LIBERALISM

INTRODUCTION
- Liberalism, like Realism, is a major approach to international relations.
- Originated as a critique of feudalism and mercantilism.
- Emerged from 17th-18th century thought.
- Seeks just, peaceful global relations, significantly shaped by Immanuel Kant.
- Faced setbacks from the World Wars and the rise of Realism.
- Evolved through theories like transnationalism and interdependence theory.
- In the 1980s, Neoliberal Internationalism emerged, adding scientific rigor.
- By the 1990s, globalisation and issues like human rights and democracy
refocused Liberalism on:
- International order
- Institutions
- Governance
- Economic integration
- Traces pre- and post-WWII evolution, highlighting neoliberalism.

THE LIBERAL TRADITION: MAIN CHARACTERISTICS

- Liberal theorists have strong faith in human reason, tracing back to John
Locke.
- Reason is essential for understanding and shaping society and nature.

- Belief in potential for historical progress through human reason and social
learning.
- Political strategies can avoid perpetual conflict.
- Reform of international relations is possible.

- Emphasis on connection between domestic institutions and international

politics.
 - Inspired by Immanuel Kant's claim that democratic states are more peaceful.
- Foundation for democratic peace theory.

- Pluralism: challenge realist view that states are the sole actors in international
politics.
- Highlight role of non-state actors like MNCs and NGOs.

- Advocacy for free trade influenced by David Ricardo and Richard Cobden.
- Free trade increases interdependence and reduces war likelihood.
- Contrasts with mercantilism.

- Emphasis on the importance of institutions in protecting core values.

- Supported the League of Nations to prevent war better than traditional power
politics.

CLASSICAL LIBERALISM
- Emphasis on Human Reason
- Classic liberalism highlights the importance of human reason.
- Individuals are rational and capable of making decisions for their own good.
- Rationality drives cooperation domestically and internationally (Jackson and
Sorensen 2008).

- Concept of Individual Liberty

- Influenced by thinkers like Adam Smith, John Locke, and Jeremy Bentham.

- John Locke
- Father of classical liberalism.
- Advocated for government by consent.
 - Promoted limited government focused on protecting citizens' rights and
liberties.

- Adam Smith
- Introduced the idea of the ‘economic man’.
- Asserted that self-interest maximization leads to societal prosperity.
- Coined the term laissez-faire economy.

- Jeremy Bentham
- Introduced the principle of the ‘greatest happiness of the greatest number’.
- Proposed activities that maximize pleasure and minimize pain.
- Suggested the creation of an international court, foreshadowing the
International Court of Justice (ICJ) (Sutch and Elias 2010).

- Early 20th Century Liberal Thinkers

- Dominated international relations scholarship and policy-making.
- Aimed to reform international relations through better understanding.

- World War I Causes

- Attributed to misperceptions, secret diplomacy, lack of democracy,
militarism, and inadequate international institutions.

- Influence on Policies Post-WWI

- Evident in President Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points.
- Advocated for transparent diplomacy.
- Removal of economic barriers.
- National self-determination.
- Associations of nations to guarantee territorial integrity and political
independence.
- League of Nations
- Established in 1919, embodied liberal principles.
- Aimed to prevent war through collective security.

- Failure and Crisis

- Liberal programme failed to prevent conflict, leading to the 'Twenty Years'
Crisis' and World War II.
- Collapse of the League and rise of Nazism and Fascism hindered liberal
strategies.

- Post-WWII Revival
- Major powers revived the liberal agenda towards the end of World War II.
- Established advanced international institutions like the United Nations and
the European Community.

LIBERAL APPROACH IN THE POST-WAR YEARS

- **Post-WWII Context and Realism's Dominance**:
- Cold War conflict between superpowers became a global issue.
- Realist school dominated academia and policy-making in Europe and North
America.
- Liberal approach dismissed by realists as utopian or idealistic.

- **Persistence and Evolution of Liberal Theories**:

- Despite critiques and practical failures, liberal thinkers continued developing
new theories.
- Significant presence in international relations research.
- Development of Sociological Liberalism, Functionalism, Interdependent
Liberalism, and Republican Liberalism.
- These theories paved the way for the Neoliberal approach (Liberal
Institutional approach).
- **Sociological Liberalism**:
- Emerged in the late 19th century, flourished into the mid-20th century.
- Key figures: Richard Cobden, Karl Deutsch, John Burton.
- Emphasizes interactions between different societies and advocates for
pluralism in international relations.
- Highlights the role of private groups and societies in international politics.
- Promotes peaceful relations through transnationalism.
- Karl Deutsch's concept of ‘security community’ suggests regular interactions
can decrease conflict.
- John Burton’s ‘cobweb’ model illustrates how networks of social, economic,
and cultural groups reduce conflict.

- **Functionalism**:
- Argues that cooperation in one area, particularly economic, can lead to
broader cooperation.
- Eventually results in supranational authorities like the European Union (EU).
- Example: Formation of the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) in
1952.
- Economic cooperation expanded, leading to the establishment of the EU in
1993.
- Promotes the pooling of sovereignty for power sharing.

- **Interdependence Liberalism**:
- Emerged in the late 1970s, developed by Robert Keohane and Joseph S. Nye.
- Posits that all actors in international relations—state and non-state—are
mutually dependent.
- Transnational flow of money, people, goods, services, and communication
fosters collaboration.
- Three main features:
 - Multiple channels of connection between societies.
- Absence of a hierarchy of issues in world politics.
- Linkage between national and international events.
- Challenges the realist focus on military and security issues, emphasizing
interconnectedness.

- **Republican Liberalism**:
- Inspired by Immanuel Kant and contemporary scholar Michael Doyle.
- Proposes that democratic governments are less likely to go to war with one
another.
- Forms the basis of the democratic peace thesis.
- Doyle extends Kant’s theory of perpetual peace:
- Democracies promote peaceful international relations due to domestic
political cultures.
- Shared moral values lead to a ‘pacific union’ or zone of peace.
- Economic cooperation and interdependence strengthen peace.
- Advocates for the global promotion of democracy to achieve peace.

- **Overall Conclusion**:
- Liberal theories argue for the importance of cooperation, interdependence,
and democratic governance in fostering a more peaceful international order.

NEO-LIBERALISM
- Neo-liberalism emerged post-WWII as a response to Neo-realism, altering the
trajectory of Liberalism.
- Robert Keohane and Robert Axelrod's works introduced complex
interdependence and game theory to explain cooperation amid anarchy.
- Neo-liberals acknowledge an anarchic international system but prioritize
cooperation via international institutions.
- Unlike classical liberals, who focused on human nature and bad actors as
conflict sources, Neo-liberals emphasize institutional facilitation of
communication, transparency, norms, and reciprocity.
- They shift emphasis from individual agents to states and institutions, favoring
structural, ahistorical analysis over philosophical context.
- The "neo-neo debate" highlights distinctions: neorealists prioritize competition
and high politics, while Neo-liberals stress economic cooperation and absolute
gains.
- Critics argue Neo-liberalism's bias toward Western experiences and
exclusionary regimes, neglecting challenges faced by the Global South.

CONCLUSION
- Liberalism values human reason and rationality, emphasizing their importance
in understanding and shaping society and nature.
- It highlights the connection between domestic institutions and international
politics, suggesting that changes in one can affect the other.
- Contrary to realism, liberalism argues that states are not the sole actors in
international politics, recognizing the role of non-state actors.
- Liberals advocate for free trade to increase interdependence among states,
reducing the likelihood of war.
- Neo-liberalism, a new version of liberalism, addresses anarchy in international
politics, unlike its predecessor.
- Liberals and neo-liberals differ on the causes of conflict among states, with
neo-liberalism emphasizing the role of international institutions.
- Neo-liberalism tends to be a construct of the developed world, often
overlooking perspectives from the Global South.