moreover, if a wireless technology is combined with this technique, continuous monitoring
can be achieved remotely.

References
1. Malhotra, V. M. (1976), Testing Hardened Concrete: Non-destructive Methods, American Concrete Institute
(ACI) Monograph No. 9.
 V. Talakokula et al. / Procedia Engineering 145 (2016) 1029 – 1035 1035

2. Bungey, J. H. (1982), The Testing of Concrete in Structures, Surrey University Press.

3. Bhalla, S. and Soh, C. K. (2003), “Structural Impedance Based Damage Diagnosis by Piezo-Transducers”,
Earthquake Engineering and Structural Dynamics, 32 (12), 1897-1916.
4. Bhalla, S. and Soh, C. K. (2004b), “Structural Health Monitoring by Piezo-Impedance Transducer. Part II
Application”, Journal of Aerospace Engineering, ASCE, 17(4), 166-171.
5. Talakokula, V., Bhalla, S. and Gupta, A. (2014), “Corrosion Assessment of Reinforced Concrete Structures
Based on Equivalent Structural Parameters Using Electro-Mechanical Impedance Technique”, Journal of
Intelligent Material Systems and Structures, Volume 25 (4), pp 484-500.
6. Talakokula, V., Bhalla, S. and Gupta, A. (2015), “Comparison of Rebar Corrosion Assessment Capability
of Surface Bonded and Embedded Piezo Sensors”. Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and Structures,
25 (4), pp 484-500
7. Talakokula. V, S. Bhalla, R.J. Ball, C.R. Bowen, G.L. Pesce, R. Kurchania, B. Bhattacharjee, A. Gupta, K.
Paine. (2016), “Diagnosis of carbonation induced corrosion initiation and progression in reinforced
concrete structures using piezo-impedance transducers”, Sensors and Actuators A: Physical, Accepted on
16 Feb 2016, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.sna.2016.02.033.
8. Talakokula, V., Bhalla, S., Gupta A. and Bhattacharjee, B. (2015), “Non-Destructive Assessment of Rebar
Corrosion Using Piezo-Transducers Via Equivalent Structural Parameters”, Current Science, 108 (10),
pp1890-1900.
9. Soh C. K and Bhalla S. (2005), “Calibration of Piezo-Impedance Transducers for Strength Prediction and
Damage Assessment of Concrete”, Smart Materials and Structures, 14 (4), 671-684.
10. Qin, L, Li, Z. J, Monitoring of cement hydration using embedded piezoelectric transducers. Smart Materials
and Structures. 17 (2008), 055005.
11. Shin, S. W, Qureshi, A. R, Lee, J. Y, Yun, C. B, Piezoelectric sensor base non-destructive active monitoring
of strength gain in concrete. Smart Materials and Structures. 17 (5) (2008), 5002.
12. Yang, Y, Divsholi, B, Soh, C. K, A Reusable PZT Transducer for Monitoring Initial Hydration and Structural
Health of Concrete. Sensors. (10) (2010), 5193-5208.
13. Davidovits, J. (1988a). Soft Mineralurgy and Geopolymers. Paper presented at the Geopolymer ’88, First
European Conference on Soft Mineralurgy, Compiegne, France.H.
14. Soh C. K and Bhalla S. (2005), “Calibration of Piezo-Impedance Transducers for Strength Prediction and
Damage Assessment of Concrete”, Smart Materials and Structures, 14 (4), 671-684.
15. Liang, C, Sun, C. P. F, Rogers, C. A, Coupled Electro-Mechanical Analysis of Adaptive Material systems-
Determination of the Actuator Power Consumption and system Energy Transfer, Journal of Intelligent
Material Systems and Structures. (5) (1994), 12-20.
16. Bhalla, S, Soh, C. K, Structural Health Monitoring by Piezo-Impedance Transducer: Modelling”, J Aerospace
Engineering, ASCE, (17) (4) (2004a), 154-165.
17. Bhalla S, Gupta A, Bansal S, et al. (2009), Ultra low-cost adaptations of electro-mechanical impedance
technique for structural health monitoring, Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and Structures, 20(8):
991–999.
18. IS 1786-1985 Indian Standard Specification for High Strength Deformed Steel Bars and Wires for Concrete
Reinforcement, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
19. PI Ceramic, “Product Information Catalogue”, Lindenstrabe, Germany, 2012 www.piceramic.de.
20. Agilent Technologies. (2012) www. Home.agilent.com.
21. Giurgiutiu, V. and Rogers, C. A. (1998), “Recent Advancements in the Electro-Mechanical (E/M)
Impedance Method for Structural Health Monitoring and NDE”, Proceedings of SPIE Conference on Smart
Structures and Integrated Systems, SanDiego, California, March, SPIE, 3329, 536-547.